21CV654 CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES SMH

CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES
MODULE – I

LAND AS A RESOURCE :

Natural resources, in the context of “land” as defined above, are taken to be those
components of land units that are of direct economic use for human population groups living in the
area, or expected to move into the area: near-surface climatic conditions; soil and terrain conditions;
freshwater conditions; and vegetational and animal conditions in so far as they provide produce.
Land area constitutes about 1/5 of the earth surface. To meet out the challenging
demand of food, fibre and fuel for human population, fodder for animals and industrial raw material
for agro based industries, efficient management of land resources will play critical role. Soil, water,
vegetation and climate are basic natural resources for agricultural growth and development.
The land is regarded as a valuable resource because it provides a habitat for a diverse
range of flora and fauna. Humans use it for a variety of purposes, including agriculture, forestry,
mining, construction of houses and roads, and the establishment of industry. Physical elements such
as topography, soil, climate, minerals, and water availability all influence how land is used. Land use
patterns are also influenced by human factors such as population and technology.

TYPES OF LANDS :

India covers a land area of 3,287,263 sq km.There are different types of land in India about 54.7% of
it is cultivated land. The several types of land available in India are:

 Forest Land
 Agricultural Land
 Barren Land
 Real Estate Land
 Commercial Land
 Farm Land
 Wet Land

Forest Land – India was covered with dense forests in primitive ages. More and more lands were
needed for agriculture, settlement industry, roads etc. with the growth of population. So man utilized
land by cutting down and cleaning the forests in order to fulfill his growing needs. Now only about
22% of the total land area of our country is covered with forests. The National Forest Policy
formulated in the year 1952 proclaims that about 33% of the country’s total land area should be
covered with forests in order to maintain ecological balance in our environment. It will control the
country’s climate and the country will be saved to a great extent from the ravages of flood, drought
and cyclones. Therefore, there should be forests in about 60% of lands in hilly areas and 20% of
lands in the plains.

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Agricultural Land - Indian people are mainly employed in Agricultural activities thus agricultural
land is almost 54.7% of the total Land Mass. The agricultural lands are located on the outskirts of the
Metro Cites. Usually the agricultural land shares space with the Industrial areas outside the city.
There are Agricultural lands in almost all the States of India.

Barren Land - Within the land mass of India, mainly the land areas of Rajasthan, parts of Jammu,
Leh, and parts where snowfall prevent any cultivation are barren.

Real Estate lands are growing at a tremendous rate in India. All Metro Cities have huge boom of
Real Estate Properties, due to the growth of - Economy, New Industries, Information Technology
and Business outsourcing. With the people becoming mobile due to transferable jobs, the growth of
houses and Apartments have increased manifold all over India. In addition, the NRI and the
mercantile groups have found Real Estate Lands as Good Investment Sectors.

Commercial Land is becoming pricier day in and day out. All the Indian Cities are suddenly
experiencing a boom in Marts, Market Plazas, Malls, Shopping Complexes as all International
brands are making their presence felt in India in a big way with along many new local Retailers.

Farm Lands are becoming the exclusive property of the rich and famous as of late they have
realized the unique qualities of Farm Lands. There is a stiff competition in acquiring the best of
farmlands, as they can be in the lap of picturesque valleys replete with streams, Private Piece of
Beach in Goa, Pondicherry etc or private Havelis in Rajasthan.

Wet Land - A wetland is a distinct ecosystem that is flooded by water, either permanently (for years
or decades) or seasonally (for weeks or months). Flooding results in oxygen-free (anoxic) processes
prevailing, especially in the soils. The primary factor that distinguishes wetlands from terrestrial land
forms or water bodies is the characteristic vegetation of aquatic plants, adapted to the unique
anoxic hydric soils. Wetlands are considered among the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems,
serving as home to a wide range of plant and animal species. The water in wetlands is
either freshwater, brackish or saltwater. The main wetland types are classified based on the
dominant plants and/or the source of the water. For example, marshes are wetlands dominated
by emergent vegetation such as reeds, cattails and sedges; swamps are ones dominated by woody
vegetation such as trees and shrubs (although reed swamps in Europe are dominated by reeds, not
trees).
The world's largest wetlands include the Amazon River basin, the West Siberian
Plain, the Pantanal in South America, and the Sundarbans in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta.

LANDFORMS AND THEIR CONSERVATION :

The surface of earth is a collaboration of the various physical features. These natural
physical features on the earth’s surface called as landforms. Landforms are defined as the natural
physical features found on the surface of the earth created as a result of various forces of nature such
as wind, water, ice, and movement of tectonic plates. Some landforms are created in a matter of few
hours, while others take millions of years to appear.

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Types of Landforms : There are many types of landforms on the earth’s surface. Following are
some of the common types of landforms and their characteristics.

Mountains : Mountains are landforms higher than the surrounding areas. They are formed due to
the tectonic movements, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and erosion of the surrounding areas caused
due to wind, water and ice. Mountains are found in the oceans and on land.

Plateaus : Plateaus are flat highlands that are separated from the surroundings due to steep slopes.
They are formed by collisions of tectonic plates, magma action that causes the elevation in earth’s
crust.

Valleys : Valleys are low-lying areas of land between hills and mountains that are formed due to the
actions of glaciers and rivers over millions of years. Depending on the shape they are classified as V
shaped valleys and U shaped valleys. V-shaped valleys are formed by the flowing rivers and U-
shaped valleys are formed due to glaciers.

Deserts : Due to lack of adequate rainfall, desert is a dry piece of land with little or no vegetation.
They are mostly found mainly in rain shadow areas which are leeward of a mountain range with
respect to the wind direction. In deserts, the atmospheric air is very dry, and daytime temperature is
high.

Dunes: Dunes are mounds or small hills made up of sand that are created due to the action of and
water flow (under water dunes). It may be dome-shaped, crescent-shaped, star-shaped, linear-shaped,
and many more. The height of a dune hill can be as low as 1 meter, or as high as 10 meter and more.

Islands : An island is a piece of land which is surrounded by water from all sides and formed either
due to volcanic eruptions or due to hot spots in the lithosphere.

Plains : Plains are flat or the low relief areas on the surface of the earth. It might be formed as a
result of the sedimentation of eroded soil from the top of the hills and mountains or might be due to
flowing lava deposited by the agents of wind, water, and ice.

