Fclim 04 841488

REVIEW
published: 17 May 2022

doi: 10.3389/fclim.2022.841488
Gender, Climate Change Adaptation,

and Cultural Sustainability: Insights
From Bangladesh
Sajal Roy 1*† , Shristi Tandukar 2* and Utsab Bhattarai 3*†
1
Edited by: Development Studies Program, School of Social Sciences, Centre for Social Impact, UNSW Business School, The
Juan Antonio Rivera, University of New South Wales, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia, 2 Independent Researcher, Melbourne, VIC,
CONICET Argentine Institute of Australia, 3 Institute for Culture and Society, Western Sydney University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Nivology, Glaciology and
Environmental Sciences
The focus of this paper is mainly to investigate climate change adaptation practices
(IANIGLA), Argentina
and the applicability of a cultural sustainability approach in understanding gender
Reviewed by:
Syed Hafizur Rahman, dimension of the residents of the southwest coast of Bangladesh. It is one of the most
Jahangirnagar University, Bangladesh vulnerable regions in South Asia due to the significant impacts of climate change. The
Jeetendra Prakash Aryal,
International Maize and Wheat long-term effects of climate change in this region are the increasing salinity in farmlands,
Improvement Center, Mexico heatwaves, and sea-level rise. The southwest coast of Bangladesh is a classic example
*Correspondence: of “good practice” as well as the center for learning, implementing, and communicating
Sajal Roy
climate change adaptation actions in practice. The reason for this the collective action
Sajal.roy@uts.edu.au
Shristi Tandukar carried out to initiate and improve adaptation activities by the Ministry of Environment,
shristi.tandukar1@gmail.com Forest and Climate Change of the Government of Bangladesh, as well as several
Utsab Bhattarai
utsabbhattarai61@gmail.com national and international development and non-government organizations (NGOs).
† ORCID: Using a systematic review of literature, and field-based case studies, we examined how
Sajal Roy gender and cultural issues (such as the adaptive capacity of men and women, and
orcid.org/0000-0003-1532-9792
the transformation of gendered power relations) have been addressed to successfully
Utsab Bhattarai
orcid.org/0000-0002-8817-8422 implement climate change adaptation initiatives in the context of the nominated study
area. Our study results revealed that both male and female participants were strategic
Specialty section:
and capable of dealing with climate change impacts, although the adaptive capacity
This article was submitted to
Climate Risk Management, of the former group was comparatively sturdier than the later. The extent of cultural
a section of the journal sustainability was found to be weaker in the study region compared to many other
Frontiers in Climate
coastal communities in the country. The efforts made by NGOs in collaboration with the
Received: 22 December 2021
Accepted: 29 March 2022
governmental bodies of Bangladesh were found contributory in providing knowledge of
Published: 17 May 2022 climate change along with the techniques to adapt to its consequences for the people
Citation: of the study region. Similarly, the activities of NGOs were found influential in helping the
Roy S, Tandukar S and Bhattarai U
government to support people in adapting to climate change in terms of the gendered
(2022) Gender, Climate Change
Adaptation, and Cultural and cultural sustainability perspectives. Our findings contribute to the field of climate
Sustainability: Insights From change impacts in understanding the complexities of rural development.
Bangladesh. Front. Clim. 4:841488.
doi: 10.3389/fclim.2022.841488 Keywords: climate change, adaptive capacity, gender, sustainability, Bangladesh
Frontiers in Climate | www.frontiersin.org 1 May 2022 | Volume 4 | Article 841488

Roy et al. Insights From Bangladesh
INTRODUCTION organizations have been enhancing the adaptive capacity of the

people and hence influencing the perception and culture to
Bangladesh is one of the world’s most vulnerable countries to adaptation on climate change in the coastal areas (Islam and
climate change due to its extremely low and flat topography Walkerden, 2015; Aryal et al., 2020).
(Chowdhury et al., 2018; Islam and van Amstel, 2018; Roy, 2020). Bangladesh is unique in its rich history of NGO engagement
Two-thirds of the country is very low lying, less than five meters (Vinck et al., 2020). NGOs have taken a number of steps to
above sea level. The coastal districts are even more low-lying promote discussion and debate about climate change issues
and vulnerable to natural disasters (Kabir et al., 2016; Abedin (Hasan et al., 2018). NGOs help communities cope with
et al., 2020; World Bank, 2020). People practice various climate challenges in agriculture, health, water, settlements, finance,
change adaptation strategies to survive in coastal Bangladesh. and community identity in many disaster-prone countries. Due
In this area, both men and women play important roles in to the fragility of the settlements, physical isolation from the
climate change adaptation practices (Ahmed, 2017; Tanjeela and mainstream economy, and exposure to disaster risks, rural
Rutherford, 2018). Loss of life would be equal if men and livelihoods in developing countries are more likely to be
women were given equal economic and social rights; however, affected by shocks (Harvey et al., 2014). NGOs provide financial
more women would die if these rights are unequally provided assistance to the poor for enabling them to generate income,
(Neumayer and Plümper, 2007; Ayeb-Karlsson, 2020; Roy, 2020). build assets, and protect themselves from risks (Seddiky and
This indicates that climate-induced vulnerability depends on the Giggins et al., 2021). NGOs provide microloans to the people
extent of social as well as economic rights enjoyed by men and residing in the region already vulnerable to climate-induced
women. Gender discrimination has negative impacts on adaptive disasters. Such loans help poor people in choosing resilient
capacity. In line with this, cultural sustainability can be measured livelihood options. Services offered by NGOs mainly include
through economic, social, and environmental indicators (Soini provision of relief, sanitation equipment, and safe drinking
and Dessein, 2016). A society becomes culturally sustainable water facilities (Islam and Walkerden, 2015). Overall, they
when its economic and environmental aspects as well as access provide avenues for the coastal communities in strengthening
to physical resources are stronger. their social as well as natural capital. The role of the local
Culture is an important resource for both climate change NGOs in Bangladesh is thus inevitable (Hasan et al., 2018)
mitigation and adaptation (UNESCO, 2020). Culture influences because of their contributions to strengthening the cultural
society’s response to all aspects of global climate change. Climate sustainability of the country’s households. Evidence gathered
change threatens cultural dimensions of lives and livelihoods, through recent studies in Bangladesh demonstrates that there are
including the material and lived aspects of culture, identity, clear differences between men and women with regard to climate
community cohesion, and sense of place. Also, how societies change adaptation. This also applies to the assistances received
respond and adapt to climate-related risks has important from government and NGOs for climate change adaptation for
cultural dimensions (Adger et al., 2012). Hence, climate change building resilience (Aryal et al., 2020).
adaptation requires a broader cultural shift (Wamsler and The Sixth Assessment Report of Intergovernmental Panel
Brink, 2018). For instance, cultural sustainability determines a on Climate Change (IPCC, 2021a) identified that the role of
society’s adaptive capacity related to climate induced disasters. human influence in climate change is unequivocal. In terms
Humanitarian interventions of governmental agencies help to of decision-making, the level of user engagement and co-
increase the adaptive capacity of the people to respond to production between scientists, practitioners and intended users
impacts of climate change. The Ministry of Environment, Forest are key determinants of the type of climate strategies and
and Climate Change (MOEFCC) of Bangladesh has formulated their usefulness in supporting adaptation, mitigation and risk
plans and policies for promoting the adaptive capacity of management decisions (IPCC, 2021b). It is important therefore
households within the coastal regions of the country. The main to adopt strategies that can help reduce the anthropogenic
goal is to work for environmental preservation in order to threats and ensure sustainability in the long-term. Previously,
maintain people’s economic growth and cultural values, as well as IPCC also identified climate impacts as the key cause of
protecting the geography of the area (Everett et al., 2010; World environmental vulnerability, while adaptation strategies were
Bank, 2019, 2021). Primarily, the impact of climate change for key measures to reduce vulnerability within the prevailing
adaptation can be planned for short, medium and long-term, systems (Jerneck, 2018). In the context of climate change,
where cultural sustainability is linked to medium adaptation sustainable, equitable, and effective adaptation action plans are
measures with the cropping practices. A study conducted in the important. This is because the climate change hotspots are often
southwestern coastal Bangladesh shows that the male-headed identified by climatic shifts which results the change in social
households are more likely to transform the farming practices structures, culture and livelihood sensitivity which exacerbate
as compared with female headed households that conversely vulnerability (de Sherbinin, 2014; De Souza et al., 2015; Rao
tended to receive assistance from NGOs as an adaptation strategy et al., 2019). However, very few studies have explored the
(Aryal et al., 2020). The livelihood assets which include natural, underlying social drivers of vulnerability. Therefore, there is a
financial, physical, social capital, highly determine their capacity need to understand climate change adaptation as transformative
to adopt the adaptation strategies to cope and manage climate climate action.
risk by a household (Jakobsen, 2013; Berman et al., 2015). The Gender equality and adaptation should learn how
multiple roles in building resilience played by non-governmental development in theory and practice has addressed gender,

