Dr.

Soumyadipta Pal Physics Class

B. Tech 1st year

PHYSICS
Course Code: BTHBSCBSH101
Dr. Soumyadipta Pal

Classical Mechanics

Constraints, Holonomic and Non-Holonomic Constraints, Degrees of Freedom,

Generalized Coordinates and Momentum, Cyclic coordinate, Lagrange’s
equation of motion, application of Lagrange’s equation, Gradient, Divergence and
Curl of a vector, Potential energy function F = -grad V, Equipotential surfaces and
meaning of gradient. Conservative and non-conservative forces, Conservation laws
of energy & momentum; Concept of Central forces, Kepler’s law.
Dr. Soumyadipta Pal Physics Class

Introduction to Classical Mechanics

Classical Mechanics (Mechanics of Classical Particle)

Newtonian Mechanics Mechanics proposed by

D’Alembert, Lagrange, Hamilton

Lagrangian and Hamiltonian

Newton’s Laws of Motion formulation

dp
Inertia F= F12 = − F21
dt
 Dr. Soumyadipta Pal Physics Class

Limitations of Newtonian Mechanics

1. Newtonian mechanics is valid only in inertial frames of reference which are by definition
Cartesian-like and move with constant velocities. Newtonian mechanics can not be
applied in case of non-inertial frames of reference.
2. For writing the differential equation of motion, a particular coordinate system has to be
selected by considering the symmetry of the system.
 Dr. Soumyadipta Pal Physics Class

Limitations of Newtonian Mechanics

3. The Newtonian formulation is not invariant under all coordinate systems. While
coordinates are transformed from one system to another, the equations of motion
change their forms.
For an example, when a particle of mass m moves under the influence of an external
force Fx , the equation of motion in Cartesian coordinates can be written as,
d 2x
m 2 = Fx
dt
But in polar coordinates ( r , ) , the equation of motion of the particle is given by
 d 
2
d 2r
m 2 = mr    m r = m r
2

dt  dt 
d 2r
which is not in the form m 2 = Fr . Here, the force depends on both the parameters
dt
r and  . Such a coupled dependency of coordinates is very much inconvenient. This
inconvenience can be avoided if one selects a generalized coordinate system without
making any reference to a specific coordinate system.
 Dr. Soumyadipta Pal Physics Class

Limitations of Newtonian Mechanics

4. The Newtonian formulation require complete specification of all the forces which act on
the body whose motion is under consideration. But it has been observed that sometimes
the independent form of some forces can not be known though the effects of them on the
concerned system are well known. Consequently, it becomes difficult to find the solution
of the equation of motion in order to know the nature of motion of the particles of the
system.

One can easily avoid all these aforementioned difficulties if one uses the new
formulation called Lagrangian formulation, Hamiltonian formulation.
Dr. Soumyadipta Pal Physics Class

What is Constrained Motion?

Restricted motion of body:
When an object is forced to move in a restricted way.

c
a
b

Free particle: Particle inside a box:

−  x   0xa
−  y   0yb
−  z   0z c
Dr. Soumyadipta Pal Physics Class

What is Constrained Motion?

Some more examples of Constrained Motion:

Ball rolling on a Ball rolling on an Ball rolling on inner
horizontal surface inclined plane surface of a hemispherical bowl

Oscillation of Vibration of a body Vibration of molecular

pendulum attached to a spring bonds in solid materials
Dr. Soumyadipta Pal Physics Class

What is Constraint?
Constraint: Curve or Surface on which the particle must move. The
limitations on motion are often called constraints.

Constraint: Inner surface of hemispherical

bowl
Constraint: Rectangular box

Constraint: Horizontal plane Constraint: Inextensible massless string

Constraint: Inclined plane Constraint: Spring

 Dr. Soumyadipta Pal Physics Class

What is Constraint Force?

Constraint Force: The forces that the constraining object exerts on the object to make
it follow the constraints. The force is due to weight of the body or pressure exerted on
the constraint or elastic properties of the constraint.