Rivers : Rivers are natural flowing streams of fresh water descending from mountains. They mostly
flow toward a lake, sea, ocean or another river.

Oceans : Oceans are the biggest water bodies found on earth and are saline in nature. Oceans cover
over 71% of the earth’s surface and are responsible in controlling the weather and climate of the
earth. Oceans originated due to continental drifts i.e. the movement of the earth’s tectonic plates.

Loess : Loess are deposition of silt, with a little amount of sand and clay. They appear yellowish or
brownish in color. Wind action or glacial activities are responsible for formation of loess.

Glaciers : Glaciers are slow moving huge bodies of ice formed due to the compression of the snow
layers. They move depending on the pressure and gravity. There are two types of glaciers, the alpine
glaciers which can be located in high mountains and the continental glaciers which can be located in
cold Polar regions.

Peninsulas : Peninsulas are large land areas that extend into water bodies. They remain surrounded
by water on three sides. Peninsulas are formed by lithospheric movements and action of water
currents.

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Deltas : Deltas are low-lying, triangle-shaped areas, located at the mouth of rivers. In the course of
creating a delta, the sand, silt, and rock particles are accumulated in a nearly triangular shape.

Conservation of Landforms : While landforms don’t easily just disappear, their state can be
jeopardized by human activities like deforestation, agriculture, development, pollution, and overuse.
Protecting landforms from these burdens preserves their ecological and economic value, and ensures
they can be enjoyed by generations to come.

Parks and Preservations :

Many parks and preservations are sites of incredible landforms, and this is often why they are
deemed as protected areas in the first place. There are different ways of protecting these monuments
and landscapes, but two important ones are through UNESCO World Heritage Site certification, and
National Parks.

In order to be picked as a World Heritage Site, an area must be deemed as having “outstanding
universal value” as well as meeting one out of ten selection criteria. Criteria for natural sites include
landscapes that are home to exceptional natural phenomena, beauty, or aesthetic importance. In
addition, there are criteria specifically for geological processes in landform development and
geological features. It is somewhat difficult to have an area deemed a world heritage site, requiring
multiple steps and often many years. One of the difficulties with World Heritage Sites, though, is that
once they are designated, tourism to these areas generally increases. This can jeopardize the integrity
of the sites themselves, as increased use and associated waste and pollution harms the landscapes.

In the US, the designation of a National Park is an important way of protecting landforms. National
Parks in the US hold a multitude of landforms including dunes, glaciers, mountains, and canyons.
National parks also exist outside of the US, and similarly are put into use for the purpose of
conservation of natural landscapes and wildlife. The US National Parks System ensures that National
Parks receive federal protections against development and other activities that could harm wildlife.
Even when visiting national parks, certain activities like fireworks or taking rocks or other material is
prohibited. These regulations are to protect wildlife, but also to protect landforms that exist in
national parks.

Deforestation Prevention

While it may not seem that removing trees has a significant impact on mountains and other huge
(seemingly resilient) landforms, these kinds of changes can greatly alter the physical geography of a
landscape. Deforestation, or the removal of trees in a naturally forested area, involves clear-cutting
areas for the use of agriculture or for things like timber or development. Any time that an area is
clear cut and natural vegetation is removed, the land is made vulnerable to erosion and landslides.
Landslides involve the movement of rock or debris, and often can occur down the slope of a
mountain or other slanted landform. Not only do landslides pose a significant risk and
cause economic damages, they jeopardize the integrity of the landforms themselves. Landslides can
also lead to increased risk of more land and rock fall, since it has lost vegetation and roots which
help grip into the ground and provide stability.

Ecosystem Protection

Wildlife and ecosystem health can have an important impact on the geography of landscapes,
impacting landforms and posing problems when elements are jeopardized. A particularly important
example of this is seen with what happened when wolves were reintroduced into Yellowstone
National Park. Hunting essentially wiped wolves out of the Park for about 30 years. When wolves
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were reintroduced in 1995, the physical geography of the park was changed because of the cascading
impact of the wolves on the ecosystem. Wolves kept the population of deer in check, which in turn
allowed vegetation to thrive and trees to grow to five times their previous height. With deer and elk
roaming smaller areas and with smaller populations, vegetation on riverbanks prevented erosion,
allowing riverbanks to stabilize and changing the physical geography of the park.

Things like the Endangered Species Act (ESA), which protects species that could go extinct without
intervention, are important tools in maintaining ecosystems and subsequently protecting landforms.
Under the ESA, wildlife and its critical habitat is protected against certain types of development and
harm, which helps maintain the integrity of the ecosystem and the important services it provides. Just
like in the case of Yellowstone’s wolves, ensuring wildlife is healthy and minimizing interference is
a critical method of protecting the landforms they inhabit and maintaining them for future enjoyment.

Climate Change Mitigation

The impacts of climate change can affect nearly every type of landform. Climate change, accelerated
by human impacts, melts glaciers, causes more frequent wildfires and droughts, and increases the
frequency of severe weather patterns. Mountain ranges not only physically change with warming
temperatures, but their ecosystems are disrupted, changing the landscape along with them like I
mentioned before. Melting glaciers not only results in sea level rise, it also changes river flows,
impacting the plants and wildlife that depend on these features. Glaciers, like wind and water, sculpt
and erode land beneath them as they move over hundreds of years, greatly impacting the shape of
landforms. Climate change not only impacts landforms in cold areas, but also increases wind and
weather that can erode landforms in places like deserts and rainforests as well. Reducing fossil fuel
emissions and lowering greenhouse gases will help slow the rate of climate change, protecting the
landforms of the earth as well as the wildlife and ecosystems that inhabit them.

DEFORESTATION :

Deforestation refers to the decrease in forest areas across the world that are lost for
other uses such as agricultural croplands, urbanization, or mining activities. Greatly accelerated by
human activities since 1960, deforestation has been negatively affecting natural ecosystems,
biodiversity, and the climate. The UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization estimates the annual rate
of deforestation to be around 1.3 million km2 per decade.

Causes of Deforestation :

Multiple factors, either of human or natural origin, cause deforestation. Natural factors include
natural forest fires or parasite-caused diseases which can result in deforestation. Nevertheless, human
activities are among the main causes of global deforestation. According to the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO), the expansion of agriculture caused nearly 80% of global deforestation, with
the construction of infrastructures such as roads or dams, together with mining activities and
urbanization, making up the remaining causes of deforestation.