women, and the environment (Change, 2011; Pelling and have helped coastal communities of Bangladesh in creating and
Manuel-Navarrete, 2011; Rao et al., 2019). Gender is a deeply improving their climate change adaptation actions and strategies
ingrained contextual condition that shapes vulnerability by for achieving improved livelihood outcomes. These organizations
intersecting with other conditions and socioeconomic drivers. help people to learn as well as enhance their understandings
Gender-based climate change vulnerability is the result of a about effective measures to deal with climate change effects.
complex web of interconnected factors (such as social and gender, They are one of the key stakeholders and play important role in
political, economic, and geographic location). Manifestations alleviating poverty of the coastal communities. As of now, the
of vulnerability to climate change vary in different groups of key activities of these organizations are disaster preparedness,
people, based on their positions in a social and gender structure food processing, fishing, forestry and so on (Roy et al., 2017).
in a particular location and at a particular time. However, while Mainly, LEDARS has focused on enhancing the capacity of
there is a growing body of research into the impacts of climate communities to adapt to agriculture related undertakings. This
change on society that particularly recognizes the differential organization has helped farmers by teaching them the ways to
and unequal impacts of climate change on women and men, use improved techniques and high yield seeds and crops for
“the picture is far from complete” (Goodrich et al., 2019). increasing the amount of harvest even in the waterlogged areas
Several studies on climate change adaptation explore the natural of coastal regions (Ahsan, 2013; Kuddus et al., 2021). Likewise,
systems perspective, but the ways in which gender and cultural CARE Bangladesh has provided farm and off-farm based skills
issues are impacted by climate change remain un-investigated to marginal people of the country’s coastal areas. For example,
(Abdulkadir, 2017; Jerneck, 2018). For example, a study on the the learning of technical skills such as electric and tile works and
gendered patterns of rural livelihoods in Vietnam found that tailoring by this organization are considered expedient (Ahamed,
unequal opportunities for females reduced their capacity to 2013). The relevance of drawing the implications of these two
adapt to climate change (Ylipaa et al., 2019). However, their NGOs in this study is because they focus on the issue of gender
national strategies for climate change only address technical sensitivity while offering skill-based training to the people of
solutions to adaptation, with little concern for existing gender coastal communities. Scholars including Ahamed (2013), Alam
inequalities. Consequently, these mechanisms fail to provide and Rahman (2014) and Rakib et al. (2017) argue that the
long-term solutions to these problems (Ylipaa et al., 2019). empowerment of women and enhancement of their capacities
Therefore, this paper examines how gender and cultural issues in skill-based training has reduced a gender gap in terms of
have been addressed in the process of climate change adaptation adaptation capacity of the people of coastal communities in
in the southwest coastal region of Bangladesh. Addressing this southwest coat of Bangladesh.
issue is essential because it will assist the MOEFCC and NGOs to The study of gender roles and their differences from a
plan and implement effective initiatives to enhance the climate historical perspective has shown that history can explain part of
adaptive capacity of the coastal people from the perspectives of the persistence of variations in gender norms despite economic
gendered roles and cultural sustainability. development and increase in women’s education. The historical
This paper outlines the core concepts in adaptation and traits studied are useful sources of exogenous variant. The fact
explains the rationale for gender-sensitive research on climate that gender norms show remarkable persistence does not mean
change and cultural sustainability. More specifically, this that they never change (Giuliano, 2020). Applying the models
discussion comprises three main phenomena. Firstly, it explains of social learning, the literature has started to study cultural
how vulnerability occurs due to different climatic events and change at the intergenerational scale (Fogli and Veldkamp, 2011;
local adaptation strategies of the coastal people. Secondly, Fernandez, 2013; Giuliano and Nunn, 2021). Giuliano and Nunn
it assesses the gender role and cultural sustainability in the (2021) in their study predicted that the stability of the external
climate change adaptation process. It also summarizes the role environment is a key determinant of cultural persistence. The
of government and NGOs in climate change adaptation. The understanding is that in the stable environment, all cultural
adaptation knowledge of coastal people passed down through values and beliefs (including beliefs about the role of women)
the generations but are unaware of the magnitude of associated tend to prevail as they comprise information helpful to the
impacts (Makondo and Thomas, 2018). In this regard, the paper current generation. Conversely, if the environment changes
finally concludes with insights gained from the research on drastically from one generation to another, it makes the previous
adaptive strategies of coastal people on climate change, gendered generation’s cultural beliefs less likely to be useful to the current
relations and their efforts to create a sustainable environment. generation. Simple and low-cost interventions can increase the
percentage of women majoring in a male-dominated fields, which
seems to indicate that women’s preferences might not be contrary
METHODS OF REVIEW AND CASE to those of men (Porter and Serra, 2020). Galor et al. (2020) have
STUDIES shown that languages that emphasize gender differences correlate
with gender biases; the current emphasis on introducing neutral
The methods used in this paper are review and case study, forms could help fight such biases. Most research illustrate that
particularly associated to the works initiated by two NGOs differences in cultural norms regarding gender roles tend to
of the country-LEDARS (Local Environment Development persist but evolve very slowly. As the culture has little room for
and Agricultural Research Society) and Care Bangladesh in policy intervention, the authors argue that if differences in male
Shyamnagar sub-district. The initiatives of these organizations and female labor market participation originate inside the family,

FIGURE 1 | Gender may influence risk perceptions and management directly or through impacts of other factors such as attributes, emotions or vulnerability. Source:
Lebel et al. (2015), modified.
providing women a better outside option would increase their and analyse vulnerability, emotional experience and traditional
implicit bargaining power. knowledge of communities. It also helps us estimate the
Traditional positive adaptation strategies with respect to capacities of individuals or communities to withstand climatic
issues, such as values, ethics, risk, knowledge and culture, risks. Adopting a comprehensive and inclusive approach, it will
construct societal limits to adaptation to seasonal climate help make safer risk decisions through collective actions and
variability (Makondo and Thomas, 2018). It is anticipated that strategic governance mechanisms. Ultimately, it will help build
adaptation and mitigation efforts in addressing climate change good practices, investigate actions, and update interventions to
are crucial. Such efforts and actions may be self-perpetuating reduce the risk over time.
and therefore be addressed. Recognizing this concern, this paper One of the reasons to alter cultural identity of a certain
attempts to highlight some of the coping strategies used by the community is change in livelihoods of the people of that
populations in coastal areas of Bangladesh that impact gender community (Schmidt and Pearson, 2016). A supportive
and culture, amidst the adversity of environmental stresses community can be effectively engaged in community-based
due to climate change. There are few studies that explore adaptation efforts (Mikulewicz, 2017). Engaging with community
lived values and fairness together in the context of climate organizations may be an effective means of accommodating the
adaptation, while social researchers argue that local values need views of socially networked circumstantial sea changers, regional
to be incorporated into climate adaptation to achieve fairer retirees, and the community minded business owners (Graham
processes and outcomes. Lived values which include the social et al., 2018). The review commences with the sociodemographic,
values, tradition, culture, heritage and social status are helpful geographic, and weather-related features of the study region
in understanding vulnerability to climate change and providing followed by discussions of how the adaptive capacities of people
a social metric for evaluating the relative fairness of local of both genders (male and female) to climate change have been
adaptation options (Graham et al., 2018). enhanced through cultural sustainability. The content of this
While this paper draws on the framework of Lebel et al. review paper has been divided into three segments. Firstly, it
(2015), it also draws insights from Kuruppu (2009), Mortreux provides the background of the study region by exploring and
and Barnett (2009), Karlsson and Hovelsrud (2015), Graham identifying the of climate change through different variables of
et al. (2018), and Neef et al. (2018). Figure 1 presented above weather. Secondly, it discusses the strategies adopted by people at
showcases how gender differentiated roles can influence the local levels to cope with or adapt to climate change perturbations.
risk perception and management of climatic risks directly, or Thirdly, an account of the gendered role in adapting to climate
can be addressed through multiple factors including attributes, change is emphasized in reference to the implications of cultural
emotions or vulnerability. It outlines how understanding gender sustainability that also necessitates economic, environmental
differences and norms can help gauge the level of risk concerned and social sustainability. Regarding the contributions of various