Constraint Force: Normal reaction force

by the inner surface of hemispherical
Constraint Force: Normal reaction force bowl
by the wall of the box

Constraint Force: Normal reaction

force by the horizontal plane surface Constraint Force: Tension in the string

Constraint Force: Normal reaction Constraint Force: Restoring

force by the inclined plane surface force by the spring
Dr. Soumyadipta Pal Physics Class
Equation of Constraints

Constraint Equation

Holonomic Non-Holonomic
constraint constraint
[Constraints can be expressed as an [Constraints can not be expressed
equation connecting position of the as an proper equation connecting
particles and the time. position of the particles and the
f(q1,q2,q3,…..qn,t)=0, time.
where {q1,q2,q3,…..qn} are n generalized f(q1,q2,q3,…..qn) ≥ 0.
coordinates. They are independent of
velocity of the particles.] They are dependent of velocity of the
particles.]

Scleronomic Rheonomic
constraints constraints
[Constraints which
[Constraints which
do not explicitly
explicitly depend on time.]
depend on time.]
Dr. Soumyadipta Pal Physics Class

Equation of Constraints

Example of Holonomic and Non-Holonomic constraint equation:

Equation of sphere:

x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2
 r 2 = a2
 r 2 − a2 = 0
Holonomic Constraint Equation

The motion of a particle constrained to lie on the surface of a sphere is

subject to a holonomic constraint.
But if the particle is able to fall off the sphere under the influence of
gravity, the constraint becomes non-holonomic.
r 2 − a2  0 Non-Holonomic Constraint Equation
Dr. Soumyadipta Pal Physics Class
Equation of Constraints

Example of Scleronomic and Rheonomic constraint equation:

Equation of constraint for the motion of the
bob in a simple pendulum attached with a rigid
support at a particular point:

y2 + z2 = l 2 [l = length of the string]

Scleronomic Constraint Equation
[Constraint which does not explicitly depend on time.]
Equation of constraint for the motion of the
bob in a simple pendulum attached with a rigid
support at a particular point and the point is
oscillating with a frequency of 0:
z
( y  y cos 0t ) + z 2 = l 2
2

Rheonomic Constraint Equation

y
[Constraint which explicitly depends on time.]
x
 Dr. Soumyadipta Pal Physics Class

Importance of Constraint Equation

Case1→Constraint Equation :
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2
 r 2 − a2 = 0
Positions of the ball on the sphere can be
described by  and  components.
Case2→Constraint Equation :

y2 + z2 = l 2 [l = length of the string]

r2 = l2  r =l
Positions of the bob in the simple pendulum
can be described by  component.

 ,  → Generalized Coordinate
Due to constraints in a system, we can reduce the number of coordinates required to
describe its motion. And we can simplify the mathematical description of its motion.
Dr. Soumyadipta Pal Physics Class

Mathematical analysis of Constrained Motion

Pulley-Mass system:
l = length of the inextensible cable
Z1 and Z2 = Displacements of m1 and
m2 at any instant of time from fixed
dotted line passing through the center
of the pulley
Constraint Equation :
Z1 +  R + Z 2 = l
 Z1 + Z 2 = Constant
Differentiating w.r.t time, Differentiating w.r.t time,
dv1 dv2 dZ1 dZ 2
+ =0 + =0
dt dt dt dt
 a1 + a2 = 0  v1 + v2 = 0
 a2 = − a1 ( acceleration )  v2 = − v1 ( velocity )
Dr. Soumyadipta Pal Physics Class

Mathematical analysis of Constrained Motion

Pulley-Mass system:
Equation of Motion:

m1a1 = T − m1 g
m2 a2 = m2 g − T
+
m1a1 + m2 a2 = ( m2 − m1 ) g
m1g
a2 =
( m2 − m1 )
g As magnitude of accelerations of
( m2 + m1 ) m2g m1 and m2 are same,

( m2 − m1 )
a2 =
( m2 − m1 ) | a2 | = | − a1 |
a1 = − g g
( m2 + m1 ) ( m2 + m1 )
a1 = − 2
( m − m1 ) g
( m2 + m1 )
Dr. Soumyadipta Pal Physics Class

Assignments
1. In each of the following cases state whether the constraint is holonomic or non-
holonomic and scleronomic or rehonomic, give reason for your answer.