1. Agriculture is the Number 1 Cause of Deforestation (~80%) : According to the FAO,

agriculture causes around 80% of deforestation. And how does agriculture cause so much
deforestation? According to the same report, 33% of agriculture-caused deforestation is a
consequence of subsistence agriculture – such as local peasant agriculture in developing countries.
Commercial or industrial agriculture (field crops and livestock) cause around 40% of forest loss – in
the search for space to grow food, fibers or biofuel (such as soybeans, palm oil, beef, rice, maize,
cotton and sugar cane). It is also particularly interesting to note livestock is believed to be

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responsible for about 14% of global deforestation. The main reasons why have to do with the large
areas require both to raise livestock but also to grow its (soy-based) food.

2. Deforestation Caused By New Constructions (~15%) : The construction of human

infrastructures has also been driving deforestation. More specifically, 10% of deforestation can be
attributed to new infrastructures that serve the current human lifestyle in four main ways:
transportation, transformation and energy generation. On one hand, roads, rails, ports or airports have
been built to move all sorts of goods – from cereals and fruits to spices, minerals or fossil fuels –
either directly to trade centers or to transformation sites. So while at first there were only fruit trees,
roads soon arrived to allow transporting fruit to other regions. And while some goods were and are
collected manually, others such as coal, oil, natural gas, biomass, but also meat, dairy or spirits,
required the construction of large extraction, transportation and/or transformation infrastructures.

3. How Urbanization Is Causing Deforestation (~5%) : The populational shift that is leading
people to move from rural areas to urban areas is also contributing to deforestation (5%, according to
FAO). This urban growth – in which 68% of the world’s population is expected to live in cities by
2050 – is leading to an exponential growth of housing and consumption sites. And as cities become
larger so they can host more people, they challenge the natural boundaries surrounding them, often
leading to deforestation. This is one of the reasons why deforestation is happening.

Effects of Deforestation :

Deforestation has many consequences for natural ecosystems and it poses serious problems to
the resilience of the planet. Let’s take a look at the main effects of deforestation to better understand
why it is bad for the planet.

1 – The Effects of Deforestation on Biodiversity : The most known consequence of deforestation

is its threat to biodiversity. In fact, forests represent some of the most veritable hubs of biodiversity.
From mammals to birds, insects, amphibians or plants, the forest is home to many rare and fragile
species. 80% of the Earth’s land animals and plants live in forests. By destroying the forests, human
activities are putting entire ecosystems in danger, creating natural imbalances, and putting Life at
threat. The natural world is complex, interconnected, and made of thousands of inter-dependencies
and among other functions, trees provide shade and colder temperatures for animals and smaller trees
or vegetation which may not survive with the heat of direct sunlight. Besides, trees also feeding
animals with their fruits while providing them with food and shelter they need to survive.

2 – The Effects of Deforestation on Local People and Their Livelihoods : Healthy forests support
the livelihoods of 1.6 billion people globally, one billion of whom are among the world’s poorest.
This means there are many people depending on forests for survival and using them to hunt and
gather raw products for their small-scale agriculture processes. But in developing countries such as
Borneo, Indonesia, Vietnam, Brazil, or Mexico, land tenure systems are weak. This allows big
businesses to get these lands and use them for other ends, disrupting local people’s lives. Locals then
have to make one of two choices. They can decide to abandon “their” land and migrate somewhere
else, avoiding conflict and embracing the challenge of a new different life. Or they can stay and work
for the companies exploring it in remote plantations – often getting unfair wages and working under
inhumane conditions. In some countries like Mexico, plantations’ owners are often forced to share
their profits with local cartels to keep their families alive and to avoid having their crops burned

3 – Deforestation for Food May Lead to Food Insecurity in the Future : Today, 52% of all the
land used for food production is moderately or severely impacted by soil erosion. In the long term,
the lack of healthy, nutritious soil can lead to low yields and food insecurity.
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4 – Soil Erosion is One of the Consequences of Deforestation : Deforestation weakens

and degrades the soil. Forested soils are usually not only richer on organic matter, but also more
resistant to erosion, bad weather, and extreme weather events. This happens mainly because roots
help fix trees in the ground and the sun-blocking tree cover helps the soil to slowly dry out. As a
result, deforestation will probably mean the soil will become increasingly fragile, leaving the area
more vulnerable to natural disasters such as landslides and floods.

5 – Deforestation Affects and Contributes to Climate Change : Deforestation also has a very
strong contribution to climate change. Why? Let’s remember trees absorb and store CO2 throughout
their lives. If we speak about tropical forests, they hold more than 210 gigatons of carbon, according
to WWF. And what’s worrying is that the destruction of these trees has two big negative side-effects.

Firstly, taking down trees means they’ll release back into the atmosphere the CO2 they were keeping.
Secondly, fewer trees available means reducing the planet’s overall ability to capture and store CO2.
Both these effects negatively contribute to the greenhouse effect and to climate change. As a matter
of fact, while food and agriculture account for 24% of greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation is
estimated to be responsible for 10-15% of all anthropogenic CO 2 emissions.

Remedial measures to stop Deforestation :

1. Government Regulations : The best solution to deforestation is to curb the felling of trees by
enforcing a series of rules and laws to govern it. Deforestation in the current scenario may have
reduced; however, it would be too early to assume. The money-churner nature of forest resources can
be tempting enough for deforestation to continue.

2. Banning Clear-Cutting of Forests : This will curb the total depletion of the forest cover. It is a
practical solution and is very feasible.

3. Reforestation and Afforestation : Land skinned of its tree cover for urban settlements should be
urged to plant trees in the vicinity and replace the cut trees. Also, the cutting must be replaced
by planting young trees to replace the older ones that were cut. Trees are being planted under several
initiatives every year, but they still don’t match the numbers of the ones we’ve already lost.

4. Reduce Consumption of Paper : Your daily consumption of paper includes printing paper,
notebooks, napkins, toilet paper, etc. Try to reduce consumption, reduce waste of paper and also opt
for recycled paper products. Make life simple such as printing/writing on both sides of the paper,
using less toilet paper, avoiding paper plates, and napkins and wherever possible, go paperless.

5. Educate Others : Still, many are entirely unaware of the global warming problem we’re facing.
Educate your friends, family, and community by sharing the deforestation facts, and its causes and
effects. You can make an impact!