FIGURE 2 | Map of coastal region of Bangaldesh. Source: adapted from Hoque et al. (2019).
sectors in enhancing the adaptive capacity of the people of the salinity intrusion and sea level rise, and making the coastal areas
coastal region of southwest Bangladesh, the role of NGOs and of Bangladesh more vulnerable (Minar et al., 2013; Uddin et al.,
government are discussed. 2019).
BANGLADESH AS A CASE STUDY: Vulnerability Posed by Climate Change

REFLECTION FROM LITERATURE Extreme climatic events have negative impacts on lives and
livelihoods, creating the food insecurity. The key consequences
Bangladesh is known as largest deltaic regions in the world. As a of climate change in the coastal region of Bangladesh are water
low-lying delta, it is widely recognized as highly vulnerable to the logging, salinity intrusion, sea level rise, cyclones, and tidal bore.
impacts of climate change, particularly sea-level rise and changes In terms of the number of people affected by sea level rise,
in runoff (World Bank, 2015). This section will illustrate some Bangladesh is the seventh most vulnerable country in the world.
of the incidences of climatic impacts on the coastal regions of Referring to an assessment of the World Bank (2021), Minar et al.
Bangladesh, including salinity intrusion, cyclones, sea level rise, (2013) estimate that the sea level rise in Bangladesh would reach
water logging and their related impacts on the socio-economic one meter by 2070, resulting in 18% submersion of its terrestrial
aspects of the coastal communities. About 609 islands have been lands as well as permanent relocation of 13 million people.
identified within the coastal zone of Bangladesh (Islam, 2004),
with approximately, 36 million people live in the coastal region Salinity Intrusion
(Ahsan, 2013; Ahmad, 2019). This coastal area is made up of 19 Climate change-induced problems of salinity are prevalent both
districts and 147 sub-districts (Upazilas). (Hoque et al., 2019 see on land and water throughout the coastal region of Bangladesh.
Figure 2) Along with the growth of population in the country, This in turn threatens agricultural productivity, conservation of
the extent of the extraction of limited natural resources is also coastal biodiversity and human health. It is apparent from the
increasing in the region (Islam et al., 2020). Global climate change study of the Government of Bangladesh and UNDP (2009) that
has caused adverse impacts on the coastal zone, resulting in agriculture is the main livelihood option for the people of coastal

Bangladesh (Sarker et al., 2012; Faisal et al., 2021). Poor and 2019). Although the Sundarbans is considered the world’s largest
marginalized people depend heavily on natural resources (for continuous mangrove forest and the protector from various
example, agriculture, fisheries) for their livelihoods (Helgeson coastal disasters in Bangladesh (Islam et al., 2013), it was
et al., 2013). Salinity intrusion reduces agricultural productivity significantly damaged by the tidal surge of Sidr. The Sundarbans
and makes livelihoods vulnerable (Alam et al., 2017; Rahim et al., cover about 6,000 square kilometers of the country, deemed
2018). In the coastal region of Bangladesh, about 0.4 million a World Heritage Site (WHS) in 1997 by the United Nations
people depend for their livelihoods on agriculture, including Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO),
rice production and shrimp collection (Paul and Vogl, 2011; and greatly enriches the biodiversity of Bangladesh. The eastern
Uddin and Nasrin, 2013). These two main sources of livelihoods part of Bangladesh was severely affected by the tidal surge of
are significantly threatened by the problem of salinity intrusion Cyclone Sidr, threatening the biodiversity of this region. Cyclone
(Alam et al., 2017). Aila followed, hitting Bangladesh on 26 May 2009, causing 339
The report of the Soil Resource Development Institute (SRDI, human casualties and financial losses of 295.6 million US dollars.
2010) shows that more than one million hectares of arable lands Along with deaths and injuries, serious health problems such as
in Bangladesh have been affected by saltiness intrusion, caused diarrhea, skin diseases and eye infections occurred during this
by moderate and rapidly increasing extreme events. It also notes period, including a deadly national outbreak of diarrhea (Mallick
that up that 71% of the developed zones in Shyamnagar upazila et al., 2011).
are affected by high level salinity (above 12 ds/m). The total size Cyclones are devastating for Bangladesh, and they
of salinity-affected land in Bangladesh was 83.3 million hectares significantly increase the economical vulnerability of the
in 1973, increasing to 102 million hectares in 2000, rising to coastal people. People lost their households, crops, cattle and
105.6 million hectares in 2009, and continuing to increase. In wage labor jobs on which they depended for their everyday
the last 35 years, salinity has increased around 26 percent in activities. On 3 May 2021, another severe tropical cyclone named
Bangladesh, spreading into non-coastal areas as well (Haider, Foni hit the Odisha coast in Puri, India, causing large scale
2019). As indicated by the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS) damage (Chauhan et al., 2021). After crossing West Bengal as
survey, the net cultivated area of Satkhira district was reduced by a severe cyclone, it made landfall in Bangladesh as an ordinary
about 7% from 1996 to 2008 (Khanom, 2016). It was discovered category cyclone. Fani was one of the most powerful cyclones
that after cyclone Aila, total rice production in Satkhira had formed in the Bay of Bengal since 1999, close to cyclone Sidr in
dropped from 0.53 million tons in 2008 to 0.46 million tons in strength. Under the influence of this severe cyclonic storm, the
2009 (BBS, 2011). Again, the report indicates that production of low-lying areas of the coastal districts—Chittagong, Noakhali,
the main rice crop (Aman) in Satkhira dropped to an even greater Laxmipur, Feni, Chandpur, Borguna, Bhola, Patuakhali, Barisal,
extent, from about 0.4 million tons in 2008 to 0.2 million tons in Pirozpur, Jhalokathi, Bagherhat, Khulna, and Satkhira—along
the year 2010. These statistics demonstrate the adverse impacts with their offshore islands and chars—were inundated by a
of salinity intrusion on Bangladesh’s agriculture. Moreover, the storm surge 4–5 feet high (Bilkis, 2019). Around 50 people
problem of salinity has reduced the economic capability of the were reported dead in both countries. Despite the preparation
coastal people because agriculture is the main source of their and evacuation efforts, severe damages to houses, farmland and
livelihoods (Alam et al., 2017). critical infrastructure were reported (MetMatters, 2021).
The sources of drinking water for the coastal communities Cyclone Bulbul, a reincarnation of Cyclone Mamto, made
of Bangladesh are highly precarious due to frequent salination. landfall over India on November 9, 2019, before entering
A recent study in Satkhira district revealed that 34.3% of the Bangladesh on November 10, 2019. The cyclone hit thirteen
people drinking water with salinity concentrations of <1,000 southern districts of the country, bringing winds of up to 120
mg/l salinity had high blood pressure, compared to 42.6% of kilometers per hour (75 miles per hour) and gusts of up to
people drinking water with salinity concentrations of 2,000 mg/l 130 kilometers per hour (80 mph). The cyclone remained over
(Nahian et al., 2018). Extra sodium remaining in the saline water Bangladesh for about 36 h, making it one of Bangladesh’s longest-
is also harmful for pregnant women (Khan et al., 2011). Saline lasting cyclones in the last 52 years. Due to the heavy rains
water is harmful for humans and biodiversity. Therefore, it is and tidal surges, the impacted coastal sea line was inundated by
important to reduce environmental pollution to decelerate the more than 3 m (19–20 feet) on average. Around 722,674 people
impacts of climate change. were affected by the cyclone in the districts of Satkhira, Khulna,
Bhola, Bagerhat, Patuakhlai, Barguna, and Pirojpur. Cyclone
Cyclones Bulbul wreaked havoc on over 108,000 homes and 117,000
This section analyses several consequences of cyclones caused hectares of crops, as well as causing significant damage to several
in Bangladesh since 1970. Its coastal regions have experienced embankments (IFRC, 2020).
cyclones of varied magnitude, with long-lasting impacts on According to CARE (2020) on the 20th and 21st of May 2021,
communities’ livelihoods, shelter and sanitation. Cyclone Sidr the “super cyclone” Amphan that passed through Bangladesh had
and Cyclone Aila are two key examples of coastal cyclone. worst effects. In total, 76 upazilas in 19 districts were impacted,
Category-4 Cyclone Sidr hit Bangladesh on 15th November with eight districts having a severe to moderate impact. A total
2007. This caused the death of 3,406 people and a huge loss of 26 people were killed, and 2.6 million people were affected.
of public and private property, totalling nearly 1.7 billion US More than 200,000 homes were completely or partially destroyed,
dollars, as indicated by the Government of Bangladesh (Rahman, and more than 176,000 hectares of productive land were washed

