Runway Orientation

1
 Runway orientation plays an important role in the airport planning
 Runway is usually oriented in the direction of prevailing winds
 The head wind (i.e., the direction of wind opposite to the direction of landing and take-off)
provides greater lift on the wings of the aircraft when it is taking-off
 Hence, the aircraft rises above the ground much earlier and in a shorter length of runway
 During landing, the head wind provides a braking effect and the aircraft comes to a stop in a
smaller length of runway
 Landing and take-off operations, if done along the wind direction, would require longer runway
 Data Required
2
 The wind data
 Direction
 Duration and
 Intensity of wind in the vicinity
 Fog characteristics in the area
 Cross wind component
3
 It is not possible to obtain the direction of wind along direction of the centre line of runway
throughout the year

 On some day of the year or hour of the day, the wind may blow making certain angle ‘θ’

 Let V = Wind velocity

 Hence, the component of V along the direction of runway = V cosθ

And that normal to the runway centre line = V sinθ

 Here, V sinθ is known as the “cross wind component”

 It may interrupt the safe landing and take-off of the air-crafts

Maximum permissible cross wind component:
4
 It depends upon the size of aircraft and the wing configuration
 FAA recommendation:
 For small air crafts: it should not exceed 15 kmph (l0 mph)
 For mixed traffic: it should not exceed 25 kmph (15 mph)
 ICAO recommendation:
 For airports serving big aircrafts: it should not exceed 35 kmph (23 mph)
 The percentage of time in a year during which the cross wind component remains within
the limits as specified above is called “wind coverage”
 According to FAA, the runway handling mixed air traffic should be so planned that for 95%
of time in a year, the permissible cross wind component does not exceed 25 kmph
 For busy airports, the wind coverage may be increased to as much as 98% to 100%
 Wind Rose
5
 The wind data, i.e., direction, duration and intensity are graphically represented by a diagram
called wind rose
 It helps in analysing the wind data and obtaining the most suitable direction of the runway
 To obtain average data with sufficient accuracy, the wind data should usually be collected for a
period of at least 5 years and preferably of 10 years

(16-point compass rose)

Typical wind data:
Duration of wind (percent of time)
Total in 6
each
Wind direction direction (in
6.4-25 kmph 25-40 kmph 40-60 kmph %)
N 7.4 2.7 0.2 10.3
NNE 5.7 2.1 0.3 8.1
NE 2.4 09 06 3.9
ENE 1.2 0.4 0.2 1.8
E 0.8 0.2 00 1.0
ESE 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.4
SE 43 2.8 0.0 7.1
SSE 5.5 3-2 0.0 8.7
S 9.7 4.6 0.0 143
SSW 6.3 3.2 0.5 10.0
SW 3.6 1.8 0.3 5.7
WSW 10 0.5 0.1 1.6
W 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.5
WNW 02 0.1 0.0 0.3
NW 5.3 1.9 0.0 7.2
NNW 4.0 1.3 0.3 5.6
Total percent = 86.5
 Calm period: percentage of time during which wind intensity is less than 6.4 kmph. This
period does not influence the operation of landing and take-off
 The duration of wind for any one direction covers an angle of 22.5 degrees
7
 It is assumed that the wind may come from any point within the 22.5 degree sector

(Angle showing the wind coverage)

Plotting Wind Rose Diagram:
8
 Wind rose diagrams can be plotted in the following two ways:
 Type I: showing direction & duration of wind
 Type II: showing direction, duration and intensity of wind
 Type I Wind Rose
9
 The radial lines indicate the wind direction
 The circles represent the duration of wind
 From the wind data table, it is observed that the total
percentage of time in a year during which the wind blows
from north direction is 10.3. Hence, this value is plotted
along the north direction in the rose diagram
 Similarly, other values are also plotted along the respective
Concentric Circles
directions

 All plotted points are then jointed by straight lines. The best direction of runway is usually
along the direction of the longest line as obtained
 Limitation: This type of wind rose does not account for the effect of cross wind component
 Total in
Wind
each
direction
direction (in %) 10
N 10.3
NNE 8.1
NE 3.9 Best orientation of
ENE 1.8 runway
E 1.0
(i.e., along NS
ESE 0.4
SE 7.1 direction)
SSE 8.7
S 143
SSW 10.0
SW 5.7
WSW 1.6
W 0.5
WNW 0.3
NW 7.2
NNW 5.6
Total percent = 86.5

(Type I Wind Rose)

