GE3152 HERITAGE OF TAMILS

UNIT I
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

1.1 LANGUAGE FAMILIES IN INDIA

 Language is a tool used to express one's thoughts through sound

and writing.
 India is a multi-lingual country. More than 1,300 languages are
spoken in our country.
 Therefore Linguistics Scholar S. Agathialingam describes India as
"The gallery of Indian languages".
 Languages spoken in India are grouped mainly in to 6 families viz.,
1. Indo- Aryan Language Family
2. Dravidian Language Family
3. Austro Asiatic Language Family
4. Sino-Tibetan Language Family
5. Tai- Kadai Language Family
6. Great Andamanese Language Families

 Apart from these languages, Indo-European languages are spoken here.

E.g. - English
 It is used as a linking language

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 Ranking of Language Families of India

Rank Language Family & Languages Places

Speakers Population
(as per 2018)

I Indo- Aryan Language Hindi, Bengali, North India

Family (73%) Bojpuri,Marathi,Urudu,
Punjabi, Kashmiri,
Rajasthani, Odia …

II Dravidian Language Tamil, Telugu, South India

Family(20%) Kannada &
Malayalam

III Austro asiatic Khasi, Munda, Bumiji North East

Language & Mundali India,
Family(1.35%) Bengal,
Odia

IV Sino-Tibetan Manipuri, Boda & North East

Language Karbi India,
Family(0.85%)

V Tai- Kadai Language Kampuri Assam

Family (2%)

VI Great Andamanese Aka- jeru, Ongan -

Language
Families(endangered)

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 1.2 Dravidian Languages
Language Families
 The original language, which is unique in it and is the basis for the birth and
growth of many languages, and the languages that have emerged from it are
called the same language family.
 Language families spoken in India: 4
They are
1. Indo- Aryan Language Family
2. Dravidian Language Family
3. Austro Asiatic Language Family
4. Sino-Tibetan Language Family
 Apart from these languages, Indo-European languages are spoken here.
E.g. - English
It is used as a linking language
 More than 1,300 languages are spoken in our country. Therefore
Linguistics Professor S. Agathialingam describes India as "The gallery of
Indian languages"
Types of Dravidian Languages

S. No TYPES LANGUAGES SPEAKERS AREA

OF DL

1. South Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada, Tamilnadu, Karnataka

Dravidian Kodagu, Tulu, Gotha, Toda, Kerala
Koraka, Irula

2. Central Telugu, Kooi, Goovi, Anthra pradesh, M.P,

Dravidian Goenda, Kolami, Naiki, Orissa , Maharashtra
Bengo, Mantha, Barji,
Kathapa, Kondadi, Goya

3. Northern Crook, Maltho, Braqui Bihar, Orissa, M.P., West

Dravidian Bengal

The total number of Dravidian languages is 28, including newly discovered

languages like Arugula, Thanga, Kurumba, Solika.

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Dravidian Language Families
 Today there are 28 Dravidian languages are known.
 20% of Indian languages have origin from Indo Dravidian Languages.
 The majority of Dravidian speakers are Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam.
 Dravidian languages were known before the arrival of Aryans in India.
 Types
The 3 types of Dravidian Languages are
1. South Dravidian
2. Central Dravidian
3. Northern Dravidian
South Dravidian Languages
 Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada, Kodagu, Tulu, Gotha, Toda, Koraka, Irula
Central Dravidian Languages
 Telugu, Kooi, Goovi, Goenda, Kolami, Naiki, Bengo, Mantha, Barji,
Kathapa, Kondadi, Goya
Northern Dravidian Languages
 Crook, Maltho, Braqui

 Indian civilization is one of the oldest civilizations in the world.

 That ancient civilization of India is our Dravidian civilization.
 ‘Kumarilapattar’ was the first linguist to coin the word "Dravidian".
 It was ‘Caldwell ‘who brought it into use.
 Tamil and its sub-languages Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam were given the
South Indian languages as 'Tamilyan' or 'Tamulik'.
 Caldwell called these 4 languages as Dravidian.
According to Fr. Heras
 Among the Dravidian languages, Tamil is the most ancient cultured language.
 The word Dravidian itself is derived from the word Tamil.
Tamil ⇨ Tamiza ⇨ Tamila⇨ Thramila ⇨ Tramila ⇨ Thravida ⇨ Dravida
 Tamil is a language that has all the characteristics of antiquity, leadership and
intellectual artistic expression as the standard of classical language

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 TAMIL IS A CLASSICAL LANGUAGE
Pride of Tamil
 The total number of languages in the world is 6000. Among them 3000 are rich in
grammar and literature.
 Historically archaic languages: Tamil, Chinese, Sanskrit, Latin, Hebrew, Greek.
 Among these, Latin and Hebrew became obsolete.
 Tamil is one of the longest-surviving classical languages of India.
 For a language to survive, it must be ancient, colloquial, written, courtly and
academic.
 All these characteristics apply to Tamil language.