away, including standing crops and fish/shrimp farms. Many unsystematic climate change to prevent the destruction that
people lost their only source of income, which will have far- would follow rising sea levels.
reaching consequences for food security, sanitation, security,
health, and education (CARE, 2020). The speed of climate change Water Logging
has put the coastal community of Bangladesh at a high risk of Water logging has influenced the coastal regions of Bangladesh
cyclones. Embankments and proper preparations for cyclones with settlement immersion, salinity intrusion and loss of
can reduce this vulnerability. In addition, initiatives such as biodiversity. Moreover, the southwest coast is particularly
public awareness are important for making the people of coastal vulnerable as it has already faced huge economic loss due to
regions mindful of the impacts of climate change, as well as water logging and consequent lag in agriculture and fisheries
possible measures for their mitigation. sectors. This is because the extra saline in the soil and water
is harmful for agricultural production as well as fisheries.
Sarwar’s study (Sarwar, 2005) reveals that education and health
Sea Level Rise services providing institutions have also broken down due to
Global sea-level rise is the most obvious manifestation of climate water logging.
change in the ocean and will ultimately affect every coastal state The government of Bangladesh has recommended the
and nation on the planet (Griggs, 2021). Climate change is not national and global analysts to focus on the research related to
only altering weather patterns but also accelerating sea-level rise, sea level rise and water logging in the country. The significance
leading to increased inundation and saline contamination (Chen of estimating and observing the current as well as future effects
and Mueller, 2018). Sea level rise along the coasts of Bangladesh of environmental change in Bangladesh are important not only to
is another basic variable that menaces worldwide climate change the government of Bangladesh but also to the non-governmental
vulnerability. The meteorological department of the South Asian organizations and policy makers. Salinity intrusion and sea level
Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) undertook a rise have negative impacts on the economy and are also harmful
project to observe this change. It completed an examination on for marine ecosystems. Shrimp farming and pond culture can be
relative sea level rise in the Bay of Bengal for a period of 22 years jeopardized by salinity intrusion, sea level rise and water logging
from 1977 to 1998. The SAARC’s meteorological department (Hoque et al., 2013). This is because the saline water of the sea
measured sea level information and identified that the sea level washes over agricultural lands and freshwater reservoirs during
was rising by 4.0, 6.0, and 7.8 mm/per year, respectively, at coastal cyclones. This has led to the heaviest loss in the economy
Hiron Point, Char Ganga and Cox’s Bazar (Kay et al., 2015). The of the coastal areas. There was a loss of 1.7 billion dollars from
outcome of that project revealed that the extent of sea level rise Cyclone Sidr (Islam et al., 2013). Climate change has severe wide-
along the coastline of Bangladesh was significantly higher than ranging impacts on the ecosystem of the coastal area. A 45 cm
the rate of 1.0–2.0 mm/year worldwide in the 20th century. As sea level rise will inundate 75% of the Sundarbans (Payo-Payo
laid out by Alam (1996), the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta is dying et al., 2016), destroying much flora and fauna (Agrawala et al.,
down at a rate of 2–4 mm/year. However, the relative sea level 2003). Sea level rise can also cause salinity intrusion in coastal
rise in the Bay of Bengal is impacted by some local factors, such regions. Agriculture, the salt industry and coastal ecosystems
as structural settings, dreg loads and deltaic subsistence. are all under threat due to climate change. Likewise, the IPCC
Although there is no particular study about sea level ascent in estimates that 29,846 square kilometers of land will be lost, and
the Bay of Bengal, these instances prove that the scenario is being 14.8 million people will become landless in Bangladesh if the level
changed and coastal people are now facing increasing challenges of sea rises to one meter (IPCC, 2001). Educational infrastructure
from adverse climatic conditions (Rahman and Rahman, 2015a; will be damaged due to cyclones and sea level rise (Ripon and
Esteban et al., 2017). As noted by the Bangladesh Department Al-Mamun, 2020). Floods, especially high intensity floods, often
of Environment (DOE), sea level rise in the country may reach devastate physical infrastructure such as road networks, market
30–100 cm by 2100, while the IPCC anticipates a worldwide sea places, homes and administrative buildings. Many students may
level rise of 26–59 cm. A previous study by the DOE in 1993, be unable to go to school or college and as a result unable to
anticipated a rise of 30–150 cm in sea level for Bangladesh by support their families. Floods and the consequences of sea level
2050 (Karim and Mimura, 2008). The report by IPCC (The rise lead to poverty augmentation. Even though climate change
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) and the NAPA is global, its negative impacts are more severely felt by poor
(National Adaptation Plan of Action) for Bangladesh on sea level people and poor countries. They are more vulnerable because
rise studies estimated rises of 14, 32, and 88 cm for the years of their high dependence on natural resources and a limited
2030, 2050, and 2100, respectively. It has been estimated that by capacity to cope with climate variability and extremes (Ripon
2050, one in every seven people in Bangladesh will be displaced and Al-Mamun, 2020). People will be deprived of clothing and
by climate change (Khan, 2019). Up to 18 million people may other fundamental needs (Sarwar, 2005). Landless people may
have to move because of sea level rises alone (Islam et al., 2021). be compelled to migrate to other parts of the country (Davis
Karim and Mimura (2008) argued that if sea levels continue et al., 2018). This will also create shortages of jobs leading
to rise, Bangladesh could lose its southern low-lying area, people to become involved in illegal activities and immoral
creating huge social, economic and cultural chaos and causing behaviors. Also, migration will lead to loss of housing, and food
great sorrow and suffering to the coastal people economically, security (Davis et al., 2018). Overall, the community may be
socially and environmentally. Therefore, it is necessary to control faced with chaos. Therefore, climate change may have severe