(a) a bead moving on a circular wire;

(b) a particle sliding down an inclined plane under the influence of gravity;
(c) a particle constrained to move under gravity on the inside of a vertical paraboloid of
revolution whose vortex is downward;
(d) a particle sliding on an ellipsoid under the influence of gravity;
(e) a sphere rolling down from the top of a fixed sphere;
(f) a cylinder rolling without slipping down a rough inclined plane of angle ;
(g) a particle moving on a very long frictionless wire which rotates with constant angular
speed about a horizontal axis;
(h) a cylinder rolling [ and possibly sliding] down an inclined plane of angle ;
(i) a sphere rolling down another sphere which is rolling with uniform speed along a
horizontal plane;
(j) a particle constrained to move along a line under the influence of a force which is
inversely proportional to the square of its distance from a fixed point and a damping
force proportional to the square of the instantaneous speed.
Dr. Soumyadipta Pal Physics Class

Assignments
2. Three masses m1, m2and m3are connected by massless thread as shown in
figure, shown below. The horizontal table is frictionless. Find the relation between
acceleration a1, a2 and a3.

3. A pole of length l and negligible mass leans against a wall at an angle θ with the
horizontal. Find the constraint relating vertical velocity of one end to the horizontal
velocity of the other.
 Degrees of Freedom
✓ Degrees of freedom is important in the analysis of systems of bodies
in mechanical engineering, structural engineering, aerospace
engineering, robotics as well as in thermodynamics for finding out
thermal energy, specific heat etc.

✓In physics, the degrees of freedom of a mechanical system is the

number of independent coordinates required to define the position and
orientation of the system.

✓More precisely the number of degrees of freedom equals the number

of generalized coordinate.
 Degrees of Freedom in terms of Generalized Coordinate
Number of generalized coordinate = Number of degrees of freedom

Positions of the ball on the sphere Positions of the bob in the simple pendulum
can be described by  and  can be described by  coordinate.
coordinates.
,  → Generalized Coordinate → Generalized Coordinate

No. of degrees of freedom → 2 No. of degrees of freedom → 1

Degrees of Freedom
Translational Degrees of Freedom
No. of degrees of
No. of free particles freedom
Or Or
No. of monoatomic No. of independent
gas particles coordinates required
to specify the state of
the system
1 3

2 6

3 9

N 3N
 Degrees of Freedom
Translational Degrees of Freedom
No. of degrees of
freedom
No. of particles Or
moving in 2- No. of independent
dimensional plane coordinates required
to specify the state of
the system
1 2

2 4
3 6

N 2N

As the system is constrained, the number of degrees of freedom of a system of N particles is

less than 3N.
Degrees of Freedom
 Degrees of Freedom of different types of atoms
Monoatom Diatom Non-linear Triatom Linear Triatom

Translational
Degrees of
Freedom

Rotational
Degrees of
Freedom

Ref:
Vibrational
https://shaun
Degrees of
mwilliams.com Freedom
/CHE303/chapt
er03.html
Ref: Free
Google
image
Degrees of Freedom of a Rigid body which can move freely in 3-
dimensional space: ✓If 3 non-collinear points of a rigid
z body are fixed in space, then rigid body
is also fixed in space.
(x1,y1,z1) (x2,y2,z2) ✓ These 3 points have total 9 co-
ordinates.
(x3,y3,z3)
✓ Since the body is rigid, we have
y
constraint equations:
( x1 − x2 ) 2 + ( y1 − y2 ) 2 + ( z1 − z2 ) 2 = constant
( x2 − x3 ) 2 + ( y2 − y3 ) 2 + ( z2 − z3 ) 2 = constant
x ( x3 − x1 ) 2 + ( y3 − y1 ) 2 + ( z3 − z1 ) 2 = constant
✓Hence 3 coordinates can be expressed in terms of remaining 6.
✓ Thus, 6 independent coordinates are needed to describe the motion.
✓ So, there are total 6 degrees of freedom.
Degrees of Freedom of a Rigid body which can move freely in 3-
dimensional space: Different explanation

Translational degrees of freedom- 3

Rotational degrees of freedom- 3

So, there are total 6 degrees of freedom.