Qualifications for Classical language

There are 11 rules for determining classical status of a language. They are
 1) Ancient 2) Uniqueness 3) Generality 4) Neutral 5) Motherhood 6) Artistic
expression 7) Intellectual expression 8) Not influenced by other languages
9) Literary wealth 10) Higher thinking 11) Theory of Language
It’s ancient:
 One of the oldest and widely spoken languages in the world, it’s almost as world as
the world itself.
 The first inscriptions and words are recorded as early as 1st and 2nd BC.
It has a vast and rich literature:
 The literature is one of the oldest and has existed for over 2000 years. The ancient
Sangam literature was first recorded between 200 and 300 BC.
 More than 55% of the epigraphical inscriptions that were found by the
Archaeological Survey of India are in the Tamil language
It’s Uniqueness
 It has three major categories namely Natural Tamil, Musical Tamil and Dramatical
Tamil.
 There is a grammar for life as Agam(love) and puram(war)
 Thirukkural has laid down norms for mankind.

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It’s Generality
Tamil literature mentions public virtues such as "One Clan, One God",
“Both bad and good deeds are due to their actions”

It’s Neutrality
 Sangham literature transcends race and language.
 In harmony with nature.
 There are general views accepted by the world.
 Gives Ideas suitable for people to live with excellence

It’s Motherhood
 Tamil is also the mother tongue of Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam, Tulu etc.
 Caldwell says that Tamil is the mother tongue of northern languages like Prakuke
 Tamil has given root words to 1800 languages and relative nouns to 180
languages.

It’s Art, culture, intellectual expression

 “Pakuththundu palluyir ompudhal nooloar
thokuththavatruL ellaanh thalai”
 "Piran manai pugamai aram enaththagum"

Not influenced by other languages

 There are countless foreign words mixed into English.

 Tamil, Prakrit and polyglot words are also mixed in the northern language.

 Similarly Tamil also has mixed words from other languages.

 Other languages will not work if you remove other language words. But Tamil
language works.

 The Tamil language, which is rich in root words, can create brand new art words.

Literature & Grammar Specialties

 Sangham literatures are unique in that they are not written on the basis of archaic
ideas but express the norms of people's life. Hence they were hailed as 'People's
Literature'.

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  The oldest grammar book available to us is Tolkappiyam.

 It has a grammar for all three: letter, word and meaning.

 It is enough for a language to have 30 sounds. But Tamil has 500 sounds.

 In Tamil, verbs clearly indicate not only tense but also dept, gender, place and
number.

Example: Saappitaan - High Denominative Masculine Singular

(Note: The verb ‘ate’ shows only tense in English)

It’s Higher thinking

 "Yadum Ure Yavarum Kalir" - Kanyan Poonkunnarar's principle applies to all

centuries.

 “Pirappokkum Ellaa Uyirkkum Sirappovvaa

Seydhozhil Vetrumai Yaan”- Thiruvalluvar

(All beings are the same in birth But work decides their varied worth.)

 Alandur Kihar says that a person without a goal is just flesh "like a locked yak".

It’s Theory of Language

 The discipline of life is called discipline.

 Linguistic order system is called Marabu.

 Tolkappiyam explains the relationship between poetry and tradition.

"Marabu nilaith thiridal seyuulukku illai".

 Tolkappiyar refers to all written texts by the term Seiyul. There are seven levels in
Seyul which are song, text, book, pici, old language, mantra and Pannatti.

Tamil is a superior language

Based on the above classical qualities, in 2004, the Government of India declared
Tamil as the First Classical Language in India.