6. Eat Less Meat : Livestock rearing has become one of the leading causes of deforestation. Try to
eat less meat. It may be hard for some people to try. However, eating less meat, even just for one
meal a day, will also make an extreme impact on the environment.

7. Purchase from Sustainable, Forest-Friendly Companies : Try to purchase from companies that
are committed to reducing deforestation. Asian Pulp and Paper, Disney, L’Oreal, Hershey, Unilever,
Willmar International are deforestation-free.

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8. Reduce Consumption of Deforestation Prone Products : Palm oil is a common ingredient in

absolutely everything we see around us. Make it a simple habit to get a quick peek at the ingredients.
Soybeans are another deforestation hotspot. Try finding ways to reduce consumption or opting for
organic, local soy products and, if possible, avoid it completely.

EFFECT OF LAND USE CHANGES :

Definition of Land Use : “Land use” is the term used to describe the human use of land. It
represents the economic and cultural activities (e.g., agricultural, residential, industrial, mining, and
recreational uses) that are practiced at a given place. Public and private lands frequently represent
very different uses. For example, urban development seldom occurs on publicly owned lands (e.g.,
parks, wilderness areas), while privately owned lands are infrequently protected for wilderness uses.
Land use differs from land cover in that some uses are not always physically obvious (e.g., land used
for producing timber but not harvested for many years and forested land designated as wilderness
will both appear as forest-covered, but they have different uses).

Effects of Land Use Changes : Land use changes occur constantly and at many scales, and can have
specific and cumulative effects on air and water quality, watershed function, generation of waste,
extent and quality of wildlife habitat, climate, and human health. EPA is concerned about different
land use activities because of their potential effects on the environment and human health. Land
development and agricultural uses are two primary areas of concern, with a wide variety of potential
effects.

Land Development :

Land development creates impervious surfaces through construction of roads,

parking lots, and other structures. Impervious surfaces contribute to nonpoint source water
pollution by limiting the capacity of soils to filter runoff. Affect peak flow and water volume, which
heighten erosion potential and affect habitat and water quality. Increase storm water runoff, which
can deliver more pollutants to water bodies that residents may rely on for drinking and
recreation. Storm runoff from urban and suburban areas contains dirt, oils from road surfaces,
nutrients from fertilizers, and various toxic compounds. Affect ground water aquifer recharge. Point
source discharges from industrial and municipal wastewater treatment facilities can contribute toxic
compounds and heated water.
Some land development patterns, in particular dispersed growth such as “suburbanization,” can
contribute to a variety of environmental concerns. For example: Increased air pollution due to vehicle
use results in higher concentrations of certain air pollutants in developed areas that may exacerbate
human health problems such as asthma. Land development can lead to the formation of “heat
islands,” domes of warmer air over urban and suburban areas that are caused by the loss of trees and
shrubs and the absorption of more heat by pavement, buildings, and other sources. Heat islands can
affect local, regional, and global climate, as well as air quality.

Agricultural Uses :

Agricultural land uses can affect the quality of water and watersheds, including the
types of crops planted, tillage practices, and various irrigation practices can limit the amount of water
available for other uses. Livestock grazing in riparian zones can change landscape conditions by
reducing stream bank vegetation and increasing water temperatures, sedimentation, and nutrient
levels. Runoff from pesticides, fertilizers, and nutrients from animal manure can also degrade water
quality. Agricultural land use may also result in loss of native habitats or increased wind erosion and
dust, exposing humans to particulate matter and various chemicals. Some land uses can accelerate or
exacerbate the spread of invasive species. For example: Certain agricultural land use practices, such
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as overgrazing, land conversion, fertilization, and the use of agricultural chemicals, can enhance the
growth of invasive plants. These plants can alter fish and wildlife habitat, contribute to decreases in
biodiversity, and create health risks to livestock and humans. Introduction of invasive species on
agricultural lands can reduce water quality and water availability for native fish and wildlife species.
Research is beginning to elucidate the connections between land use changes and infectious disease.
For example, some studies indicate that spread of vector-borne disease may be influenced by land
use and/or other environmental change. Other studies indicate that fragmentation of forest habitat
into smaller patches separated by agricultural activities or developed land increases the “edge effect”
and promotes the interaction among pathogens, vectors, and hosts. In some cases, changes in land
use may have positive effects, such as increasing habitat (as a result of deliberate habitat restoration
measures) and reclamation of previously contaminated lands for urban/suburban development.

Socio-economic Impacts :

• Conversion of farmland and forests to urban development reduces the amount of land available for
food and timber production
• Soil erosion, salinization, desertification, and other soil degradations associated with agricultural
production and deforestation reduce land quality and agricultural productivity
• Conversions of farmland and forests to urban development reduce the amount of open space and
environmental amenities for local residents
• Urban development reduces the “critical mass” of farmland necessary for the economic survival of
local agricultural economies
• Urban development patterns not only affect the lives of individuals, but also the ways in which
society is organized
• Urban development has encroached upon some rural communities to such an extent that the
community’s identify has been lost
• Suburbanization intensifies income segregation and economic disparities among communities
• Excessive land use control, however, may hinder the function of market forces
• Land use regulations that aim at curbing land development will raise housing prices, making
housing less affordable to middle– and low–income households
• Land use regulation must strike a balance between private property rights and the public interest

Environmental Impacts :

• Land use and land management practices have a major impact on natural resources including water,
soil, air, nutrients, plants, and animals.
• Runoff from agriculture is a leading source of water pollution both in inland and coastal waters.
• Draining wetlands for crop production and irrigation water diversions has had a negative impact on
many wildlife species.
• Irrigated agriculture has changed the water cycle and caused groundwater levels to decline in many
parts of the world.
• Intensive farming and deforestation may cause soil erosion, salinization, desertification, and other
soil degradations.
• Deforestation adds to the greenhouse effect, destroys habitats that support biodiversity, affects the
hydrological cycle and increases soil erosion, runoff, flooding and landslides.
• Urban development causes air pollution, water pollution, and urban runoff and flooding.
• Habitat destruction, fragmentation, and alteration associated with urban development are a leading
cause of biodiversity decline and species extinctions.
• Urban development and intensive agriculture in coastal areas and further inland is a major threat to
the health, productivity, and biodiversity of the marine environment throughout the world.