Degrees of Freedom of a Rigid body which can move freely in 2-

dimensional space:
The rigid body can be translated along the x axis, translated
along the y axis, and rotated about its centroid.

So, there are total 3 degrees of freedom.

 Assignments
Determine the number of degrees of freedom in each of the following cases.

(a) a particle moving on a given space curve;

(b) five particles moving freely in a plane;
(c) five particles moving freely in space;
(d) two particles connected by a rigid rod moving freely in a plane;
(e) a rigid body which has one point fixed but can move in space about this point;
(f) a particle moving on a plane curve;
(g) two particles moving on a space curve and having constant distance between them;
(h) three particles moving in space so that the distance between any two of them is always
constant.
(i) a rigid body which moves parallel to a fixed plane;
(j) a rigid body which has two points fixed but can otherwise move freely;
(k) a system consisting of a thin rigid rod which can move freely in space and a particle which is
constrained to move on the rod.
Formulation of Lagrangian mechanics
 Lagrange’s equation for conservative Holonomic system

𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿
− =0
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞ሶ 𝑘 𝜕𝑞𝑘

Lagrange’s equation for conservative non-Holonomic system

𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿
− = 𝜆1 𝐴𝑘
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞ሶ 𝑘 𝜕𝑞𝑘
Simple pendulum via Lagrangian mechanics
Simple pendulum via Lagrangian mechanics
Simple pendulum via Lagrangian mechanics
‘Cyclic ‘ is sometimes used in a different sense in connection with periodic variables.
 Assignments
1. Find the equation of motion of a system of spring
(spring constant = k ) connected to a body of mass
m at one end and other end attached to a fixed support,
using Lagrange’s equation.

2. Two body of mass m are connected at the two ends of a

spring of spring constant k. Find the equation of motion
using Lagrange’s equation.

3. Find the equation of motion of the system shown beside,

using Lagrange’s equation.

𝑘
4. Derive equations of motion for a particle moving under central force, when 𝐹 = − 𝑟 2 .
Then what is the form of those equations?
 Assignments
5. Use Lagrange’s equations to find the differential equation for a compound pendulum which
oscillates in a vertical plane about a fixed horizontal axis.
6. A particle of mass m moves under the influence of gravity on the inner surface of the
paraboloid of revolution 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎𝑧 which is assumed frictionless. Obtain the equations of
motion.
7. A double pendulum vibrates in a vertical plane. (a) Write the Lagrangian of the system.
(b) Obtain equations for the motion.
8. A bead slides without friction on a frictionless wire in the shape of a cycloid with equations
𝑥 = 𝑎 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑎 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 , where 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋. Find (a) the Lagrangian function, (b)
the equation of motion.
9. (a) Set up the Lagrangian for a particle of mass m falling freely in a uniform gravitational
field and (b) write Lagrange’s equations.
10. Use Lagrange’s equations to describe the motion of a projectile launched with speed v0 at an
angle α with the horizontal.
11. Use Lagrange’s equations to describe the motion of a particle of mass m down a frictionless
inclined plane of angle α.
 Concept of Gradient

Let A =  everywhere in a region of space, defined by a1  x  a2 , b1  x  b2

and c1  x  c2 , where  ( x, y, z ) is a Scalar field and has continuous
derivatives in the region.
      ˆ  ˆ 
 =  iˆ + ˆj + kˆ   ( x, y, z ) = iˆ +j +k Gradient of
 dx dy dz  dx dy dz


Temperature → Scalar Field

 Concept of Gradient

Gradient definition
Gradient of scalar field give the magnitude and direction of the maximum
space rate at which scalar field increases. 
n̂ =

The direction is perpendicular to the scalar surface.