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 1.4 MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES IN THIRUKURAL
Harnessing the Resources like People, Time, Money, Product, Marketing is
called Management.
Luther Gulick's POSDCORB principles
P = Planning
O = Organising
S = Staffing
D = Directing
CO = Coordinating
R = Reporting
B = Budgeting
1. Planning
Thiruvalluvar says,

 Start by knowing how to complete a task. It is not wise to think about it after starting.

 While Planning a project, the strength of the project, strength of our own, strength of
the competitors and strength of the partners should be weighed.
2. Organising
The poet exhorts us

 Do a thing after carefully deliberating the 5 things: Resources, the equipment, the
time, the nature of work, and the place.
3. Staffing


 One should study how a person can complete a task and then hand over
the task to him.
4. Directing


 A Manager should know what is happening under him at all times. Then only he can
direct them in the right direction.

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5. Coordinating


 Kural advises that a leader should call his subordinates and discuss.
 While discussing, he should first get the opinion of someone who is fully aware of the
task.
 6. Reporting


 According to Thiruvalluvar ,‘The Personality is to reveal an act at the end and warns
that if it is revealed in the middle it will bring untold suffering to the doer’.
7. Budgetting


 A manager should have the skills to show revenue, collect material and spend only
on what is needed.


 Even if the income is less, the expenditure should not exceed the income.
1.5 SECULAR NATURE OF SANGAM LITERATURE
OR
DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE IN SANGAM LITERATURE
 Sangham literature transcends race and language.
 In harmony with nature.
 There are general views accepted by the world.
 Gives Ideas suitable for people to live with excellence
Examples
1. Tamil literature mentions public virtues such as "One Clan, One God",
2. “Both bad and good deeds are due to their actions”
3. “Pakuththundu palluyir ompudhal nooloar
thokuththavatruL ellaanh thalai”
4. "Piran manai pugamai aram enaththagum"
5. "Yadum Ure Yavarum Kelir" - Kanyan Poonkunnarar's principle applies to all
centuries.

6. “Pirappokkum Ellaa Uyirkkum Sirappovvaa

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 Seydhozhil Vetrumai Yaan”- Thiruvalluvar

(All beings are the same in birth But work decides their varied worth.)

7. Alandur Kihar says that a person without a goal is just flesh "like a locked yak"

1.9.1 MAHAKAVI BHARATHIYAR

Name : C. Subramanian
Parents : Chinnaswamy Iyer
Lakshmi Ammal
Place : Ettayapuram
Wife : Chellammal
Period : 11-12-1882 To 11-09-1921

 Mahakavi Subramaniya Bharathiyar was born on 11th December

1882. His father was a Tamil Scholar employed under Maharaja of
Ettayapuram.
 At the age of 5, he lost his mother which brought dedication in him to
work for the welfare of women.
 He was a Tamil Poet, Writer & Freedom fighter. Some of his
contributions are
1. His numerous compositions include patriotic songs during the
freedom struggle. He is known to have said,
‘Even if Indians are divided,
they are children of one mother,
Where is the need for foreigners to interfere?’
2. Vehemently opposed the caste system. There are only 2 castes
male and female exists.
‘There is no caste system.
It is a sin to divide people on caste basis’.
3. He Believed in Women’s right, gender equality.

4. In 1906 she joined Chakravarthini, a Tamil women's monthly.

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 His writings portrayed his views about women and their
strength, administration etc.,
5. He Opposed child marriage. He also allowed his daughter to
choose a groom.
6. He advocated the temple entry of Dalits. He removed his sacred
thread.
7. Bharathi wanted to abolish starvation. He sang
‘If one single man does not have food,
We will destroy the world’
8. It was Bharatiyar who sang that we have achieved
independence before independence.
‘Aaduvomae pallupaaduvomae
Aanandha suthanthiram adainthu vittomendru’
9. During 1910-1920, he wrote about a newly independent India
without castes. He talks about India's defense building, ocean-
going ships, manufacturing and global education.
10. He sang for the diversion of excess water of the Bengal
delta to needy regions and a bridge to Sri Lanka.
11. Recognizing his exceptional contribution of India and its
culture, the Government of India confessed him the title of
“National Poet” and his works were nationalized.
12. Bharathi left behind a remarkable legacy for Tamil literature.
His vision of a glorious India still inspires us even today.