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SOIL HEALTH :

Soil, especially the top soil, is classified as a renewable resource because it is

continuously regenerated by natural processes though at a very slow rate. About 200-1000 years are
needed for the formation of 1 inch or 2.54 cm soil, depending upon the climate and the soil type.
Soils are complex mixtures of minerals, water, air, organic matter, and countless organisms that are
the decaying remains of once-living things. It forms at the surface of land – it is the “skin of the
earth.” Soil is capable of supporting plant life and is vital to life on earth. The traditional definition of
soil is: dynamic natural body having properties derived from the combined effects of climate and
biotic activities, as modified by topography, acting on parent materials over time.

Composition of Soil :

There are five basic components of soil that, when present in the proper amounts are the backbone of
all terrestrial plant ecosystems.

Minerals: The larger component of soil is the mineral portion, which makes up approximately 45%
to 49% of the volume.

Water: is the second basic component of the soil. Water can make up approximately 2% to 50% of
the soil volume. Water is important for transporting nutrients to growing plants and soil organisms
and for facilitating both biological and chemical decomposition.

Organic matter: is found in soils at levels of approximately 1% to 5%. Organic matter is derived
from dead plants and animals and such as has a high capacity to hold on to and/or provide the
essential elements and water for plant growth.

Gases: Air can occupy the same spaces as water. It can make up approximately 2% to 50% of the
soil volume

Micro-organisms: They are found in the soil in very high numbers but make up much less than 1%
of the soil volume. The largest of these organisms are earthworms and nematodes and smallest are
bacteria, actinomycetes, algae, and fungi.

Soil Profile :

The soil profile is defined as a vertical section of the soil that is exposed by a soil pit. A soil pit is a
hole that is dug from the surface of the soil to the underlying bedrock. Soil profile has five main
horizons :

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Figure : Soil Profile.

1) Organic Surface Layer (O): - Litter layer of plant residues, the upper part often relatively un-
decomposed, but the lower part may be strongly humified.

2) Surface Soil (A):- Layer of mineral soil with most organic matter accumulation and soil life.
Additionally, due to weathering, oxides (mainly iron oxides) and clay minerals are formed and
accumulated. It has a pronounced soil structure. But in some soils, clay minerals, iron, aluminum,
organic compounds, and other constituents are soluble and move downwards. When this eluviation is
pronounced, a lighter colored E subsurface soil horizon is apparent at the base of the A horizon. A
horizons may also be the result of a combination of soil bioturbation and surface processes that
winnow fine particles from biologically mounded topsoil. In this case, the A horizon is regarded as a
"biomantle".

3) Sub Soil (B): - This layer has normally less organic matter than the A horizon, so its colour is
mainly derived from iron oxides. Iron oxides and clay minerals accumulate as a result of weathering.
In a soil, where substances move down from the topsoil, this is the layer, where they accumulate. The
process of accumulation of clay minerals, iron, aluminum and organic compounds, is referred to as
illuviation. The B horizon has generally a soil structure.

4) Substratum (C): - Layer of non-indurated poorly weathered or un-weathered rocks. This layer
may accumulate the more soluble compounds like CaCO3. Soils formed in situ from non-indurated
material exhibit similarities to this C layer.

5) Bedrock (R): - R horizons denote the layer of partially weathered or un-weathered bedrock at the
base of the soil profile. Unlike the above layers, R.

Horizons largely comprise continuous masses (as opposed to boulders) of hard rock that cannot be
excavated by hand. Soils formed in situ from bedrock will exhibit strong similarities to this bedrock
layer.

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Soil Formation :

Figure : Soil Formation Process

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• The process of soil formation is termed ‘pedogenesis’. Soils develop from parent material by
various weathering processes. Organic matter accumulation, decomposition, and humification are as
critically important to soil formation as weathering. The zone of humification and weathering is
termed the solum. Soil acidification resulting from soil respiration supports chemical weathering.
Plants contribute to chemical weathering through root exudates. Soils can be enriched by deposition
of sediments on floodplains and alluvial fans, and by wind-borne deposits.

• Soil mixing (pedoturbation) is often an important factor in soil formation. Pedoturbation

includes churning clays, cryoturbation, and bioturbation. Types of bioturbation include faunal
pedoturbation (animal burrowing), floral pedoturbation (root growth, tree-uprooting), and fungal
pedoturbation (mycelia growth). Pedoturbation transforms soils through destratification, mixing, and
sorting, as well as creating preferential flow paths for soil gas and infiltrating water. The zone of
active bioturbation is termed the soil biomantle.

• Soil moisture content and water flow through the soil profile support leaching of soluble
constituents, and eluviation. Eluviation is the translocation of colloid material, such as organic
matter, clay and other mineral compounds. Transported constituents are deposited due to differences
in soil moisture and soil chemistry, especially soil pH and redox potential. The interplay of removal
and deposition results in contrasting soil horizons.
These processes can be very slow, taking many tens of thousands of years.

Five main interacting factors affecting the formation of soil:

Parent material—minerals forming the basis of soil
Living organisms—influencing soil formation
Climate—affecting the rate of weathering and organic decomposition
Topography—grade of slope affecting drainage, erosion and deposition
Time—influencing soil properties.
Interactions between these factors produce an infinite variety of soils across the earth’s surface.

Soil Health :

Soil health is defined as the continued capacity of soil to function as a vital living
system, by recognizing that it contains biological elements that are key to ecosystem function within
land-use boundaries. These functions are able to sustain biological productivity of soil, maintain the
quality of surrounding air and water environments, as well as promoting plant, animal, and human
health.
As per Karlen et al (1997), soil health can be described as “the capacity of a specific
kind of soil to function, within natural or managed ecosystem boundaries, to sustain plant and
animal productivity, maintain or enhance water and air quality, and support human health and
habitation”.

Factors affecting Soil Health :

1) Soil Type: Particular soil types form in response to the nature of parent material, topography and
environmental factors, such as climate and natural vegetation. Past land management by humans can
alter natural soils considerably, for example by loss of surface horizons due to erosion, alteration of
soil water regime via artificial drainage, salinization due to poor irrigation practices, loss of natural
soil organic matter caused by arable production or contamination. Thus, land-use and management
are the controlling factors for soil health. A set of fixed characteristics such as texture, stone content,
etc. combine with climate to set an envelope of possible soil habitat conditions, especially those
relating to the soil water regime. Variable factors such as pH, bulk density and soil organic matter
content, which are influenced by land-use and management, then determine the prevailing condition
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of the habitat within the range for a particular soil. These fixed and variable abiotic factors interact
with biotic ones to determine the overall condition of the soil system and its associated health.
Primary biological factors will include the presence or absence of specific assemblages and types of
organisms, the availability of carbon substrate and nutrients, and the concentrations of toxic
materials.

