Properties of Rocks and Rock

Masses
 Chapter 1: Properties of Rocks and Rock Masses:

• Introduction
• Physical properties of rocks
• Strength of rocks
• Jointing of rock mass
• Shear strength of joints
• Weakness joints and faults
 Rock and rock masses

• Rock in an engineering
scale is generally a
mass of rock at the site.
This mass of rock, often
termed as rock mass, is
the whole body of the
rock in situ, consists of
intact rock blocks and
all types of
discontinuities (joints,
faults etc).
• A rock mass is a material quite different from
other structural materials used in civil
engineering. Ideally, it is composed of a system of
rock blocks and fragments separated by
discontinuities forming a material in which all
elements behave in mutual dependence as a unit,
Physical Properties of Rock
Density, Porosity and Water Content
• Density is a measure of mass per unit of volume.
Density of rock material various, and often related to
the porosity of the rock. It is sometimes defined by unit
weight and specific gravity. Most rocks have density
between 2,500 and 2,800 kg/m3.
• Porosity describes how densely the material is packed.
It is the ratio of the non-solid volume to the total
volume of material. Porosity therefore is a fraction
between 0 and 1. The value is typically ranging from
less than 0.01 for solid granite to up to 0.5 for porous
sandstone. It may also be represented in percent terms
by multiplying the fraction by 100%.
• Water content is a measure indicating the amount of
water the rock material contains. It is simply the ratio
of the volume of water to the bulk volume of the rock
material.
Hardness
Hardness is the characteristic of a solid material
expressing its resistance to permanent
deformation. Hardness of a rock materials
depends on several factors, including mineral
composition and density. A typical measure is the
Schmidt rebound hardness number.
Abrasivity
Abrasivity measures the abrasiveness (roughness)
of a rock materials against other materials, e.g.,
steel. It is an important measure for estimate
wear of rock drilling and boring equipment.
Abrasivity is highly influenced by the amount of
quartz mineral in the rock material. The higher
quartz content gives higher abrasivity.
Permeability
Permeability is a measure of the ability of a
material to transmit fluids. Most rocks, including
igneous, metamorphic and chemical sedimentary
rocks, generally have very low permeability.
Permeability of rock material is governed by
porosity. Porous rocks such as sandstones usually
have high permeability while granites have low
permeability. Permeability of rock materials,
except for those porous one, has limited interests
as in the rock mass, flow is concentrated in
fractures in the rock mass.
• Hydraulic permeability and conductivity
Wave Velocity
Measurements of wave are often done by using P wave and
sometimes, S waves. P wave velocity measures the travel
speed of longitudinal (primary) wave in the material, while
S-wave velocity measures the travel speed of shear
(secondary) wave in the material. The velocity
measurements provide correlation to physical properties in
terms of compaction degree of the material. A well
compacted rock has generally high velocity as the grains are
all in good contact and wave are travelling through the
solid.
For a poorly compact rock material, the grains are not in
good contact, so the wave will partially travel through void
(air or water) and the velocity will be reduced (P-wave
velocities in air and in water are 340 and 1500 m/s
respectively and are much lower than that in solid).
Slaking and Durability
Durability (Toughness/ Strength)
• Durability of rocks is fundamentally important for all
applications. Changes in the properties of rocks are
produced by exfoliation, hydration, decrepitation
(slaking), solution, oxidation abrasion and other
process.
Slaking
• Slaking is the process in which rock materials
disintegrate and crumble when exposed to moisture
• Some rock loose their strength or change their
properties when exposed to water or air. This durability
or rocks may decrease markedly and rapidly.
• Exfoliation Exfoliation is the term used to describe the
peeling away of sheets of rock millimeters to meters in
thickness from a rock's surface due a range of physical
and chemical processes during exhumation
and weathering
• Hydration Mineral hydration is an inorganic chemical
reaction where water is added to the crystal structure
of a mineral, usually creating a new mineral
• oxidation the breakdown of rock by oxygen and water,
often giving iron-rich rocks a rusty-coloured weathered
surface.
• abrasion Rocks break down into smaller pieces through
weathering. Rocks and sediment grinding against each
other wear away surfaces. The rocks become smoother
as rough and jagged edges break off
• Other physical /Engineering properties
– Hardness
– Elasticity
– Thermal properties
– Rock strength (Point Load Strength Index )
– Fracture Toughness
– Brittleness
– Indentation
– Swelling
 Strength of rocks
• Compressive strength
– (a) Uniaxial Compression Strength Test
– (b) Triaxial Compression Strength Test
• Tensile strength
– (a) Direct Tension Test
– (b) Brazilian Tensile Strength Test
– (c) Flexure Tension Test
• Factors affecting strength of rock
Compressive Strength
Compressive strength is the capacity of a material
to withstand axially directed compressive forces.
The most common measure of compressive
strength is the uniaxial compressive strength or
unconfined compressive strength. Usually
compressive strength of rock is defined by the
ultimate stress. It is one of the most important
mechanical properties of rock material, used in
design, analysis and modelling.
Young's Modulus and Poisson’s Ratio
Young's Modulus is modulus of elasticity measuring
of the stiffness of a rock material. It is defined as
the ratio, for small strains, of the rate of change of
stress with strain. This can be experimentally
determined from the slope of a stress-strain curve
obtained during compressional or tensile tests
conducted on a rock sample.
Poisson’s ratio measures the ratio of lateral strain to
axial strain, at linearly-elastic region. For most
rocks, the Poisson’s ratio is between 0.15 and 0.4.
Tensile Strength
– Tensile strength of rock material is normally
defined by the ultimate strength in tension, i.e.,
maximum tensile stress the rock material can
withstand. Rock material generally has a low
tensile strength. The low tensile strength is due to
the existence of microcracks in the rock.
– The existence of microcracks may also be the
cause of rock failing suddenly in tension with a
small strain.
 Factors affecting strength of rock
• Effect of confining pressure and temperature
• Effect of moisture content
• Effect of pore pressure
• Effect of loading rates
• Effect of sample size
 Jointing of the rock mass
• Joints
• Main features of joints and jointing
• Various types of joints
• Measurements of the degree of jointing
Joints
• There is a difficulty in giving a concise definition of what
constitutes a joint. During the years there have been
several discussions whether 'joint', 'fracture', 'break' or
other terms should be preferred in rock mechanics,
engineering geology and rock engineering. ISRM (1975)
has chosen 'joint' defined as: "Joint is a discontinuity
plane of natural origin along which there has been no
visible displacement."
 MAIN FEATURES OF JOINTS AND JOINTING