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 1.9.2 BHARATHIDASAN
Name : K. Subburathinam

Parents : Kanagasabai
Lakshmi Ammal

Place : Puducherry

Wife : Pazhani Ammal

Occupation : Teacher, Tamil poet, Tamil activist

Period : 29-04-1891 to 21-04-1964

1. Bharathidasan was a 20th-century Tamil poet and rationalist writer whose literary
works handled mostly socio-political issues.
2. He was deeply influenced by the Tamil poet Subramania Bharathi and named himself
"Bharathi dasan" .
3. Bharathidasan was an active participant in the Indian independence movement, he
opposed both the British Raj and the French colonial government.
4. Being greatly influenced by the great rationalist and social reformer Father Periyar EV
Ramaswamy,His writings led to the development of the self-esteem movement in Tamil
Nadu.
5. Known as "Revolutionary Poet" and "Bavender" for his evocative writings.
6. Apart from poetry, his progressive ideas were also expressed in films, film songs and
plays.
7. His song of Invocation to Mother Tamil has adopted as “The state song of
Puducherry”.
8. The poet received the Sahitya Akademi award in 1969 for his play "Bisiranthaiyar". His
works were made public domain by the Government of Tamil Nadu in 1990.
9. The days of Bharathidasan were marked with instances of social injustice, neligence of
women’s interests, religious feuds, irrational beliefs and denial of due recognition to
Tamil.
10. He fought for the elimination of social injustice.
11. The stand taken by him has been enshrined for ever in his poems, and the poems like
and others bring
him alive, in flesh and blood, with full vigour and force, to the present generation.

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 1.6 SANGAM LITERATURE
1 What is Sangam Literature?
The Sangam literature was historically known as ‘the poetry of the noble
ones’. In literal terms, Sangam means ‘association’ and the literature that
connotes ancient Tamil literature is known as Sangam literature. It is South
India’s earliest known literature.
2. When was Sangam literature composed?
Sangam literature is believed to be compiled between 400 BC and 300 BC.
Tolkappiyam is said to be the oldest extant Tamil work till date.
3. What are the types of Sangam literature?
The Eighteen Greater Text Series (Pathinenmaelkanakku) comprising
the Eight Anthologies (Ettuthokai) and the Ten Idylls (Pattupattu) and
the Five Great Epics. Tolkaappiyam, a commentary
on grammar, phonetics, rhetoric and poetics is dated from this period.
Sangam literature includes
1. Tolkappiyam,
2. Ettutogai-Natrinai,Kuruntogai,Ainkurunuru (composed by Gudalur
Mar),Pathitrupathu,Paripadal,Kalittogai,Ahanuru (compiled by
Rudrasarman)and Purananuru
3. Pattuppattu-ThiruMurugatrupadai (composed by Nakkirar),
Sirupanarruppadai,Perumbanarruppadai,Pattinappalai,Maduraikkanji,Porun
ararrupadai,Kurinchippattu,Nedunalvadai,Malaipadukadam,Mullaippattu
4. Pathinenkilkanakku - The most important among these are the Tirukkural
by Tiruvalluvar (known as the Bible of Tamil Land’, it is a compound of the
Dharmasastra, the Arthasastra and the Kamasutra),
5. 18 Didactic Poetry Books/ 18 Minor Poems:
Tirukkural, Naladiyar 400, Pazamozi 400, Nanmanikadikai, Iniyavai
Narpathu 40, Inna Narpathu 40, Kar Narpathu 40, Kalavazi Narpathu
40,Ainthinai Aimpathu 50, Ainthinai Ezupathu 70, Thinaimozi aimathu 50,
Thinaimalai Nutraimpathu 150, Tirikatukam 3 , Acharakovai, Sirupancha
mulam 5, Mudumozikanchi, Innilai, Elathy

6. Five epics named – Silappathikaram ,Manimegalai , Sivaga Sindamani,

Valaiyapati and Kundalakesi.
4. How is Sangam literature important?
Sangam literature is one of the main sources used for documenting the
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 early history of the ancient Tamil country, be it the kings, rulers, poets, etc.
It deals with secular matter and distributive relating to public and social
activity like government, war charity, trade, worship, agriculture etc.
5. What is Sangam popularly known as?
Muchchangam
6. Under whose patronage did the Sangam flourish?
Under the patronage of famous south Indian kingdom known as Pandyas
7. Which is the earliest of Tamil literature?
Tolkappiyam written by Tolkappiyar
8. Who is the primary deity of the Sangam period?
Seyon or Murugan is told to be the chief deity
10 Explain the classification of sangam literature.
.
Sangam Literature Classification

Based on Period of Details of Sangam Literature

Composition

Patinenmelkanakku 1. Works composed between 200 BCE to

100 BCE
2. Oldest surviving Tamil poetry

Patinenkilkanakku 1. Works composed between 100 CE and

500 CE
2. Collection of 18 poetry compositions
3. Mostly composed before the age of the
Pallavas
4. Chief works include Thirukkural,
Palamoli, Naladiyar, etc.