2) Organisms and Functions: The relationships between community structure and function (Figure
4) are inevitably complex and a prevalent theme in contemporary soil ecology. They are underwritten
by the three principles of repertoire, interaction and redundancy. There is some experimental
evidence that there may be threshold levels of soil biodiversity below which functions decline.
However, in many instances, this is at experimentally prescribed unrealistically low levels of
diversity that rarely prevail in nature. Many studies demonstrate high levels of functional redundancy
in soil communities. It can be argued that high biodiversity within trophic groups is advantageous
since the group is likely to function more efficiently under a variety of environmental circumstances,
due to an inherently wider potential. More diverse systems may be more resilient to perturbation
since if a proportion of components are removed or compromised in some way, others that prevail
will be able to compensate. However, more diverse systems may be less efficient since a greater
proportion of available energy is used in generating and countering competitive interactions between
components, a situation which may be exacerbated by the similarity in functional properties and
hence potential niche competition.

Figure : The Importance of Soil Biology for Soil Health

3) Carbon and Energy : The energy that drives soil systems is derived from reduced carbon that is
ultimately derived from net primary productivity. Carbon is the common currency of the soil system,
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and its transfer with associated energy flows is the main integrating factor. This suggests that the
quantities and quality of different organic matter pools may be indicative of the state of the soil
system, while the flows and allocations of carbon between assemblages of organisms may provide
information about their relationships to ecosystem functions.

4) Nutrients : Nutrients are a controlling input to the soil system and the processes within it. Their
levels and transformations are critical to soil health. After carbon, the cycling of nitrogen and
phosphorus to, from and within the soil system most affects its dynamics and the delivery of
ecosystem services, including agricultural production. Manipulation of nutrient supplies to increase
productive outputs from the soil system by the addition of fertilizers has been one of the keystones of
agriculture for centuries. Nonetheless, knowledge is limited about the impacts of nutrient additions
on the condition of different assemblages of soil organisms and thence on their functions.

ECOLOGICAL and ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF SOIL HEALTH :

Crop production is the preliminary stage of any food chain/ food network. Simply all
the living creatures exists in an eco- system, sustain because of crop production. As the crop
production is much significant; in the other terms the growing medium of those crops also
significant. It means that an important ecosystem service that the soil provides is to support crop
production, upon which humans and many animals depend for subsistence.

Soils are a crucial ally to food security and nutrition: Food availability relies on soils: nutritious
and good quality food and animal fodder can only be produced if our soils are healthy living soils.
Over the last 50 years, advances in agricultural technology and increased demand due to a growing
population have put our soils under increasing pressure. In many countries, intensive crop production
has depleted the soil, threatening the soils productive capacity and ability to meet the needs of future
generations.
A healthy soil is a living, dynamic ecosystem, packed with microscopic and larger organisms that
perform many vital functions including converting dead and decaying matter as well as minerals to
plant nutrients (nutrient cycling); controlling plant disease, insect and weed pests; improving soil
structure with positive effects for soil water and nutrient holding capacity, and ultimately improving
crop production. A healthy soil also contributes to mitigating climate change by maintaining or
increasing its carbon content.
A healthy soil produces healthy crops with minimal amounts of external inputs and few to no adverse
ecological effects. It contains favorable biological, physical and chemical properties. A healthy
agricultural soil is one that is capable of supporting the production of food and fiber to a level, and
with a quality, sufficient to meet human requirements, and to continue to sustain those functions that
are essential to maintain the quality of life for humans and the conservation of biodiversity. Soil
health is an integrative property that reflects the capacity of soil to respond to agricultural
intervention.
Some important healthy soil functions related to crop production include:
i. Infiltration and storage of water
ii. Retention and cycling of nutrients
iii. Pest and weed suppression
iv. Detoxification of harmful chemicals
v. Sequestering of carbon
vi. Production of food and fiber.
When the soil is not functioning to its full capacity as a result of soil constraints then sustainable
productivity and net farmer profits over the long term are jeopardized.

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IMPACT OF SOIL DEGRADATION ON AGRICULTURE AND FOOD SECURITY

Figure below shows practices which reduce soil health.

Aggressive Tillage :
Although in short-term, tillage results a warmer, aerated and competition-free
environment suited to seed germination, aggressive tillage fractures the soil, it disrupts soil structure,
accelerating surface runoff and soil erosion. Tillage also reduces crop residue, which help cushion
the force of pounding raindrops. Without crop residue, soil particles become more easily dislodged,
being moved or 'splashed' away. This process is only the beginning of the problem. Splashed
particles clog soil pores, effectively sealing off the soil's surface, resulting in poor water infiltration.
The amount of soil lost from farmland each year is directly related to soil structure, levels of crop
residue remaining on the soil's surface, and the intensity of tillage practices. When frequent tillage is
sustained over a period of years, the impact grows even more severe. A total breakdown of soil
structure and overall soil quality is almost assured. A hardpan can develop, effectively cutting off
root elongation, crop development and yield. Removal of topsoil by erosion contributes to a loss of
inherent soil fertility levels. Approximately half of plant-available phosphorus is concentrated in
topsoil as is nearly all of the plant-available potassium. Although producers can supply needed crop
nutrients to offset the loss of inherent fertility, the productivity of eroded soils can be restored by
adding inputs only when favorable subsoil material is present. Where unfavorable subsoils exist
(limited rooting depth, coarse sand and gravel, or high soil densities), there is little or no ability to
recover yield losses. The impact on soil health and productivity is devastating and final.

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Annual/Seasonal Fallow :
Leaving soils bare without any active root system can cause significant damage, not
only in terms of potential soil erosion, but also in terms of changes in soil health and productivity in
the following season due to problems such as fallow syndrome. During the period of leaving soil
fallow, several chemical and biological changes may take place. When soil is left bare without any
active root system or under saturated conditions for an extended period of time, these changes in soil
biological properties can be carried into the next season. Some of these potential changes are induced
by the absence of active root systems in such areas that is essential in building up the microbial
community responsible for nutrient cycling in the root zone. Because of this, reducing plant residue
inputs through the use of fallow causes a decline in soil OM that starves soil microbes, which in turn
limits the metabolic capacity and biological function of the soil.
Therefore, planting of any annual crop during prevented planting can have significant value in
sustaining such microbial community known as arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM), which is essential for
nutrient cycling such as P.