impact on the economy, environment, and society. For example, represent viable opportunities to withstand the climatic impacts
due to climate change, coastal regions of Bangladesh are losing on the coastal region of Bangladesh. We analyse the role and
their cultural sustainability. However, these problems can be traditional skills of women in the coastal region toward climate
minimized by controlling pollution, planting trees and protecting adaptation. Such as: their contribution in producing vegetables
natural resources through combining traditional and scientific and earning extra income for the family, planting trees to
knowledge and practices of coastal ecosystems (Rahman and reduce disaster impacts, cooking and fetching water for families
Rahman, 2015b). during and after disaster, taking care of the family members,
From the literature surveyed, the multifarious challenges storing food for disasters and saving money and borrowing loans
of climate change facing Bangladesh are clear. Temperature from NGOs etc. However, despite multiple roles of women,
rises, erratic rainfall, sea level rises, water logging, cyclones and several challenges are being faced by them, including non-
storm surges all have devastating impacts on their resilience recognition of women’s work in the man-dominated society,
building capability. One of the major components of climate less control over family assets, limited access to labor market,
change adaptation is the integration of all segments of people male-ownership of the lands and livestock. Moreover, women
in the society, which often omit women’s participation in have mobility restrictions, less scope for education, training
the whole process. Therefore, the viability or sustainability or skills, which tend to limit their adaptative capacity to the
of adaptation practices remains questionable. The following climatic hazards.
section will illustrate the role of gender dimensions on the This section discusses the sustainability conditions of the
risk perception, vulnerability analysis, safe decision making and coastal people from the perspectives of cultural sustainability,
effective governance of the adaptation practices. economic sustainability, environmental sustainability and social
sustainability. Various short-term plans addressed to climate
risks lead to negative effects in the long-term. So, sustainability
DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS is one of the important aspects for this study. It illustrated
that the cultural aspects of the coastal communities are
Although Bangladesh’s South-west is rich in natural resources, central in identifying the risk perceptions, community resilience
global climate change has had a negative impact on the and feature toward enhancing their climate adaptability. The
coastal zone, making it difficult for the community to adapt economic sustainability of the coastal community is fragile due
to the threat. According to Minar et al. (2013), by 2070, to extreme poverty, higher dependence of natural resources
Bangladesh’s sea level will have risen by one meter, submerging for their livelihood, such as: agriculture vegetable production,
18% of its terrestrial lands and forcing 13 million people to fishing which are highly susceptive to natural disasters. Their
relocate permanently. Salinity intrusion, on the other hand, puts environmental sustainability is also hampered due to several
agricultural productivity, coastal biodiversity conservation, and causes such as forest degradation, marine pollutions, and species
human health at risk. Cyclones of varying magnitude have hit the extinction and biodiversity loss. The state of social sustainability
country’s coastal regions, wreaking havoc on people’s livelihoods, is also critical as a wider community of in the coastal areas
shelter, and sanitation. Furthermore, as discussed in the earlier do not have access to education. There is a lack of proper
section, Bangladesh’s coastal regions have been extremely affected sanitation and hygiene infrastructure, inadequate health and
by water logging resulting in settlement immersion, salinity poor communication systems with remote areas that reduce
intrusion, and the loss of biodiversity. The existing literature livelihood opportunities. Even though the issues associated
shows numerous effects and challenges of climate change in to women’s social empowerment are drawing attentions day
Bangladesh. Temperature rises including the events of erratic by day, deeply rooted cultural norms, believes, and social
rainfall, sea level rise, water logging, cyclones, and storm surges stigmas have prevented from making the full utilization of such
all wreak havoc on people’s ability to build resilience. One of potentials. All these are the bottlenecks of adaptive capacity of the
the most important aspects of climate change adaptation is the coastal people.
inclusion of all segments of society, which frequently overlooks It also discusses several actions of the Bangladesh Government
women’s participation. As a result, the goal of achieving the in the policy and institutional level to adapt to climatic threats.
long-term viability of adaptation strategies cannot be successful. Few programmes have been undertaken by the government
This paper identifies several strategies that the coastal to reduce climatic risks but there are limitations in terms
communities in southwest coast of Bangladesh have been of the implementation of policies at local level as well as
adopting to deal with climatic threats. As low-income level is one reflection of local needs and a lack of integration of gender-
of the main causes of increased vulnerability among individuals based concerns in actions in these policies. Finally, it also
and households of coastal people, they devise multiple adaptation highlights the role of NGOs to enhance people’s resilience
strategies, including, vegetable production using Mud Towers, and adaptability to climate change in the coastal regions.
adopting saline-tolerant crops, producing vegetables on dams, It discusses about NGOs’ role in teaching modern skill sets
cultivating saline-tolerant vegetable around the shrimp ponds, related to agriculture practices, crop varieties, skills training,
using domestic water for irrigation and vegetable production, providing financial assistance as well as contributing to protect
installing Pond Sand Filters to have purity water, rainwater environment and their cultural integrity. Hence, it is highly
harvesting, forestation in the islands, have improved cookstoves beneficial to engage local practices, cultures in designing
usage (increasing women’s participation). These all practices effective adaptation strategies that should integrate local people,

and their social patterns to bring successful outcomes in and data. Unlike the former (field-based vegetable agriculture),
the ground. this practice requires money (Sarwar, 2005). Moreover, fertilizer
and pesticides need to be applied on time, as informed by the
Different Local Adaptation Strategies of technicians of Upazila agriculture office. Hence, saline-tolerant
the Coastal People paddy seems to be a key element of food sufficiency or the long-
Our research shows that low income is a major contributor lasting practice to reduce food insecurity in coastal Bangladesh.
to increased vulnerability in the coastal areas of Bangladesh.
Farmers and wage workers are the most at risk. They cannot Vegetable Cultivation on Roadside Dams and the
manage their lives and household expenses with these uncertain Banks of Shrimp Gher
income and low earning opportunities. Deb and Haqe (2016) Large dams protect Bangladesh’s southwest coast from disasters
claim that wealthy people are less vulnerable to disasters. Their (IPCC, 2001). Vegetables can be grown in the dam because
purchasing power allows them to save for emergencies and it does not require irrigation. The dams are less salinized
decent housing. Moreover, the use of saline-tolerant crops during the rainy seasons. Large-scale production of pumpkin,
and fruits shallow deep tube wells, rainwater harvesting, and okra, cucumber, tomatoes can be grown in greater quantities.
pond sand filters are other important local adaptation strategies Vegetable cultivation can make use of non-arable lands. People
(Kulshreshtha, 2019; Manusher Jonno Foundation, 2021). without access to agricultural land can use these dams. Poor
people can get their vitamins by collecting vegetables from these
Vegetable Production Using Mud Towers dams. Consequently, it come to be a very effective strategy for the
Many families in Bangladesh’s coastal areas have small plots of poor and vulnerable people.
land, where they grow vegetables (Hoque et al., 2013). Then, seeds Salinity makes irrigation difficult in coastal areas (Hoque
are sown into a mud tower with organic fertilizer mixture. This et al., 2013). Therefore, people try to grow crops by using the
method works well for Bangladesh’s southwest coastal region. rainwater harvested during the rainy season. There are many
However, mud gets swept away during heavy rainfall. Hence, shrimp-ghers (saline water fishing ponds) along the southwest
mud towers should be macadamized. This method protects coast of Bangladesh. This approach is financially advantageous
vegetables from salinity and water logging. While this method is as it lowers the production costs. Various types of vegetables can
considered cost effective for small scale vegetable production, it is be grown around these ghers, but saline-tolerant vegetables are
not so for large scale production due to the requirement of extra more lucrative. However, this method can be adopted only during
salinity free soil. the rainy season. Although this approach is feasible for short-
Water has become a scarce resource during the dry (Rabi) term and seasonal it allows farmers to produce more yields in
season for agricultural irrigation, domestic and other uses, their less lands, supporting them to maintain their food security
threatening the overall agricultural development in Bangladesh. in the long run.
According to Hossain et al. (2021), increased water uses based
cropping patterns, irrigation inefficiency, river course changes, Reuse of Domestic Water
excessive groundwater extraction, seasonal variability, shift in Lack of freshwater prevents coastal residents from growing
critical rainfall period, rainfall intensity scarcity have caused vegetables indoors. They use freshwater to wash vegetables,
water scarcity. In the dry season, farmers in Bangladesh use bathe, and clean kitchenware (CARE, 2020). This water can
shallow/deep tube wells to extract water for irrigation. But be reused to irrigate vegetable gardens. The vegetables grown
Bangladesh’s coastal ground water is salty. In the dry season, by households in their gardens can support them to fulfill at
rainwater is scarce in Bangladesh’s coastal region. During the dry least their own consumptions. The process of reusing water is
seasons, shallow and deep tube wells are used to irrigate rice and easy and cheap. Especially, reused water becomes important for
vegetables. They are popular and sustainable methods of crop households when they face scarcity of fresh water for irrigation.
cultivation in dry seasons, and should be installed according to Additionally, it helps to reduce pollution, making it one of the
Department of Public Health Engineering (DPHE) instructions. best approaches to adapt to climate change at household level.
It will help to collect large amounts of water quickly and can be
used for a long time after installation. Pond Sand Filters
Coastal dwellers face water shortages for irrigation and drinking
Saline Tolerant Paddy (Chen and Mueller, 2018). Floods and other natural disasters
Rice is a staple food for the people especially in the coastal have resulted in drinking water crisis. Pond Sand Filters (PSF) are
region of Bangladesh. In this region, where salinity intrusion a popular coastal water purification option. It purifies water with
is constantly increasing (Ripon and Al-Mamun, 2020), saline sand and is usually found near a pond. PSF works well because
tolerant paddy such as BINA-8, BRRI Dhan 50, and BRRI Dhan it is a low-cost innovation that effectively removes bacteria and
38 are the best options. It has helped to safeguard food security turbidity. In heavily polluted surface waters, PSF may not be able
and financial stability of the people of coastal Bangladesh. These to remove all microbes. The DPHE helps people to install PSF,
types of saline tolerant paddy are produced at a rate of 17, which uses sand and pebbles to filter pond water. Water tanks
24 pounds per bigha (a unit of land area ranging from 1/3 must be cleaned periodically. A Pond Sand Filter Committee
to 1 acre). It is highly valued, though less than field-grown (PSFC) is also formed PSF requires BDT 100,000 for the set-up.
homestead vegetables. Paddy production requires a lot of work Although it is considered a standard water supply method, some