Based on the Context Details of Sangam Literature

and Interpretation

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Aham (Inner) Abstract discussion on human aspects such
as love, sexual relations, etc.

Puram (outer) Human experiences such as heroism,

customs, social life, ethics, philanthropy, etc.

1.7 IMPACT OF BUDDHISM AND JAINISM IN TAMIL LAND

1. The three centuries after the Sangam age, the invaders replaced number
of words and concepts relating to ethics, philosophy and religion of Tamil.
2. Around 300 CE, the Tamil land was under the influence of a group of
people known as the Kalabhras.
3. The Kalabhras were Buddhist and a number of Buddhist authors
flourished during this period. Jainism and Buddhism saw rapid growth.
4. These authors, perhaps reflecting the austere nature of their faiths,
created works mainly on morality and ethics. A number of Jain and
Buddhist poets contributed to the creation of these didactic works as well
as grammar and lexicography.
5. The collection the Eighteen Lesser Text series (Pathinenkilkanakku) was
of this period.
6.
The best known of these works on ethics is the Tirukkural by
Thiruvalluvar. The book is a comprehensive manual of ethics, polity and
love, containing 1,330 distichs or kural divided into chapters of ten
distichs each: the first thirty-eight on ethics, the next seventy on polity
and the remainder on love.
7. Other famous works of this period are Kaḷavaḻi Nāṟpatu, Nalatiyar, Inna
Narpathu and Iniyavai Narpathu.
8. The Jain texts Nalatiyar and Pazhamozhi Nanuru each consist of four
hundred poems, each of which cites a proverb and then illustrates it with
a story.
1.8 BAKTHI LITERATURE AZHWARS AND NAYANMARS
1. The Nayanars and Alvars led religious movements in south India during the
seventh to ninth centuries.
2. The Nayanars were devotees of Shiva while the Alvars were the devotees of
Vishnu. They preached the love of Shiva or Vishnu as the path to salvation.
3. They went from place to place composing beautiful poems in praise of the

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 deities enshrined in the villages they visited and set them to music.
4. There were 63 Nayanars, the best known among them were Appar,
Sambandar, Sundarar and Manikkavasagar. There are two sets of
compilations of their songs – Tevaram and Tiruvacakam.
5. There were 12 Alvars, the best known being Periyalvar, his daughter
Andal, Tondaradippodi Alvar and Nammalvar. Their songs were compiled
in the Divya Prabandham.
1.9 DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN LITERATURE
1. During the 18th and the 19th century Tamil Nadu witnessed some of the
most profound changes in the political scene.
2. The traditional Tamil ruling clans were superseded by European colonists
and their sympathisers. The Tamil society underwent a deep cultural
shock with the imposition of western cultural influences.
3. The Tamil scholar attempted to stem the tide of change and to safeguard
the Tamil cultural values.
4. Manonmaniyam P. Sundaranar (4 April 1855 – 26 April 1897) was a
Tamil scholar, noted for the famous Tamil drama Manonmaniyam as well
as the state song of Tamil Nadu Tamil Thai Valthu. His view point out
that Tamil literature was divine and moral.

5. Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai (1815–1876) was a Tamil scholar who taught

Tamil at one of these monasteries. He wrote more than eighty books
consisting of over 200,000 poems.
6. He is more famous however for encouraging U.V.Swaminatha Iyer to go
search for Tamil books that have been lost for centuries.