 Type II Wind Rose
 Each circle represents the wind speed or intensity to some scale
11
 The values entered in each segment represent the percentage of time in a year during which
the wind, having a particular intensity, blows from the respective direction
Procedure for determining the orientation of runway:
1. Draw three equi-spaced parallel lines on a transparent paper strip in such a way that 12
the
distance between the two near by parallel lines is equal to the permissible cross wind
component. (Note: In the given figure, the permissible cross wind component is 25 kmph)
2. Place the transparent paper strip over the wind rose diagram in such a way that the central line
passes through the centre of the diagram
3. With the centre of wind rose, rotate the tracing paper and place it in such a position that the
sum of all values indicating the duration of wind, within the two outer parallel lines, is max
 The runway should be thus oriented along the direction indicated by the central line
 The wind coverage can be calculated by summing up all the percentages shown in segment
 When of the outer parallel lines of the strip crosses a segment, a fractional part of the
percentage appearing in that segment within the outside lines is also counted (by judgement)
 13
Wind Duration of wind
(percent of time)
direct Total in each
6.4-25 25-40 40-60 direction (in
ion kmph kmph kmph %)
N 7.4 2.7 0.2 10.3
NNE 5.7 2.1 0.3 8.1 Max. wind coverage =
NE 2.4 09 06 3.9
ENE 1.2 0.4 0.2 1.8 Calm period + sum of
E 0.8 0.2 00 1.0 segments covered =
ESE 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.4
SE 43 2.8 0.0 7.1 96.5
SSE 5.5 3-2 0.0 8.7
S 9.7 4.6 0.0 143
SSW 6.3 3.2 0.5 10.0
SW 3.6 1.8 0.3 5.7
WSW 10 0.5 0.1 1.6
W 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.5
WN 02 0.1 0.0 0.3
W
NW 5.3 1.9 0.0 7.2
NNW 4.0 1.3 0.3 5.6
Total percent = 86.5
(Type II Wind Rose)
Change in Direction of Runway:
14
 It may not be always possible to orient the runway exactly along the direction as determined
from the wind rose
 Slight adjustment in the direction may be imperative because of the following reasons
 Obstructions
 Excessive grading
 Noise nuisance
 15

 TURNING ZONE
The area of airport other than the approach area which is used for turning operation
of aircraft is known as turning zone.

 APPROACH ZONE
A wide clearance area which is required for loading of aircraft (from steep to flat slop)
and for take off operation, on either side of runway along the direction of loading and
take off of aircraft is known as approach zone.
 Basic Runway Length
16
 It is the length of runway under the following assumed conditions at the airport :
 No wind is blowing on runway
 Airport altitude is at sea level
 Temperature at the airport is standard (15°C)
 Runway is levelled in the longitudinal direction
 Aircraft is loaded to its full loading capacity
 There is no wind blowing enroute to the destination
 Enroute temperature is standard
Factors affecting basic runway length:
17
1. Aircraft characteristics
 Power and propulsion system
 Type of aircraft (critical aircraft)
 Gross take-off and landing weight
 Mechanical characteristics
2. Safety requirements
 Normal landing case
 Normal take-off case Jet engine Piston engine
 Engine failure case
1. Normal landing case
18

Touchdown point
 19
 The landing case requires that aircraft should come to a stop within 60% of the landing
distance
 The runway of full strength pavement is provided for the entire landing distance

Calculations:
 Field length = Landing distance (LD)
 Stopping distance = 0.60 * LD
 Length of full strength runway (FS) = LD
2. Normal take-off case
20
 21
 This case requires a clearway which is an area beyond the runway and is in alignment with
the centre line of runway
 The width of clearway is not less than 150 m (500ft) and is also kept free from obstructions

