ACIDS AND BASES

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Understanding Acids and Bases
Acids and bases are found everywhere!
To better understand the chemistry of acid-base reactions, it is important to know the
properties of acids and bases and the scientific models which define what is an acid and a
base.

PROPERTIES
Acids
o Tastes sour
o It turns BLUE litmus paper RED
o Increases the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution
o Decreases the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH-) in a solution
o It has a pH values of LESS THAN 7
Bases
o Tastes bitter and has a soapy feel
o Turns RED litmus paper BLUE
o It has a pH value of MORE THAN 7
o Decreases the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution
o Increases the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH-) in a solution

Scientific Models
Arrhenius Theory – Only explains acids & bases when dissolved IN WATER
Arrhenius noticed that water dissociates (splits up) into hydronium and hydroxide ions
according to the following reaction:

H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)

o Acid – a substance that produces H+/H3O+ ions in an aqueous solution

o Base - a substance that produces OH- ions in an aqueous solution

Bronsted-Lowry Theory – Explains acid & bases in both SOLID and LIQUID PHASE
Bronsted and Lowry broadened the acid/base definition of Arrhenius to not need water

o Acid is a proton (H+) DONOR The proton exchange, called

o Base is a proton (H+) ACCEPTOR protolysis, is simultaneous
Proton transfer reaction – General equation during acid-base reaction:

HA + B BH+ + A– HA + B– BH + A–
base OR
acid acid base
 Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs
The Lowry-Bronsted Theory involves an acid-base protolytic reaction in which a proton
transfer takes place. This proton transfer is simultaneous!

Therefore a pair of substances will differ from one another by a proton within an acid-base
reaction. This pair is called a CONJUGATE ACID-BASE PAIR.

Conjugate comes from the Latin word coniugātiō which means to “yoke together”.

When an ACID donates a proton, a CONJUGATE BASE is produced.

When a BASE accepts a proton, a CONJUGATE ACID is produced.

When a BASE has accepted a proton, the formed product is called a

CONJUGATE ACID because it can donate a proton in the reverse reaction again

The conjugate acid of an base

Acid + Base ⇌ Conjugate Acid + Conjugate Base

The conjugate base of an acid

When an ACID has donated a proton, the remaining ion is called a
CONJUGATE BASE because it can accept a proton in the reverse reaction again

EXAMPLES

Remove a Proton from the acid Add a proton to the base

ACID CONJUGATE BASE BASE CONJUGATE ACID

H2O OH- H2O H3 O +
HCl Cl- NH3 NH4+
HSO4- SO42- HSO4- H2SO4
HPO42- PO43- SO42- HSO4-

AMPHIPROTIC substances (ampholyte) are able to react as either an acid or a base.

In presence of a STRONG acid, an amphiprotic substance reacts as a base.
In presence of a STRONG base, an amphiprotic substance reacts as a acid.
 Understanding Acid-Base Strength
The strength is important in understanding acid-base chemistry.
The strength of an acid or base refers to extent of ionisation or dissociation that takes
place in a solution.

Acids are molecular structures (covalent), which will undergo ionisation.

Bases are ionic structures, which will undergo dissociation.

Ionisation – Chemical process where covalent molecules produce ions in solution.

Dissociation – Chemical process where ionic compounds produce ions in solution.

Strong acids ionise completely in solution Weak acids ionise incompletely in solution
to form a high concentration of H3O+ ions to form a low concentration of H3O+ ions
Examples Examples
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH)
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) Hydrofluoric acid (HF)
Nitric Acid (HNO3) Phosphoric acid (H3PO4)

Strong bases dissociate completely in Weak bases dissociate incompletely in

solution to form a high concentration of OH- solution to form a low concentration of OH-
ions ions
Examples: Examples:
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH)
Potassium hydroxide (KOH) Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)
Lithium hydroxide (LiOH) Magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2)

Acid/Base strength must NOT be confused with concentration (c) which refer to the
amount of acid/base with certain volume of solution, defined as the number of moles (n)
per unit volume (V).
Volume = 2 L

Volume = 1 L H+ H+
H+
H+ H+ Same amount
H+ of a H+ H+
H+ H+
STRONG acid H+
H+ H+ added to both H+
containers.
More concentrated Less concentrated
How concentrated or dilute an acid or base may be is a measure of the
amount of water present in the system.
Identifying Strong & Weak Acids/Bases
The strength of acids and bases can be identified by using the Equilibrium Constant

Strong and Weak Acid

When acids are dissolved in water, they ionise according to their general equation:

HA + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + A-
The equilibrium constant is:
𝐇𝟑 𝐎+ 𝐀−
𝐊𝐜 = = 𝐊𝐚
𝐇𝐀
As this equilibrium is focused only on acids, the Kc becomes Ka, which is the
ionisation constant of an acid.