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7. Gopalakrishna Bharathi lived during the early 19th century. He wrote
numerous poems and lyrics set to tune in Carnatic music. His most
famous work is the Nandan Charitam on the life of Nandanar who having
been born in a sociologically lower caste, faces and overcomes the social
obstacles in achieving his dream of visiting the Chidambaram temple.
This work is a revolutionary social commentary considering the period in
which it was written, although Gopalakrishna Bharati expanded on the
story in Periyapuranam.
8. Ramalinga Adigal (Vallalar) (1823–1874) wrote the devotional
poem Tiruvarutpa is considered to be a work of great beauty and
simplicity.
9. Maraimalai Adigal (1876–1950) advocated for the purity of Tamil and
wanted to clean it of words with Sanskrit influences.
10. One of the great Tamil poets of this period was Subramanya
Bharathi. His works are stimulating in their progressive themes like
freedom and feminism. Bharathy introduced a new poetic style into the
somewhat rigid style of Tamil poetry writing, which had followed the rules
set down in the Tolkaappiyam. His puthukkavithai (Lit.:new poetry) broke
the rules and gave poets the freedom to express themselves. He also
wrote Tamil prose in the form of commentaries, editorials, short stories
and novels. Some of these were published in the Tamil
daily Swadesamitran and in his Tamil weekly India. Inspired by Bharathi,
many poets resorted to poetry as a means of reform. Bharathidasan was
one such poet.
11. U.V.Swaminatha Iyer, was instrumental in the revival of interest in
the Sangam age literature in Tamil Nadu. He travelled all over the Tamil
country, collecting, deciphering and publishing ancient books such
as Cilappatikaram, Kuruntokai, etc. He published over 90 books and
wrote En caritham, an autobiography.

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 UNIT II
HERITAGE - ROCK ART PAINTINGS TO MODERN ART – SCULPTURE

Introduction
 In the early period, the stone age man worshipped the shapeless
stone as a God.
 After learning to draw, he drew his imaginary deity on the rock and
worshipped that image.
 When he started living on the banks of the river he made the image
with clay and gave colour to his deities.
 Idols made of clay can not withstand rain or storm or flood. Images
made of clay will perish with time.
 So man began to sculpt his image in stone.
 When man learnt to extract metals, he started to cast the images of
deities to be worshipped.
 It is natural for every field to grow as knowledge grows.
 He imparted Godliness to the idol by using alloy known as
'Panchalokam' which is prepared by mixing gold, silver, Copper,
Zinc and Lead.
Nowadays instead of gold and silver, iron and tin is used.
 These idols are made following the rules of sculpture using wax
casting technique.
 The symbols of the deities thus created are used in worship in
temples.
2.1 Hero stones
1. Hero stones were erected to the heroes who died defending their
town or country. It dates back to the Sangam period.
2. Heroism and love are 2 key elements in Sangam literature. Heroism
is the root of Tamil society. Among the main cultural elements of
heroism are ``Anirai kavartal'' (capturing cow herds) and ``Anirai
mitel'' (recapturing cow herds that have been lured away by
enemies). Tolkappiyam refers to Anirai Kavarthal with the word
"Akol".
3. “ur koli akol pucan marre”
4. In 2006 3 hero stones inscribed with Tamil brahmi scripts were
found at pulimaan kombai
5. Informations about the Sanga Tamil script inscriptions found at
Puliman kombai are given below.

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 Inscription Typewriters Meaning
No

1 “.. n or atan” It was taken for him who

“.. n an kal” belongs to this place.

2 “ vel or pa ta This is the stone taken for

va n av va Avvan, the son of
n Padawan of Vel Ur.

3. “petutiyan The stone was taken in

antavan honor of petutiyan, who
kutal or a lost his life in a brawl in
kol” Kudalur

6. Based on the script used in the inscription, archaeologists are

able to date the period of the hero stone.

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2.2 Bronze Icons
1. It is natural for every field to grow as knowledge grows. When man
learnt to extract metals, he started to cast the images of deities to
be worshipped.
2. He imparted Godliness to the idol by using alloy known as
'Panchalokam' which is prepared by mixing gold, silver,
Copper, Zinc and Lead.
3. Nowadays instead of gold and silver, bronze, an alloy of iron
and tin is used.
4. These idols are made BY following the rules of sculpture using
wax casting technique.
5. The symbols of the deities thus created are used in worship in
temples.