Monocropping :
The lack of diversity in a monoculture system eliminates all the functions that nature
provides to plants and the soil. It means that there are no varieties of plant that naturally provide
nutrients to the soil, such as nitrogen-fixing legumes, or ground cover crops that can be slashed and
left to improve the nutrient content of the topsoil. Hence there are fewer species of microorganism
and bacteria on the soil as there are fewer nutrients available for them to survive on, and it
undermines the integrity of the soil by not having a variety of plants with different root depths. As
the monocropping have eliminated the natural checks and balances that a diverse ecosystem
provides, monoculture production has to find ways to replicate some of them in order to protect the
crop (and the profits from it). This inevitably means the use of large quantities of synthetic
herbicides, insecticides, bactericides and fertilizers. These chemicals not removes with harvests and
remains in soil and leads to pollute water reserviors. With no ground cover plants due to
monocropping it reduces moisture retention ability of the soil and increase runoff. Also
monocropping eliminates the ground cover crops which leads to no natural protection for the soil
from erosion by wind and rain. No plants provide leaf litter mulch to replenish the topsoil, which
would be eroded anyway. All of this combines to continually degrade the soil, often meaning that it
becomes useable for agriculture.

Annual Crops :
In contrast, annual-based agricultural systems typically have much greater nutrient
losses – partly due to the removal of agricultural products from the landscape and frquent
disturbances to the soil, but also due to inefficiencies in internal nutrient cycling and poor
synchronization of nutrient availability with plant demand. Significant degradation of soil chemical
and physical properties occurred in annual crop fields, relative to the unfertilized and annually
harvested perennial lands. Soils under annual crops contained significantly lower amounts of SOM,
SOC, readily oxidizable carbon (ROC), and total soil N than the perennial. Hence the moisture
retention ability of soil, microbial population in soil, microbial activities in the soil are declined. Soil
exposition is high and due to that the soil erosion can occur. In long-term, the soil become more
infertile and cannot recover.

Excessive Inorganic Fertilizer Use :

Since salt content is one of the most critical characteristics of Inorganic fertilizers;
they are expected to be harmful to agriculture in the long run as salts are harmful for plants as well as
soil. Continuous use of these Inorganic chemical fertilizers depletes essential soil nutrients and
minerals that are naturally found in fertile soil. When we use inorganic fertilizers excessively; they
do not help replenish soil nutrients and its fertility contrary to the popular belief; but, replenish only
nitrogen, potassium and phosphorous. And we know phosphorous does not dissolve in water and its
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overuse may cause hardening of soil. Likewise alkaline fertilizers like sodium-nitrate develop
alkalinity in soil reducing its fertility and making it barren. So to say; soil fertility and vegetation
depend much on the balanced supply of essential nutrients and minerals. As such, overuse of specific
nutrients may cause imbalance in the supply of soil nutrients further resulting in soil degradation and
the loss of equilibrium of a stable soil. Also can result in negative effects such as leaching, pollution
of water resources, destruction of micro-organisms and friendly insects, crop susceptibility to disease
attack, acidification or alkalization of the soil or reduction in soil fertility thus causing irreparable
damage to the overall system. They enhance the decomposition of soil OM which leads to
degradation of soil structure.

Excessive Crop Residue Removal :

Crop residue serve as a natural blanket to protect the soil surface. When remove the
crop residue, soil exposition is high and leads insolation, erosive impacts of raindrops and blowing
wind. As the surface sealing is removed, soil hydrological properties also reduces. Lower the
saturated/unsaturated hydraulic conductivity, reduce water infiltration/rate, and increasing runoff rate
and amount. It leads to lower the soil mosture content, soil microbial content. Bare soils lose
moisture soon after the protective mulch cover is removed. Also soil compaction increases and
increases the breakdown and dispersion of soil aggregates. Thus it breakes the aggregate stability of
soil. Aggregate stability is one of the soil properties most sensitive to crop residue removal. It
decreases with decrease in surface residue cover. Surface aggregates in soils without residue mulch
are readily dispersed under the erosive forces of impacting raindrops. Accordingly the soil structure
destroys with the excessive crop removal. Stability of aggregates is positively correlated with SOM
concentration.

Broad Spectrum fumigant (Pesticides) :

Pesticides can move off-site contaminating surface and groundwater and possibly
causing adverse impacts on aquatic ecosystems. They can be moved from soil by runoff and
leaching, thereby constituting a problem for the supply of drinking water to the population. Also it
reduces the soil quality by reducing capacity of the soil to filter, buffer, degrade, immobilize, and
detoxify. Heavy treatment of soil with pesticides can cause populations of beneficial soil
microorganisms to decline. Overuse of pesticides have effects on the soil organisms that are similar
to human overuse of antibiotics. Indiscriminate use of chemicals might work for a few years, but
after awhile, there aren't enough beneficial soil organisms to hold onto the nutrients. For example,
plants depend on a variety of soil microorganisms to transform atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates,
which plants can use. Common landscape herbicides disrupt this process: triclopyr inhibits soil
bacteria that transform ammonia into nitrite.

Broad Spectrum Herbicides :

The risk of environmental pollution through the leaching of pesticides out of soils into
water bodies is affected by how strongly the compound is sorbed to soil. Some pesticides like
glyphosate have strong sorption characteristics, reducing the risk of leaching. Hence the retention of
glyphosate in soils and water bodies is high and it badly affect for some soil organisms. Herbicides
can harm non-target organisms, particularly amphibians, symbiotic mycorrhizal fungi or earthworms.
They can reduce the activitity and reproduction of the earthworm. Thus the service come from
earthworms like shredding plant litter, mineralising it and soil organic matter in their guts, and
producing casts that enhance soil nutrient availability and promote plant productivity. Their
burrowing enhances soil root penetration and water infiltration. Also Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
(AMF) improve water access and soil minerals for plants, improve drought tolerance and help with
resistance against pathogens. Recent research has found that glyphosate (and/or its metabolite
AMPA) reduces the spore viability and root colonisation of AMF, and could reduce plant diversity.

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NEED FOR SOIL CONSERVATION

Soil conservation refers to the measures and practices, which protect the soil against
loss and help in maintaining its fertility with a view to establish sustainable agriculture. The art of
soil conservation is based on following basic principles ;

(i) Protection of soil from impact of rain drops.