users complain about the obligation of long lines as well as the strategies help to close the gender gap to a large extent as more
wastage of time. Also, some criticize about the quality of water in women participate.
the pond (Harun and Kabir, 2013). Although effective, these strategies may not be equally useful
or feasible for long-term in the context of all communities as
Rainwater Preservation the members or households of different communities may find
Rainwater harvesting is a viable solution to inadequate drinking diverse ways of adapting to climate change depending on their
water sources in coastal areas. Coastal groundwater is salty, and geographic, social, economic and cultural backgrounds.
surface water is contaminated with bacteria, dust, and other
pollutants. Hence, drinking water becomes scarce. As stated
above, coastal dwellers in Bangladesh can collect rainwater Gender Roles in Climate Change
during the rainy season and store it for drinking later. For this, Adaptation
households can use either plastic, concrete, or mud pot. A pipe This section analyzes differential gendered roles performed by
can also be used to collect rainwater. This method is affordable men and women in relation to climate change adaptation in the
and simple for all, regardless of financial situation. Southwest Bangladesh. Climate induced disasters are undeniable
in Bangladesh’s southwest coastal region. Climate change affects
Fish Cultivation in Cages both men and women. But how they are affected by climate
Bangladesh’s coastal belt is surrounded by numerous rivers and change varies. In Bangladesh, family decisions are usually made
canals. Fish farming in cages can be a lucrative business for the by the male members of the family and mostly work outside
poor and marginalized. This method does not necessitate the use home. However, the role of women in the family cannot be
of land. The materials used to construct the cage are bamboo underestimated. They fight for their family’s survival and work
and net. This strategy is quite effective because it simultaneously with men to meet basic needs of the family. They use their
satisfies the need for protein and allows poor people who do not traditional and long-practiced nature friendly knowledges from
have access to a pond for fish cultivation. generation to generation to adapt to climate change. Such as:
Making High Concrete Foundations for House homestead vegetables are grown by women for their households
Many coastal homes in Bangladesh are at risk of natural disasters. and sell them for extra income. Men benefit from this extra
Coastal homes should be built on high concrete foundations income to meet family expenses, where women play a vital part.
to avoid flooding and tidal surges. This strategy works because Men also sometimes help them in selling these vegetables in
houses without foundations are more vulnerable to natural the market and make money. They plant papaya, lemon, and
disasters. Concrete foundations are safer during floods and guava trees. Poor people cannot afford vitamin-rich fruits. Hence,
tidal surges. It reduces damage during cyclones (CARE, 2020). women grow and harvest betel nuts and betel leaves. During and
Houses built with concrete materials are more durable, safer, after disasters, livestock suffers from a lack of fodder. Women
and comfortable. collect water hyacinth and cultivate Napier grass for livestock.
Water hyacinth and Napier grass are collected by women. Water
Forestation in the Char hyacinth is also an energy source. Women plant date palms and
Forestation can reduce tidal bore and cyclone risks in the islands fan palms to reduce disaster risk. This tree’s sap is a popular
(chars) and riverbank of coastal Bangladesh (Karim and Mimura, and expensive beverage. As, the coastal region of Bangladesh is
2008). Coastal residents of Bangladesh can contact the Forest surrounded by rivers and canals, many people collect fish. Men
Department to plant mangroves along the riverbank. Permission catch fish, and women process and dry them. Women plant trees,
from the Department of Forestry is required to plant trees along including fruit trees, to help reduce disaster risk. Their male
the riverbanks that will yield a fixed profit. Moreover, these members use or sell fishing nets. Women cook for the family
forests provide income and firewood while reducing the risks of during and after a disaster. They use filter or tube wells to fetch
natural disaster events. Forestation is the only option for a clean water (Alam and Rahman, 2014). Livestock and poultry raising,
and healthy environment (Sarker et al., 2003). and selling are important sources of income for rural coastal
women-run households. Women use indigenous knowledge,
Making Improved Stoves innovation, and adaptation to raise livestock. They know the
The main driver of climate change is greenhouse gas emissions. types of fodder suitable for livestock (Islam and Shamsuddoha,
Large amounts of black smoke cause the greenhouse effect. 2017).
Industries, brickfields, vehicles, and the traditional Bangladeshi NGOs also provide skills training and provide them directions
stove all emit black smoke that pollutes the air. Improved in food preparation and livestock and poultry disease prevention.
stoves can help cut CO2 emissions (MetMatters, 2021). It can Moreover, they also borrow money from NGOs, which is an
also save up to 40% on firewood. The improved stove emits additional economic income for the family and buy animal
less CO2 than traditional forms of oven. It saves time, money, feed (Ahmed, 2017). While we focused on agriculture-based
and the environment. In terms of cooking energy, the use of strategies, coastal women are increasingly interested in skill-
improved stoves can help to maintain the long-term climate based strategies. Women are found undertaking this type of
change adaptation strategy particularly from the perspective of work. Women’s tailoring is a well-known industry. Women
gender integration. Rural women, who are resource-dependent, can wear a variety of designs, such as karchupi, block, and
play an important role in these adaptation activities. These batik. Some women are also interested in working as tile

operators, even though it is a physically demanding job. of sustainability include creativity, literacy, critical knowledge,
Society has also aided and encouraged them to participate in trust, empathy respect, recognition, sense of place, risk (Axelsson
such endeavors. After finishing their household chores, women et al., 2013). However, these social and cultural dimensions are
also work outside (Ahmed, 2017). In conclusion, women in not easy to define or measure, and their inclusion in planning
Bangladesh’s coastal areas work harder than men to support is not well developed (Colantonio, 2007; Magis and Shinn,
their families. 2009). Cultural sustainability is an important attribute to the
Similarly, women gendered roles can have a direct effect on community’s adaptation strategies as it builds the fundamental
risk perception and management of climate change, or they supportive ground for the people to work together, belief toward
can be addressed indirectly through multiple factors such as same goal and enhance social asset to build their adaptability.
attributes, emotions, or vulnerability (Rakib et al., 2017). Such Hence, cultural sustainability is a key aspect of the coastal
as: women prepare for disasters ahead of time, lowering the community of Bangladesh to develop effective climate change
family’s risk. They make mud stoves and store dry firewood for adaptation strategies (Kopfmüller, 2019).
emergencies. Dry foods can help people survive when food is Social sustainability was introduced in the Brundtland report
scarce. Women stockpile chira, muri, khoi, biscuits, molasses, originally, as a Social Development concept (WCED, 1987).
and other foods for emergencies. Women save money for their It prioritized on issues like health and decrease the income
families’ needs. They make chhika, a jute bag hung from a high gap between rich and poor in order to reduce global poverty.
point to keep food fresh. Women wrap the tube in plastic to keep The concept of social sustainability continues to develop with
from saline contamination. They bury valuables like jewelery and recent new concepts like human wellbeing, safety and a healthy
documents in the soil by digging a hole (Alam and Rahman, environment, access to education, participation, social justice,
2014). Women look after their children, parents, and disabled solidarity and security, happiness and quality of life (Thin,
family members. For disabled or sick family members living in 2002; Colantonio, 2007). Cultural values can be described
flood-prone areas, women create an elevated bed from chouki as social capital. The social networks and norms enable the
(wood and rope) (Rakib et al., 2017). collective action, emphasizing the importance of social capital
Despite these efforts by women in the face of disaster, for the creation of a vibrant democratic system (Putnam,
their adaptive capacity is lower than men for a variety of 2000). The dimension of social capital can be illustrated
reasons. Women have less control over their family’s assets. by mapping the cultural policy environment with respect to
Land, livestock, and poultry are mostly owned by men in the presence of cultural institutions, level of participation in
most families. Women have limited access to the labor market. cultural life. Hence, social capital is a cultural property of a
Men control physical assets such as equipment and machinery, human community.
limiting women’s mobility, education, and training (Ahmad, Accordingly, coastal communities’ economic, ecological, and
2012). These are some of the factors affecting women’s adaptive social sustainability, along with the mal-adaptation practices
capacity. Because both men and women are members of a society, hampering the community are described here. The study has
women’s lower adaptive capacity leads to societal imbalance and identified cultural and social sustainability is dependent on
cultural sustainability. various variables, discussed below:
Education: Education is a valuable human resource (Ahsan,
2013). According to Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS),
Sustainability of the Coastal People of adult literacy is above average, and primary school enrolment
Bangladesh is below average (BBS, 2011). According to a DPE survey,
Interpretation of Social and Cultural Sustainability in Shaymnagar upazila in Khulna had 6,999 preschool aged
the Region children, 6,778 of whom were enrolled in pre-primary
Cultural sustainability relates to the notion of sustainable school, and 252 were not. Thirty-seven thousand seven
development. Cultural sustainability was first introduced by hundred fifty-one children aged 6–10 attended primary
the World Commission on Culture and Development (WCCD) schools, 37,404 of whom were enrolled. Three hundred
in 1995. Cultural sustainability refers to inter- and intra- forty-seven kids were out of school (Upazila Profile of
generational access to cultural resources (WCCD, 1996). The Shyamnagar Upazila, 2014). In some communities, illiteracy
growing influence of cultural sustainability is outlined as a is rampant. Most of the children in Chautaldandi Union
fourth pillar, equal to social, economic, and environmental of Cox’s Bazar sadar Upazila collect fish. They sell fish to
concerns within sustainable development agendas (Hawkes, support their families (Miyaji et al., 2020). Their families
2001; Loach et al., 2017; Pop et al., 2019; Sabatini, 2019). are unwilling to educate them, but an educated society
Soini and Birkeland (2014) argue that the concepts of culture, can inspire people to create a more sustainable society. To
development, and sustainability are interconnected. According improve coastal literacy rates and social sustainability, coastal
to United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG), culture is communities must be made aware of the importance of
linked to all 17 SDGs. Habitat of people, their values such as the education. Otherwise, the primary school dropout rate will
location, religions, traditions, along with the historical remains hinder social sustainability which may lead to mal adaptation
determine their social and cultural structure (Fairclough and in the long run.
Rippon, 2002; Antrop, 2003; Palang and Fry, 2003; Claval, 2004; Sanitation: Coastal households should use water sealed
Axelsson et al., 2013; UNESCO, 2021). Cultural components latrines or septic tanks. However, only 11% of households have