Calculations
 Field length (FL) = Full strength run-way (FS) + Clearway (CW)
 Take-off distance (TOD) = 1.15 D10.5 m
 CW = 0.5 [TOD – 1.15*Lift-off distance, LOD]
 Lift-off run (LOR) = TOD – CW
 Length of full strength runway (FS) = Take-off run (TOR)
3. Engine failure case
22
3. Engine failure case
23
24
 This case may require either a clearway, or a stopway, or both
25
 Stopway is described as an area beyond the runway and centrally located in alignment with
the centre line of runway
 It is used for decelerating the aircraft and bringing it to a stop during an aborted take-off
 The strength of stopway pavement should be just sufficient to carry the weight of aircraft
without causing any structural damage to the aircraft
 If the engine has failed at a speed, less than the designated engine failure speed, the pilot
decelerates the aircraft and makes use of the stopway
 If, however, the engine fails at a speed higher than the designated speed, there is no other
option to the pilot except to continue to take-off. The pilot may later take a turn in the
turning zone and land again for a normal take-off
 26
Calculations
Condition-1: Take-off proceeded
 Field length (FL) = Full strength run-way (FS) + Clearway (CW)
 Take-off distance (TOD) = 1.15 D10.5 m
 CW = 0.5 [TOD – LOD]
 Lift-off run (LOR) = TOD + CW
 Length of full strength runway (FS) = Take-off run (TOR)
Condition-2: Take-off aborted
 Field length (FL) = Full strength run-way (FS) + Stop way (SW)
= Accelerate stop distance (ASD)
Basic Runway Length:
27
Balanced field concept: (In case of piston engine aircraft)
 In case of piston engine aircraft, the designated engine failure speed is so chosen (by the
manufacturer) that the distance required to stop from the point, where Vf was reached, was equal
to the distance from the same point to reach the specified height of 10.5 m above the runway
 This results in the shortest distance of runway
Balanced field concept: (In case of turbine engine aircraft)
28
 Let, speed corresponding to the balanced field concept = VB
Case 1: Engine failure speed = VB 29
 Runway length = L2
 Stopway length = L5 - L2
 Clearway length = L5 - L2
 Thus, stopway and clearway lengths are equal
Case 2: Engine failure speed V1 < VB
 Runway length = L3
 Stopway length = 0
 Clearway length = L6 – L3
Case 3: Engine failure speed V2 > VB
 Runway length = L1
 Stopway length = L7 - L1
 Clearway length = L4 - L1
Correction for Runway Length:
30
1. Correction for Elevation
 As the elevation increases, the air density reduces
 Hence, the lift on the wings of the aircraft also reduces and aircraft requires greater ground
speed before it can rise into the air
 To achieve greater speed, longer length of runway is required
 ICAO recommends that the basic runway length should be increased at the rate of 7% per 300 m
(1000 ft) rise in elevation above the mean sea level
2. Correction for Temperature
31
 The rise in airport reference temperature has the same effect as that of the increase in elevation
Tm −Ta
 Airport reference temperature = Ta +
3

Ta = Monthly mean of average daily temperature

Tm = Monthly mean of the maximum daily temperature
 ICAO recommends the basic runway length after have been corrected for elevation, should
further increase at the rate of 1% for every 10C increase of reference temperature above the
standard atmospheric temperature at that elevation
Note:
 Total correction for elevation + temperature should not exceed 35%
 If both correction increases more than 35%, ICAO recommended specific site study should be
conducted
3. Correction for Gradient
32
 Steeper gradient require greater consummation of energy and longer length of runway to attain
the desired speed
 ICAO does not recommend any correction. FAA recommend after correction for elevation and
temperature a further increase in runway length at rate of 20% for every 1% effective gradient
Effective gradient: It is defined as the maximum difference of elevation between the highest and
lowest points of runway divided by the total length of runway
Example:
The length of runway under standard conditions is 1620m. The airport site has an 33
elevation of 270m. Its reference temperature is 32.94oC. If the runway is to be
constructed with an effective gradient of 0.20%, determine the corrected runway length.
34
35
Example 1:
The data below refers to the daily temperature for the hottest month of the year 1988 for a36
given
airport site. Determine the airport reference temperature.
Temperature, °C Temperature, °C
Date
Date Maximum Average Maximum Average
1 42.5 25.5 16 43.7 26.2
2 42.5 25.5 17 43.8 25.8
3 42.7 25.7 18 44 0 26.3
4 43.0 25.9 19 44.8 26.3
5 43.0 25.9 20 44.1 26.3
6 43.0 25.9 21 44.3 26.5
7 42.8 25.8 22 44.3 26.9
8 43.0 25.9 23 44.5 26.5
9 43.0 25.9 24 44.6 26.5
10 43.1 25.0 25 44.6 26.9
11 43 3 26.3 26 44.7 27.0
12 43.5 26.4 27 44.6 27.0
13 43.3 26.3 28 44.7 27.0
14 43.5 26.4 29 44 8 26 2
15 43.6 26 3 30 45.0 27.2
Example 2:
The length of a runway under standard conditions is 2100 m. The airport is to be provided37
at
elevation of 410 m above the mean sea level. The airport reference temperature is 320C. The
construction plan provides the following data:
End to end of runway Grade
(m) (%)
0 to 300 + 1.00
300 to 900 - 0.50
900 to 1500 + 0.50
1500 to 1800 + 1.00
1800 to 2100 - 0.50
2100 to 2700 - 0.40
2700 to 3000 - 0.10
Determine the length of runway. Apply corrections for elevation and temperature as per ICAO
and for gradient as per FAA specifications.
 Runway Geometric Design
38
 ICAO gives various geometric standards for the airport design
 Most of its member nations provide international air service
 Following items are considered in the geometric design of runways:
1. Runway length
2. Runway width
3. Width of safety area
4. Gradient: Transverse, Longitudinal and Effective
5. Rate of change of longitudinal gradient
6. Sight distance
1. Runway length
39
 The basic runway lengths as recommended by ICAO for different types of airports
are given in the following Table
 To obtain the actual length of runway, corrections for elevation, temperature and
gradient are applied to the basic runway length as explained earlier
Summary of Runway Geometric (ICAO)
Runway Maximum
Basic runway length pavement longitudinal
Airport
width grade
Type
Min Max
m ft %
m ft m ft
A 2103 7000 45 150 1.5
B 1500 5000 2099 6999 45 150 1.5
C 900 3000 1490 4999 30 100 1.5
D 750 2500 899 2999 22.5 75 2.0
E 600 2000 749 2499 18 60 2.0
 2. Runway width
40
 ICAO recommends the pavement width varying from 45 m (150 ft) to 18 m (60 ft) for
different types of airports
 The typical transverse distribution of traffic on a runway is shown in the figure, which
indicates that the aircraft traffic is more concentrated in the central 24 m (80 ft) width
of the runway pavement
 Another consideration in determining the runway width is that the outermost
machine of large jet aircraft using the airport should not extend off the pavement on
to the shoulders
 This is because the shoulder is usually of loose soil or established soil etc which is
likely to get into the engine and damage it
 41