• The following rock mass parameters have

generally the strongest impact on the
behaviour and strength properties of a rock
mass.
A. The degree of jointing,
B. The joint characteristics and
C. The rock material through which the joints
intersect
A. The degree of jointing, including:
1. density of joints (measured as joint set spacing,
block size, RQD); and
2. block shape or jointing pattern;
3. orientation of joint set or main discontinuities;
B. The joint characteristics, consisting of:
4. joint roughness (smoothness and waviness or
planarity);
5. joint condition or alteration (condition of joint
walls, possible filling material)
C. The rock material through which the joints
intersect
6. strength and elastic properties of the rock;
7. rock anisotropy;
8. rock durability;
9. content of certain minerals with special properties
(swelling, elastic, soluble, etc.)
 The terms for the various types of joints in Figure 4 are
generally chosen from their size and composition.
Some supplementary definitions of these and some
other discontinuities are given below:

• Crack is a small, partial or incomplete discontinuity

(ISRM, 1975).
• Fissure is a small joint, mainly without filling or
coating.
• Fracture is a discontinuity in rock due to intense folding
or faulting (Glossary of geology, 1980). Fracture is a
general term used in geology for all kinds of
discontinuities. Hence, this term is seldom used in
connection with rock engineering and engineering
geology.
• Parting is a plane or surface along which a rock is readily
separated or is naturally divided into layers, i.e. bedding-
plane parting (Glossary of geology, 1980). Partings, which
often occur as bedding plane and foliation partings, are
separations parallel to a mineralogically defined structural
weakness in the rock. They are most often tight and rough
except where flaky minerals (mica, chlorite) occur.
• Rupture is a fracture or discontinuity caused by excavation
works or other human activities.
• Seam
1) a minor, often clay-filled zone with a thickness of a few
centimetres. When occurring as weak clay zone in a
sedimentary sequence, a seam can be considerably thicker.
Otherwise, seams may represent very minor faults or altered
zones along joints, dikes, beds or foliation (Brekke and
Howard, 1972).
2) a plane in a coal bed at which the different layers of coal are
easily separated (Dictionary of geological terms, 1962)
• Shear is a seam of sheared and crushed rock usually
spaced more widely than joints and is marked by several
millimetres to as much as a metre thickness of soft or
friable rock or soil. 1
• Singularity is used as a general term for seams, filled
joints, shears or other persistent discontinuities which are
not considered as belonging to the detailed jointing.
• Bedding joints / Bedding partings are discontinuities
developed along the bedding planes in sedimentary rocks.
• Foliation partings / Foliation joints are discontinuities
developed along the foliation planes in metamorphic
rocks.
• Tectonic joints are discontinuities formed from the tensile
stresses accompanying uplift or lateral stretching, or from
the effects of regional tectonic compression (ISRM, 1975).
They commonly occur as planar, rough-surfaced sets of
intersecting joints, with one or two of the sets usually
dominating in persistence.
• Jointing is the occurrence of joint sets forming the
system or pattern of joints as well as the amount or
intensity of joints.
• Detailed jointing is the network of joints in the massifs
between weakness zones.
• Degree of jointing / density of joints is used as the
general term for the amount of joints in a rock mass.
This includes block size, joint set spacing, joint
frequency, rock quality designation (RQD).