Thus gradient of a scalar field produces a vector field.

E = −
 Concept of Gradient
Important Theorems
If A =  , then
Theorem1

P2
A . dr is independent of the path C in the region joining P1 and P2 .
P1

Theorem2
A . dr = 0 around any closed curve C in the region.

In such case A is called a conservative vector field.

A vector field A is conservative if and only if A =  and consequently   A = 0.

A vector field A is non-conservative if and only if A   and

consequently   A  0.
 Conservative forces Non conservative forces
The force is called conservative if work done
The force is called non-conservative force if
by the force is dependent only on the initial
work done by the force is dependent on the
and final position of the body and does not
path followed by the body.
depend on path followed by the body.
The work done by the conservative force The work done by the non-conservative
in the closed path is zero. force in a closed path is not zero.

Conservative force examples Non conservative force examples

Gravitational forces Frictional forces
Magnetic force Viscous forces
Electrostatic force Air resistance force
Physical interpretation of Curl of vector field

n̂

C A. dl
S   A = Lim nˆ
S →0 S
Q: (a) Prove that F = ( y 2 cos x + z 3 ) iˆ + (2 y sin x − 4) ˆj + ( 3xz 2 + 2 ) kˆ
is conservative force field.
(b) Find the scalar potential for F .
(c) Find the work in moving an object in this field from (0,1,-1)
 
to  , −1, 2  .
2 
Ans:
(a) A necessary and sufficient condition for a force will be
conservative is that Curl F =  F = 0.
  i j kˆ 
 
   
Now,   F = 
 x y z 
 2 
 y cos x + z 2 y sin x − 4 3xz + 2 
3 2

     
= i  ( 3xz 2 + 2 ) − ( 2 y sin x − 4 )  − j  ( 3xz 2 + 2 ) − ( y 2 cos x + z 3 )
 y z   x z 

= i  0 − 0 − j 3z 2 − 3z 2  + kˆ  2 y cos x − 2 y cos x  = 0

Thus, F is a conservative force field.
So, F can be written as F =  [  scalar potential]
(b) F = ( y 2 cos x + z 3 ) iˆ + (2 y sin x − 4) ˆj + ( 3xz 2 + 2 ) kˆ
    
Now, F =  =  iˆ + ˆj + kˆ   ( x, y, z )
 x y z 
 ˆ  ˆ 
 F = iˆ +j +k
x y z
Now comparing each component
Integrating (1), (2) and (3)

= y 2 cos x + z 3 (1);
x  = y 2 sin x + xz 3 + f ( y, z );
  = y 2 sin x − 4y + g ( x, z );
= 2 y sin x − 4 (2);
y
= xz 3 + 2 z + h ( x, y )

= 3xz 2 + 2 (3)
z
  = y 2 sin x + xz 3 + f ( y, z );
 = y 2 sin x − 4y + g ( x, z );
= xz 3 + 2 z + h ( x, y )

Now  is singled scalar potential.

So, these different forms of  agrees if we choose
f ( y, z ) = −4 y + 2 z
g ( x, z ) = xz 3 + 2 z
h( x, y ) = y 2 sin x − 4 y

So,  = y 2 sin x + xz 3 − 4 y + 2 z + constant

(c) Work done in moving an object in this field :
P2

 F .dr
P1

  ˆ  ˆ   ˆ
( )
P2 P2

=  .dr [ F = ] =   iˆ ˆ
+j +k  . i dx + ˆj dy + k dz
P1 P1 
x y z 
     2
P2 2 P P

=  dx + dy + dz  =  d  =  d ( y 2 sin x + xz 3 − 4 y + 2 z + constant)
P1 
x y z  P1 P1

 
 , −1,2 
=  y sin x + xz − 4 y + 2 z 
2 3  2  = 15 + 4
(0,1, −1)
 Physical Interpretation of Divergence

Positive Divergence

. A  0 Source: A positive charge

 Physical Interpretation of Divergence

Negative Divergence

. A  0 Sink: A negative charge

 Physical Interpretation of Divergence

Zero Divergence

Solenoidal Vector field:

. A = 0 Closed Magnetic lines
 Physical Interpretation of Divergence

V V

.B = 0 .E =  .E = 0
0
Solenoidal Non- Solenoidal
 Physical Interpretation of Divergence

Q1: If A = x 2 z iˆ − 2 y 3 z 2 ˆj + xy 2 z kˆ, find . A (or Div A) at that point (1, −1,1).