For a strong acid, where acid ionises completely, the Ka value is high (>1).
This is because the denominator concentration [HA] is low and the numerator
concentration [H3O+][A-] is high.

For a weak acid, where acid ionises partially, the Ka value is low (<1).
This is because the denominator concentration [HA] is high and the numerator
concentration [H3O+][A-] is low.

Strong and Weak Base

When acids are dissolved in water, they ionise according to their general equation:

B + H2O ⇌ BH+ + OH-

The equilibrium constant is:
𝐁𝐇 + 𝐎𝐇 −
𝐊𝐜 = = 𝐊𝐛
𝐁
As this equilibrium is focused only on bases, the Kc becomes Kb, which is the
ionisation constant of a base.
For a strong base, where the base dissociates completely, the Kb value is high (>1).
This is because the denominator concentration [B] is low and the numerator concentration
[BH+][OH-] is high.

For a weak base, where the base dissociates partially, the K b value is low (<1).
This is because the denominator concentration [B] is high and the numerator
concentration [BH+][OH-] is low.
 Equilibrium Constant for Water (Kw)
Water is an amphiprotic substance, which is able to act as both an acid and a base.

Two water molecules can undergo auto-protolysis or auto-ionisation where two molecules react
with one another and were one acts an acid (H+) and the other a base (proton acceptor).

H2O (l) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

The equilibrium constant is:

𝐊 𝐜 = 𝐇𝟑 𝐎+ 𝐎𝐇− = 𝐊 𝐰
As this equilibrium is focused only on auto-ionisation of water, the Kc becomes Kw,
which is the ionisation constant of water.
In pure water, [H3O+] = 1 x 10-7 mol.dm -7 and [OH−] = 1 x 10-7 mol.dm -7

Therefore Kw = [H3O+].[OH-] = 1 x 10-14 at room temperature

The auto-ionisation process of water is weak as evidenced by the extremely low

value of 1 x 10-14

The pH Scale

Due to the low concentrations of the hydroxide and

hydronium ions, it is simpler to refer to their negative
logarithm, which allows us to work with whole numbers.

This is the pH scale, ranging from 0 to 14, and indicates the

degree of acidity of a solution.

pH = - log [H3O+] pOH = - log [OH-]

pH + pOH = 14

Acidic Solution Neutral Solution Basic Solution

[H3O+] > [OH−] [H3O+] = [OH−] [H3O+] < [OH−]

[H3O+] > 1x10-7 [H3O+] = 1x10-7 [H3O+] < 1x10-7

The pH of a substance can only be determined when it is

in an aqueous solution.
http://cnx.org/content/col11496/1.6/
 Indicators
An indicator is substance that changes colour in the presence of an acid or base.
Indicator Colour in acid Colour in base Range
Methyl orange Orange Yellow 3.1 – 4.4
Methyl red Red Yellow 4.4 – 6.2
Bromothymol blue Yellow Blue 6 – 7.6
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink 8.3 – 10 ACID BASE
Litmus turns red/pink in an acidic solution and blue in a basic solution RED BLUE

pH Calculations
Titrations is an experimental technique used to determine the concentration of an acid or a
base using a standard solution.

Using volumetric analysis, the unknown concertation of a solution (acid or base) may be
determined.