a water-sealed latrine. Only a small percentage of water sealed geological location. Natural disasters exacerbate the situation,
latrines are found in Bhola, Barguna and Jhalkathi (Ahsan, 2013). as farmers lose crops, homes, jobs, livestock, and other assets.
During a disaster, the water-sealed latrines are damaged (Khoda Although they try to overcome the first disaster, they are
Bux, 1995). In such situations, people use raw “Kacha” latrines again hit by following disasters. Hence, the coastal people of
with bamboo walls (Mallick et al., 2011). These cause various Bangladesh have a poorer economic situation than the rest of
health issues. the nation.
Communication: The coastal zone has a higher density of
roads. It is 0.71 km/km2 compared to 0.67 km/km2 elsewhere Environmental Sustainability
in the country. There are many difficult routes to Bangladesh’s The majority of South Asian coasts have a fragile ecosystem
coastal areas. Padda Pukur, Gabura, and Kaikhali Unions of (Rasul et al., 2006; Subramanian, 2012). Despite the lack of
Shymnagar Upazila are difficult to reach. Motorcycles and vans treatment plants, Bangladesh’s industries pollute many rivers
are the main modes of transport. During the rainy season, muddy and coastal waters. Domestic waste treatment facilities are
and slippery roads force people to walk long distances. Also, the lacking in Bangladesh’s coastal towns (Rahman and Rahman,
“char” communication system is terrible. People struggle to get 2015). Moreover, Chittagong’s port is a major international hub,
to schools and hospitals due to poor communication systems. connected to major shipping lanes. It can accommodate 1,000
Lack of communication and transportation is one of the main ships and 40–50 oil tankers, while Mongla can accommodate
obstacles to social sustainability. 500. Many fishing trawlers also fish (Shamsuzzaman et al., 2017).
Livelihood Security: Coastal Bangladeshi people rely on These ships and trawlers pollute the environment by discharging
natural resources like fish, crab, wood, honey, and wax from oil and waste into the water. Shipbreaking operations in southern
the Sundarbans for their livelihood. Many people survive Bangladesh pollute the environment with heavy metals and waste
solely on these resources (Sarker et al., 2003). People mostly (Hossain, 2001; Hossain et al., 2021;). Furthermore, climate
engage in farming and fishing (Ahsan, 2013). Small farming change and pollution have put the Sundarbans Forest in jeopardy
employs 26.1 percent of the population. 7.8% of major livelihood (Islam and Bhuiyan, 2018). It burns 13,000 tons of coal per
groups are fishermen (BBS, 2011). Resources are vital in day and emits around 8 million tons of CO2. The Rampal
agriculture and fishing, for example. Aside from poor health power plant, which is located near this forest, uses 13,000
and education, the coastal region has the lowest livestock in metric tons of coal per day and emits about 8 million tons
the country (Ahsan, 2013). Natural disasters are common in of CO2. This power plant emits 0.75 million tons of fly ash
this area (Khan et al., 2014). As a result of this maladaptation and 0.2 million tons of bottom ash annually (Islam and Al-
practice, the issue of livelihood security for Bangladesh’s Amin, 2019). As a result, many animal and plant species are
coastal population is more urgent than elsewhere. Given the endangered. These pollutants harm not only the environment but
foregoing, it is reasonable to conclude that coastal areas have also human health and coastal biodiversity (Islam and Bhuiyan,
lower social sustainability. Proper planning, adherence to an 2018). It is highly necessary to consider that Bangladesh will run
adaptation strategy, and long-term infrastructure, among other out of oxygen if the Sundarbans Forest is damaged. Pollution
things, can help increase the area’s cultural sustainability, the deteriorates the environment and will ultimately reduce the
government’s assistance as well as climate change preparedness coastal sustainability.
are required.
Role of Government in Climate Change
Economic Sustainability Adaptation
The coastal region of Bangladesh has 7 million population Bangladesh has been preparing for climate change adaptation
(Ahsan, 2013). It is a home to many different livelihood groups. since 2000, with policies and rules in place. Each ministry has
Most of these people engage in agriculture. Agriculture supports a climate change cell to combat conventional climate change.
livelihood of two-thirds of the coastal households. The coastal The National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) was
region of Bangladesh is economically more fragile compared established in 2005 to address the immediate and urgent climate
to other parts of Bangladesh (Abedin et al., 2020). The GDP change adaptation activities (MOEF, 2005). The Government of
per capita of this region is lower than the national average. Bangladesh (GOB) took several initiatives in 2009–2010. Some of
Per capita GDP in a coastal area of Bangladesh was BDT them are as follow.
55,760 in 2012 (BBS, 2012). However, GDP in other parts
(a) GOB allocated BDT 700 crores for climate change activities.
of the country in the same year was BDT 58,530. However,
(b) It revised Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and
compared to other coastal districts like Noakhali, Laksmipur
Action Plan in 2008 (BCCSAP). It pledged to adapt to
and Gopalganj, Khulna and Chittagong have higher levels.
climate change.
Coastal Bangladesh has a high degree of caloric poverty. The
(c) It established Bangladesh Climate Change Trust Fund
Southwest coastal zone of Bangladesh has a 52% absolute poverty
(BCCTF) in 2009. Around US$ 100 million has been
rate, with 25% being extremely poor (Ahsan, 2013). Chandpur,
channelized through this fund since its establishment.
Laxmipur, and Bagerhat are the poorest coastal areas. More
than 30% live in poverty (Ahsan, 2013). Coastal Bangladeshis Other multilateral funds include Bangladesh Climate Change
earn less than other Bangladeshis. They live in poverty as a Trust Fund, Green Climate Fund (GCF), Adaptation Fund (AF),
result. Agricultural production is also difficult due to the region’s Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF), Climate Investment