• Joints are found in certain, preferred directions as joint

sets forming the jointing pattern. One to three
prominent joint sets and one or more minor sets often
occur; in addition several individual or random joints
may be present.
 MEASUREMENTS OF THE DEGREE OF JOINTING
• The size of the rock mass of interest is generally so large
that it is mostly impossible to measure its mechanical
properties.
• Therefore, the best way to obtain information on the joint
properties (density and other joints characteristics) of the
rock mass is to perform observations in the field or on drill
cores.
• The way such observations are carried out highly
determines the quality of the geo-data used in the
evaluations and calculations.
• The most common methods to assess the degree of jointing
or the density of joints are:
– Observations and/or measurements in rock surfaces;
– Observations and/or logging of drill cores;
– Assessments from geophysical measurements, either along
profiles or along bore holes. In this paper only assessment of
refraction seismic measurements are described.
 Shear strength of Joints
• To determine the rock mass strength, the average
strength of the block building joints, has to be known.
The joint strength is the strength along the joint, which
can be determined in several ways.
• In field tests, joint roughness coefficient (JRC), joint
wall compressive strength (JCS) and tilt angle are often
determined as a complement to the described joint
filling and width.
• Tilt or direct shear tests are the most common
laboratory tests where the basic friction angle and joint
cohesion can be determined
• Shear strength of rock may include
– Shear strength of intact rock
– Shear strength of planar discontinuity
– Shear strength of highly jointed rock mass

• Shear strength of planar discontinuity

– The bedding plane is absolutely planar, having no
surface irregularities or undulations
– In a shear test each specimen is subjected to a stress
σn normal to the bedding plane, and the shear stress
τ, required to cause a displacement δ, is measured.
• The relationship between the peak shear strength
τp and the normal stress σn can be represented by
the Mohr-Coulomb equation:
τ p = c + σn tanφ

• where c is the cohesive strength of the cemented

surface and φ is the angle of friction.

• In the case of the residual strength, the cohesion

c has dropped to zero and the relationship
between φr and σn can be represented by:
τr = σn tanφr
• Shear strength of rough surfaces
– A natural discontinuity surface in hard rock is
never as smooth as a sawn or grounds surface of
the type used for determining the basic friction
angle.
– The undulations and asperities (sharpness) on a
natural joint surface have a significant influence
on its shear behaviour.
– Generally, this surface roughness increases the
shear strength of the surface, and this strength
increase is extremely important in terms of the
stability of excavations in rock.
• The shear strength of Patton's saw-tooth specimens can be
represented by:
τ = σn tan(φb + i)
• where φb is the basic friction angle of the surface and i is
the angle of the saw-tooth face.
• The basic friction angle φb is a quantity that is fundamental
to the understanding of the shear strength of discontinuity
surfaces.
• This is approximately equal to the residual friction angle φr
but it is generally measured by testing sawn or ground rock
surfaces.
Shear strength of highly jointed rock mass
• Barton’s estimate of shear strength
– While Patton’s approach has the merit of being
very simple, it does not reflect the reality that
changes in shear strength with increasing normal
stress are gradual rather than abrupt.
– Barton and his co-workers (1973, 1976, 1977,
1990) studied the behaviour of natural rock joints
and have proposed that equation as:

where JRC is the joint roughness coefficient and JCS is the joint
wall compressive strength .
• Field estimates of JRC
• The joint roughness coefficient JRC is a number that
can be estimated by comparing the appearance of a
discontinuity surface with standard profiles published
by Barton and others.
• One of the most useful of these profile sets was
published by Barton and Choubey (1977) and is
reproduced in Figure 4.2.
• The appearance of the discontinuity surface is
compared visually with the profiles shown and the JRC
value corresponding to the profile which most closely
matches that of the discontinuity surface is chosen.
• In the field the length of the surface of interest may be
several metres or even tens of metres and the JRC
value must be estimated for the full scale surface.
• Field estimates of JCS
• Suggested methods for estimating the joint
wall compressive strength were published by
the ISRM (1978).
• The use of the Schmidt rebound hammer for
estimating joint wall compressive strength was
proposed by Deere and Miller (1966), as
illustrated in Figure 4.7