What to Consider When Calculating the pH

Use the equations for pH
Use the equation
pH = – log [H3O+]

Other useful equations include

[H3O+] [OH-] = 1 x 10-14

pH = 14 – p[OH–]
pH = 14 – (–log[OH–])
Use the equations for concentration
Use the equation
n mol
c= =
V dm3
Remember moles (n) can be calculated using mass of a substance (m) and its molar
mass (M):
m
n=
M
Use Mole Ratios
o Write down the full balanced reaction
o Identify the acid/base
WORKED Exam Question Paper 2, Oct/Nov 2022, Q.7

7.1 Ethanoic acid is a weak acid that reacts with water according to the following
balanced equation:

CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(ℓ) ⇌ CH3COO-(aq) + H3O+(aq)

7.1.1 Define an acid in terms of the Lowry-Brønsted theory. (2)

7.1.2 Give a reason why ethanoic acid is classified as a WEAK acid. (1)

7.1.3 Write down the formulae of the TWO bases in the equation above. (2)

7.2 A flask contains 300 cm3 of dilute sodium hydroxide, NaOH(aq), of

concentration 0,167 mol·dm-3.

7.2.1 Calculate the number of moles of sodium hydroxide in the flask. (3)

Ethanoic acid of volume 500 cm 3 and of unknown concentration, X, is now

added to this flask to give a solution of volume 800 cm 3.

It is found that the pH of the mixture is 11,4.

The balanced equation for the reaction is:

NaOH (aq) + CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(ℓ)

Calculate the:

7.2.2 Concentration of the OH- (aq) in the mixture (4)

7.2.3 Initial concentration, X, of the ethanoic acid solution (6)

WORKED Exam Question Paper 2, Oct/Nov 2021, Q.7

7.1 Sulphuric acid, H2SO4, ionises into two steps as follows:

I) H2SO4(aq) + H2O(ℓ) → HSO4-(aq) + H3O+(aq) Ka = 1 x 103

II) HSO4-(aq) + H2O(ℓ) → SO42-(aq) + H3O+(aq) Ka = 1 x 10-2

7.1.1 Define an acid in terms of the Lowry-Brønsted theory. (2)

7.1.2 Write down the NAME or FORMULA of the substance that acts as
an ampholyte in the above equations.

Give a reason for the answer. (1)

7.1.3 The conductivity of solutions of HSO4-(aq) and H2SO4(aq) are
compared. Which solution will have a LOWER conductivity?

Explain the answer (3)

7.2 The pH of a hydrochloric acid solution, HCℓ (aq), is 1,02 at 25 °C.

7.2.1 Calculate the concentration of the HCℓ (aq). (3)

This HCℓ solution reacts with sodium carbonate, Na2CO3, according to the
following balanced equation:

2HCℓ(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → 2NaCℓ(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(aq)

50 cm3 of the HCℓ solution is added to 25 cm3 of a 0,075 mol.dm-3 Na2CO3 solution.

7.2.2 Calculate the concentration of the EXCESS HCℓ in the new solution.
(8)
WORKED Exam Question Paper 2, Oct/Nov 2020, Q.7

7.1 Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) is an ingredient of household vinegar.

7.1.1 Is ethanoic acid a WEAK acid or a STRONG acid? Give a reason for the
answer. (2)

7.1.2 An ethanoic acid solution has a pH of 3,85 at 25 °C. Calculate the

concentration of the hydronium ions, H3O+(aq), in the solution. (3)

Sodium ethanoate, CH3COONa(aq), forms when ethanoic acid reacts with sodium
hydroxide

7.1.3 Will the pH of a sodium ethanoate solution be GREATER THAN 7, LESS

THAN 7 or EQUAL TO 7? (1)

7.1.4 Explain the answer to QUESTION 7.1.3 with the aid of a balanced chemical
equation. (3)

7.2 Household vinegar contains 4,52% ethanoic acid, CH3COOH by volume.

A 1,2 g impure sample of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is added to 25 cm3

household vinegar.

On completion of the reaction, the EXCESS ethanoic acid in the household

vinegar is neutralised by 14,5 cm3 of a sodium hydroxide solution of
concentration 1 mol∙dm-3. The balanced equation for the reaction is

CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) → CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(ℓ)

7.2.1 Calculate the number of moles of the unreacted ethanoic acid. (3)

7.2.2 Calcium carbonate reacts with ethanoic acid according to the following
balanced equation:

CaCO3 (s) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → (CH3COO)2Ca(aq) + H2O + CO2 (g)

Calculate the percentage calcium carbonate in the impure sample if 1 cm3 of household
vinegar has a mass of 1 g. (8)