(ii) To slow down the water from concentrating and moving down the slope in a narrow path.
(iii) To slow down the water movement, when it flows along the slope.
(iv) To encourage more water to enter the soil.
(v) To increase the size of the soil particle.
(vi) Reduction in the wind velocity near the ground by growing vegetation cover and redging
the land, and
(vii) To grow the strips of stubble or other vegetation cover, which might catch and hold the
moving particles of soil.

Keeping in view the above said principles, ecologists have devised several methods,
to prevent the loss of soil due to its erosion. These methods include the following practices;

Conservational Tillage : The incorporation of residues from previous crops into the soil by
ploughing is called conservational tillage. It improves soil permeability and increases the organic
matter, which in turn improve soil moisture and nutrients.

Organic Farming : Organic farming involves practices which provide increased organic input to
the soil. Application of biofertilizers is an important practice of organic farming. The organic
farming has long term beneficial effects on soil fertility.

Crop Rotation : it is a practice of growing different crops (generally legumes after cereal
crops) in successive years on the same piece of land. It decreases soil loss and prevents depletion of
nutrients from the soil.

Contour Ploughing : it is an old method useful in areas with low rainfall in the preparation
of the field with alternate furrows and ridges. Water is caught and hold in furrows and stored, which
reduces runoff and erosion.

Mulching : Soil is allowed to remain untilled and is covered with crop residue and other form of
plant litter. It retain soil moisture, decreases runoff and increases organic matter in the soil.

Strip Cropping : It involves planting of crop in rows or strips to check flow of water. It may be
contour strip cropping (strip planted along contour at 900 to the direction of slope), field strip
cropping (strip planted parallel to each other), or wind strip cropping (strip planted in straight parallel
rows at 900 to the direction of prevailing wind).

Terrace Farming : A slope is divided into a number of small flat fields called terraces. The
terraces slow down the velocity of the run-off and allow the water to move to the sides of the fielda,
where it flows away without eroding the soil.

Agrostological Methods : in agrostological methods grasses are grown to check soil erosion. The
grasses form sod and act as soil binder or stabilizers. The grasses are grown either in rotation or
alongwith agricultural crops (lay farming) or they are grown on such lands, where major portion of

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the top soil has been ended (retiring lands to grasses). The grasses prevent erosion and also improve
soil permeability.

Afforestation : Trees or windbreaks are planted in deserts which check the velocity of wind.
Windbreaks are planted across the area at 900 to the prevailing wind.

LAND USE PLANNING: A TOOL TO ACHIEVE SUSTAINABILITY

Land use planning is the systematic assessment of land and water potential, alternatives for
land use and economic and social conditions in order to select and adopt the best land use options. Its
purpose is to select and put into practice those land uses that will best meet the needs of the people
while safeguarding resources for the future. The driving force in planning is the need for change, the
need for improved management or the need for a quite different pattern of land use dictated by
changing circumstances. In the process all kinds of land use are involved: agriculture, forestry,
wildlife conservation, urban and industrial expansions, tourism and amenities. Planning also provides
guidance in case of conflicts among manifold alternatives, by indicating which areas are most
valuable for any particular land use. Land use planning can be viewed as an iterative and continuous
process, whose aim is to make the best use of land resources by:
 assessing present and future needs and evaluating the land’s availability to meet them;
 identifying and resolving conflicts among competing uses and needs;
 devising alternative options and choosing those that best fit identified targets;
 learning from experience.

At every stage, as better information is available, the process may have to be changed to take account
of it.
Goals are important elements in the planning process. They define what is meant by the best use of
the land and they have to be specified at the outset of every planning project.Goals, normally, are
divided into objects and targets.
Objectives are the general aims within the planning process. They allow the judging of different
solutions of a concrete problem in the planning area, and lead to suitable propositions and projects
for the use of the land.The targets are the most detailed aims of land use planning. They lead to the
design of actual measures that have to be taken and carried out in an area to solve the problems at
hand.
The objectives and targets identify the best use of the land. If two different forms of land use bring
forth exactly the same profit (economically and socially), the objectives will determine which of the
two land uses should be implemented, while the targets will indicate which procedures should be
followed.
The goals, as a whole, may be grouped under three main headings: efficiency, equity and
acceptability and sustainability.
 Efficiency refers to the economic viability of the land use plan.
The plan should yield more than it costs. So one goal of planning development is to make efficient
and productive use of the land. In general terms, for any particular land use, certain areas are better
suited than others. Efficiency is achieved by matching different land uses with the areas that will
yield the greatest benefit at the least cost. However, it is not always clear which land use is the most
profitable one; this depends on the point of view. The point of view of individuals, for instance,
focuses on the greatest return on capital and labour invested or on the greatest benefit from the area
available. Government’s point of view is more complex: it may include improving the foreign
exchange situation by producing for export or for import substitution.

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 Equity and acceptability represent the social features of land use planning.
The plan must be accepted by the local population, otherwise the proposed changes will not take
place. Equity refers to the levelling of the living standards of the residents. People living in the
planning area are expected to gain from the land use plan, even if they do not own the land. Living
standards may include levels of income, food security and housing. Planning to achieve these
standards then involves the allocation of land for specific uses as well as the allocation of financial
and other resources.
 Sustainability, as stated before, refers to a development in land use planning that meets the needs
of the present while conserving resources for future generations.
This requires a combination of production and conservation: the production of the goods needed by
the people now, combined with the conservation of the natural resources on which the production
depends. So, land use to be sustainable, has to be planned for the community as a whole, because the
conservation of soil, water and other land resources is often beyond the means of individual land
users.
Other goals of the planning process could be:
 Livability After the land use plan is implemented, the area should still be a suitable place to live
for the inhabitants;
 Flexibility The plan should be flexible and leave options for using the land in different ways, if
needed, in the future;
 Public involvement Every group or individual with an interest in the plan should be allowed to
participate in the process, to keep their land use from disappearing through the plan, or to be
offered a new land use, as part of the plan.
On the whole, the land use planning, to be sustainable, should develop into an interdisciplinary,
holistic approach that gives attention to all functions of the land and actively involves all land users
through a participatory process of negotiation platform, be it at national or local levels. The aim of
the process is to create the conditions to achieve an environmentally sound, socially desirable and
economically appropriate form of land use.

******END OF MODULE 1*******

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