(Transverse distribution of traffic on runway)

 3. Width of safety area
42
 Safety area consists of the runway which is paved area plus the shoulder on either
side of runway plus the area that is cleared, graded and drained
 For non-instrumental runway: width of the safety area should be at least 150 m for
A, B, C and 78m for D and E types.
 For instrumental runway: it should be minimum 300 m
4. Gradient
43
 Transverse gradient is essential for quick drainage of surface water
 The longitudinal gradient of runway increases the required runway length
 The rate of change of gradient should be limited to the followings:

Transverse Longitudinal Effective

Airport type
gradient (%) gradient (%) gradient (%)
A, B and C 1.5 1.5 1
D and E 2 2 2
5. Rate of change of longitudinal gradient
44
 The abrupt charge of longitudinal gradient restricts the sight distance and may also
cause premature lift-off of the aircraft during the taking-off operation
 The changes in gradients should be smoothened by vertical curves
 ICAO recommends that the rate of change of gradient should be limited to a
maximum of:
 0.10% per 30 m length of vertical curve for A and B types,
 0.2% per 30 m length of vertical curve for C type, and
 0.4% per 30 m length of vertical curve for D and E types of airports
 Vertical curves are generally rot necessary if the change in slope is not more than
0.4%
 The recommendation of FAA are shown in the following figure
 45
a

Description Small airport Large airport

Maximum grade change such as

2% 1.5%
a or b should not exceed

Length of vertical curve (L1 or L2)

90 m 300 m
for each 1% grade change

Distance between points of

75 (a+b) m 300 (a+b) m
intersection of grade lines (D)
(FAA Recommendations for Longitudinal Grade Changes in Runways)
 6. Sight distance
46
 For A, B and C types of airports: any two points 3 m above the surface of runway
should be mutually visible from a distance equal to half the length of the runway
 For D and E types of airports: there should be unobstructed line of sight from any
point 3 m above runway and to all other point 2.1 m above runway within a distance
of at least one half the length of runway
 Numerical
1. In the grading operations for runway, it is proposed to have a rising gradient of 0.5 percent
47
meeting a falling gradient of 0.7 percent There is again an up grade of 0.40 percent.
Determine the lengths of vertical curves and the distance between the grade changes of
runway. Assume that the runway is required to handle jet aircraft.

Solution:
a= x-y =0.5 -(-0.7) =1.2%
b = y-z = -0.7 - 0.4 = 1.1% a

So, L1 = 300 x1.2 =360 m

L2 = 300 x 1.1 = 330 m b
D = 300 (a + b) = 690 m