Fund (CIF), and Climate Change Fund (CCF). Besides, the enhance livelihood standards of the coastal communities of
multilateral funds, it has been receiving other funds and loans Bangladesh (Rahman, 2017).
from various International Financial Institutions and bilateral
development partners. A robust system of monitoring the Role of NGOs in Climate Change
accountability has been adopted by the government to ensure the Adaptation
transparency and appropriate utilization of such funds. Ahmed Numerous NGOs operate in the coastal area of Bangladesh.
et al. (2015) report that about 300 climate change adaptation and NGOs generally work to alleviate coastal poverty by teaching
mitigation projects were funded by the Bangladeshi government. locals how to cope with the effects of climate change, such
Some of the climate change adaptation strategies adopted by the as: disaster preparedness, food processing, fishing and forestry
Bangladeshi government for the population along the country’s (Roy et al., 2017). NGOs in Bangladesh have introduced several
coastal regions are listed below: adaptation strategies for coastal people, such as to water scarcity.
Providing clean water and sanitation: In 2006, the Some of them are discussed below.
government launched a project to provide safe drinking Sushilon, a local NGO, introduced Pond Sand Filters (PSF).
water and 100% sanitation to coastal residents. Pond Sand Filters are installed by Caritas Bangladesh to
Mitigation of extreme risk: Cyclones are becoming more help reduce water scarcity (Ahmed et al., 2015). Every year,
frequent due to climate change. Vulnerable people living waterlogging destroys many crops. A solution devised by local
along the coastlines are highly susceptive to them. To reduce non-profits involves cultivating Baira (Ahmed et al., 2015). The
vulnerability, the government has built or organized more Local Environment and Agriculture Research Society (LEDARS)
cyclone centers. works on agricultural adaptation in Bangladesh’s southwest
Char land afforestation: From 2006 to 2009, the government coast. Coastal salinity intrusion and water logging are common
reforested char land as planting trees reduces disaster risks. problems. Every year, these natural disasters destroy many
Improvement of livestock: GOB launched the “Smallholder crops. LEDARS developed several adaptation strategies to help
Livestock Development Project” (SLDP) to improve livestock farmers grow crops. These have helped reduce crop damage from
rearing in the coastal area. climate change.
Capacity-building training: Training for human resource Crop yields are high in the coastal areas. PSFs help improve
development was organized to reduce coastal poverty (Coastal the health and livelihood of coastal residents. CARE Bangladesh.
Development Strategy, 2006). Vulnerability Group Development It trains marginalized coastal communities in farm and non-farm
(VGD), Vulnerability Group Feeding (VGF), relief, and the skills. They teach technical skills like electric, tile, and tailoring. It
Gucchagram program for extreme poverty climate change also addresses gender issues while providing skill-based training
adaptation have been adopted (Barua and Rahman, 2018). to coastal residents. CARE Bangladesh is now training many
Despite constant efforts to adapt to climate change, women in skill development (Ahmed, 2017). The gender gap
Bangladesh has some limitations. Central government offices is expected to abridge because of such training. Several NGOs,
are developing climate change adaptation plans, but not local including the UNDP and Women in Development, are working
government institutions like Upazilas and unions. Local leaders to close the gender gap in coastal communities in southwest
are aware of community needs, but their limited involvement in Bangladesh (Ahamed, 2013).
central decision-making has made effective resolution difficult. NGOs have been providing microfinance loans to
The central level of decision-making undervalues gender- Bangladeshis. Previously, people would take out high-interest
based climate adaptation (Ahmad and Rahman, 2011). Local loans. However, in the last three decades, people have tried
institutions can help community members. For Bangladesh’s to privatize family finances. By making debtors poorer,
coastal areas, gender-based planning is required. Cultural microfinance is seen as a major and modern way of private
sustainability can only be achieved through effective planning financing. Microfinance is a vital tool for development (Fenton
and implementation. et al., 2017). It can improve economic conditions and women’s
Local Government Engineering Department (LGED) Office participation in family finances. Women can play a significant
of Shyamnagar Upazila is working toward mobilization of local role in the economy and society when gender gaps are reduced
human and physical resources of the region. In collaboration in climate change adaptation. International and national NGOs
with Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, work for environmental protection in Bangladesh (Hossain
LGED is also working on salinity problem with its new idea and Siddique, 2015). NGO’s working for a greener Bangladesh
“Vetiver grass”. The root of the grass can spread up to 3–5 m includes Greenpeace, the International Institute for Environment
which when planted on the side of the roads may strengthen and Development, Bangladesh Paribesh Andolon, Action Aid,
the road structure. Another project, ECRRP (Emergency Cyclone and Ongikar Bangladesh Foundation. Despite Bangladesh’s
Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Program) running since 2007 deteriorating environment, some NGOs are working to
has built twenty-one cyclone shelters. Through “Kakra-Kuchia” improve it.
Project, Fisheries department of the Upazila is working on NGOs are vital in Bangladesh’s coastal region’s economic,
enhancing the financial and physical capacity of the community. social, and environmental sectors (Ahsan et al., 2009). They
Agricultural office tried to increase physical resources by also help Bangladesh’s coastal culture survive. Hence, from
providing seeds and training. In 2017, the office of Public Health this section, several adaptation strategies in the coastal regions
Engineering provided tube wells (450), PSF (600), rainwater and women’s contribution in climate adaptation measures
harvesting system (around 200–300), MAR (nearly 10) to have been highlighted. Furthermore, the fragile condition of

environmental, economic, social and cultural sustainability it is more disaster prone and has some impassable areas.
has been highlighted, which need more attention in future Environmental pollution is a major issue throughout the country.
to enhance climate resilience. Several government and NGO Many industries and sea ports have grown in the southwestern
interventions have also been discussed. Nonetheless, there are part of Bangladesh due to the presence of many rivers and the
several challenges that hinder the adaptive capacity of the coastal Bay of Bengal. The environment in this region has become more
population to climate change. These need to be addressed vulnerable due to these industries, ports, and over-harvesting
properly for effective and sustainable climatic measures for of natural resources. As a result, reducing pollution in the
the future. environment can assist in resolving most of the climate change
related issues.
Summary and Conclusion As a result of these factors, cultural sustainability in coastal
Bangladesh’s coastal region is more vulnerable to climate change areas is lower than in other parts of the country. Bangladesh’s
and frequent natural disasters due to its geological location. government has taken several steps to mitigate the effects of
Natural disasters and climate change have made life more climate change in the country, particularly in its coastal region.
difficult for people and households in Bangladesh’s coastal areas NGOs are also very active in Bangladesh’s coastal region, which
compared to people and households in other parts of the is prone to natural disasters due to climate change. These
country. As depicted in the model presented by Lebel et al. organizations have assisted people in developing their adaptive
(2015), the coastal communities also have their own inter- capacity by providing skill enhancement and capacity building
generational knowledge and skills, attitude and experience with training as well as offering microfinance loans. However, in
vulnerable situations. They use those skills to perceive risks and order to develop effective climate change adaptation plans and
understand the level of concerns to take effective measures. As the risk management strategies, the GOB must work with local
study identifies, these coastal residents have implemented some and non-governmental organizations in a collaborative manner.
adaptation strategies to cope with the effects of climate change These strategies should also give priority to the local knowledge,
and natural disasters. Agriculture-based adaptation strategies believes, cultural attributes to gain a successful outcome in
are well-known in this area because most of the population is the ground.
dependent on agriculture. Furthermore, the people have devised This paper is a systemic review of the literature pulled
plans to deal with the effects of natural disasters, such as climate out from relevant journal articles, books, government and
change, as well as the management of drinking water and non-government documents and other relevant sources. The
additional income in times of need. strength lies in the context of covering social and environmental
However, the vulnerability situation does have gender- aspects of climate change adaptation initiatives. However, due to
differentiated implications due to different in gender norms, COVID-19 restrictions, the study was unable to collect primary
relations and cultures. It highly impacts the risk capacities of information from the field, which would have provided further
vulnerbale and marginal communities to enhance their self in-depth insights to the paper. Nonetheless, it widens the scope
confidence and adaptive power. It has been seen that even of further research and studies to understand the interlinkages
though women have a lower adaptive capacity than men, among the spheres of gender, climate change adaptation and
both men and women played an equal role in implementing cultural sustainability.
adaptation strategies. Women use their indigenous knowledge
and endurance to do their best effective risk decision and
employ different practices to ensure the wellbeing of their AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
families. Women’s contributions to disaster preparedness are
admirable. The coastal region of Bangladesh has a lower social All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual
and economic sustainability than the rest of the country because contribution to the work and approved it for publication.
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published: 17 May 2022

Gender, Climate Change Adaptation,

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INTRODUCTION organizations have been enhancing the adaptive capacity of the

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BANGLADESH AS A CASE STUDY: Vulnerability Posed by Climate Change

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REFERENCES Ahamed, M. (2013). Community based approach for reducing vulnerability to

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