   

(
Ans: . A =  iˆ + ˆj + kˆ  . x 2 z iˆ − 2 y 3 z 2 ˆj + xy 2 z kˆ
 dx dy dz 
)
  
= ( x 2 z ) + ( −2 y 3 z 2 ) + ( xy 2 z )
dx dy dz
= 2 xz − 6 y 2 z 2 + xy 2

. A = 2  (1)  (1) − 6  ( −1)  (1) + (1)  ( −1)

2 2 2

at (1, −1,1)

= −3
 Physical Interpretation of Divergence

r 
Q2: Find the value .   . Here r = x 2
+ y 2
+ z 2
is the radial coordinate of sphere.
r 
3

Ans: Vector Identity: . A = . A +  . A ( ) ( ) Here we consider  =

1
and A = r
r3
r  1
r  r  r
1
So, .  3  =   3  . r + 3 . r ( )    
   dx

dy dz 
( )
. r =  iˆ + ˆj + kˆ  . x iˆ + y ˆj + z kˆ = 3
1      1
  3  =  iˆ + ˆj + kˆ   
 r   dx dy dz   ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 3/2

 
   
 1  + ˆj   1
= iˆ  
dx  ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 
3/2
dy  ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 
3/2

    r  r  3 3 3
  So, .  3  = −3  5  . r + 3 = − 3 + 3 = 0
 1 r  r  r r r
+ kˆ  
dz  ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 
3/2

 
 3   3   3
 −  ( 2x)  − (2y)  −  ( 2z )
= iˆ 
2 ˆj  2  ˆ  2
+ + k
( x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) ( x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) ( x2 + y 2 + z 2 )
5/2 5/2 5/2

=−
(
3 x iˆ + y ˆj + z kˆ ) = −3 r
(x 2
+y +z
2
)
2 5/2 r5
 Conservation of Linear Momentum

If a force F is acting on a particle of mass m, then according to Newton’s second law of

motion, we have

Where p = mv is the linear momentum of the particle.

If the external force, acting on the particle, is zero, then

Thus in absence of external force, the linear momentum of a particle is conserved.

 Conservation of Angular Momentum
The angular momentum of a particle P of a mass m about a point O
is defined as,
……………………….(1)

Where r is the position vector of the particle P and p = mv is its linear

momentum.

If the force acting on a particle is F , then the moment of force or torque about O is defined as
……………………….(2)
Differentiating Eq. 1 w.r.to time, then
Therefore,

Thus, the time rate of change of angular momentum of a particle is equal to the torque acting
on it.

If the torque acting on the particle is zero, i.e.,  = 0, then

Thus in absence of external torque, the angular momentum of a particle is conserved.

 Conservation of Energy
Kinetic Energy and Work-Energy theorem:
Using Newton’s 2nd law and definition of work,

Now, work done by an external force F upon a particle in displacing from point 1 to point 2 is
defined as

So,

T denotes the kinetic energy.

 Conservation of Energy

Conservative force and potential energy:

If the work done (W12) by the force in moving a particle from point
1 to point 2 is the same for any possible path between the points,
then the force (and the system) is said to be conservative. The region
in which the particle is experiencing a conservative force is called as
conservative force field. Thus for conservative force

Thus, if the force is conservative, the work done on the particle around a closed path in the
force field is zero. In case of a non-conservative force like friction, the amount of work done
around different paths are different and in closed path not zero.
According to Stoke’s theorem,

So for ds ≠ 0, in general
 Conservation of Energy
Therefore the force can be expressed as

because

This V is called scalar potential.

Now, using the above form of the force in the line integration of F.dr from position 1 to
position 2, we obtain

So, the work done by the conservative force

 Conservation of Energy
Conservation theorem:

The amount of work done by a force in moving a particle from position 1 to 2 is given by the
change in kinetic energy, as

And, if the force is conservative in nature, the work done by that conservative force is

So, for conservative force

The sum of kinetic and potential energies (i.e. total mechanical energy) of a particle remains
constant in a conservative force field. This is known as law of conservation energy.
 Definition of Central force

Suppose that a force acting on a particle of mass m is such

that :
(a) It is always directed from m toward or away from a
fixed point O,
(b) its magnitude depends only on the distance r from O.

Then we call the force a central force or central force field

with O as the centre of force.

F is a central force if and only if F = f(r) r1 = f(r) r/r

Where r1 = r/r is a unit vector in the direction of r.

The central force is attractive or repulsive if f(r) < 0 or f(r) > 0, respectively.
 Some important properties of Central force field
If a particles moves in a central force field, then the following properties are valid.
1. The path or orbit of the particle must be a plane curve, i.e., the particle moves in a plane.

2. The angular momentum of the particle is conserved.

3. The particle moves in such a way that the position vector or radius vector drawn from O
to the particle sweeps out equal areas in equal times. In other words, the time rate of
change in area is constant. This is sometimes called the law of areas.
Equation of motion
The path or orbit of the particle must be a plane curve, i.e., the
particle moves in a plane. Choose this plane to be the xy plane and
the coordinates describing the position of the particle at any time t
to be polar coordinates ( r,).
1.The path or orbit of the particle in central force field plane curve
Let F = f(r) r1 be the central force field. Then

Where r1 = r/r is a unit vector in the direction of position vector r.

Since , this can be written as

Where h is a constant vector. Now operating dot product with r both sides of the equation.


Thus r is perpendicular to the constant vector h, and so the motion takes place in a plane.
We shall assume that this plane is taken to be the xy plane whose origin is at the center of
force.
2. A particle moving in a central force field the angular momentum
is conserved.
As F = f(r) r1 be the central force field. Then

Where r1 = r/r is a unit vector in the direction of position vector r.

Since , this can be written as

Then multiplying by mass m,

Since the left side of the equation is the angular momentum, it follows that the angular
momentum is conserved, i.e, is always constant in magnitude and direction.
 3. A particle moving in a central force field the areal velocity is
constant.
Suppose that in time t the particle moves from P to Q. In that time
The position vector moves from r to r + r. Then the area swept out by
the position vector in this time is approximately half the area of a
parallelogram with sides r and r .

Area of parallelogram = height × | r |

= | r | sin | r |
= | r × r |
Hence, A = | r × r |

Deviding this expression by t and t→ 0, gives

A particle moving in a central force field the areal velocity is
constant.

= constant vector

The result is often stated as follows: If a particle moves in a central force field
with O as center, then the radius vector drawn from O to the particle sweeps out
equal areas in equal times. This result is sometimes called the law of areas.
 Kepler’s Laws
1. Planets move around the Sun in ellipses, with the Sun at one focus.

2. The line connecting the Sun to a planet sweeps equal areas in equal time
intervals.

3. The square of the orbital time period of a planet is proportional to the cube of
the semi-major axis of the ellipse.
 Kepler’s 1st Law
Equation of motion
The path or orbit of the particle must be a plane curve, i.e., the
particle moves in a plane. Choose this plane to be the xy plane and
the coordinates describing the position of the particle at any time t
to be polar coordinates ( r,).

Using can be written entirely in terms of r

Let,
Using

Now if the law of central force is defined by,

Inverse square law of attraction, which is
basically Gravitational attraction field.

This equation has the general solution

It is always possible to choose the axes so that

This has general form of the conic,

If E < 0,
So, the conic is an ellipse.
 Kepler’s 2nd Law

Constant (lets say L)

Kepler’s 3rd Law