2.3 TRIBES AND THEIR HANDICRAFTS

 Pottery: The first building material used by Tribes is Clay
 Tribes used for this crafts are palm, bamboo, cane, grasses reeds
and fibers. They are mainly used for making baskets, ropes mats ,
bags etc.,
1 Tiruvannamalai Bamboo Crafts men Bamboo basket
Families
2 Tirunel velli – Pattha madai Pattha madai mat

3 Thoda of Nilgiris "pukhoor“Toda

Embroidary
4 Nilagiri Tribes Huts made of bamboo
canes

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 .4 ART OF TEMPLE CAR MAKING
 Temple cars are chariots that are used to carry Hindu Gods.
 The temple car events called Thaer Thiruvizha is unique to Tamil
Nadu.
 There is an architectural connection or similarity between a
temple gopuram(tower) and the temple car.
 The car is built in such a way that the lower-most tier is heavy
and is made of teak wood, and as it goes up, it is made with
lighter wood.
 Chariots are designed according to the rules of Agama in
ancient texts.
 The process of making the chariot is complex and it has 34
components.
 The nine attendant deities on the chariot, the two Dwarpalakas, a
charioteer and the upper flag deity are all made of wood.
 The chariot is tied with long coconut fiber ropes fiber for the
devotees to pull.
 Iron nails, brackets, clamps etc. used for this purpose are
manufactured by black smiths.
 Finally the chariot is beautified with brightly colored torans,
flags and flowers.

2.5 MASSIVE TERRACOTTA SCULPTURES

1. Terracotta (fired clay) is an art of creating fine clay sculptures,
either glazed or unglazed.
2. Figures made from clay are dried and fired.
3. If clay sculptures are fired in an open kiln, it produces red-
orange colored flint sculptures.

21
 4. When fired in a closed kiln, it produces a gray terracotta
material.
5. It can be further decorated with pigments.
6. Most mythological deities and their vehicles were made using
terracotta. Mythological stories were conveyed to the masses
using terracotta sculptures.
7. One of the largest terracotta sculptures ever made is the Iyanar
Horses and the Ganesha sculptures.
8. These horses are considered as Guardian angles which protect
border and ward away evil.
9. Lord Ganesha is created in various gigantic sizes during the
Vinayagar Chaturthi festival and at the end of the festival they
are dissolved in water bodies.

2.6 Village Deities

 In Tamil Community each and every one have their own set of
ancestral Gods.
 Tamils worship a person who has sacrificed his life for the clan
or a clan leader or heroic person of that community as their clan
deity.
 They are known as Kaaval Theivam (Guardian Spirits) or Kula
Theivam.
 Most of the shrines of the village deities are outside the village.
 Usually the goddess shrines are found in the center of the
village and the Sudalai Madan and Nadukal deities are found
outside the village.
 They are represented in the form of huge fierce statue or as a
single stone. They don’t have a closed premises.
 Weapons like trident or spear or sickle are also associated with
these shrines. There you can find terracotta horses, clay dolls
etc.
 Worship is conducted through folklore or folk art by local priests
known as 'samiyadi'. They offer flowers or vibhuti as prasad to
the devotees.

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 2.7 THIRUVALLUVAR STATUE
 There is a statue of Thiru Valluvar at Kanya Kumari, the southern
border of India .
 The Thiruvalluvar statue was designed in 1990 and was
inaugurated on the first day of January 2000.
 The height of the statue from the rock is 133 feet, denotes 133
chapters of Thirukural.
 Pedestal of statue= 38 feet height. It refers to 38 chapters of”
Virtues”.
 Height of statue = 95 feet. It refers to 95 chapters of “wealth and
Pleasure”
 It signified that wealth and love should be earned and enjoyed
on the foundation of solid virtues
 In the mandapam under the Thiruvalluvar statue, Thirukkurals
are carved in Tamil and English languages.
 3 to 8 tons of 3681 black stones were used to build the idol of
Thiru Valluvar.
 Thiru valluvar statue has a total weight of 7000 tons.
Location Kanyakumari, Tamil
Nadu, India
Designer V. Ganapati
Sthapati
Type Monument
(statue)
Material Stone and concrete
Height 41 m (133 ft)
Beginning date 7 September 1990

Completion date 1999

Opening date 1 January 2000
Dedicated to Valluvar, author of
the Kural text

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 2.8 Making of Musical Instruments
★ Music is an art that can express nine kinds of taste.
★ Music is divided into two categories, vocal music and
instrumental music.
★ Musical instruments add sweetness to arts such as singing,
dancing, drama and singing.
Types of musical instruments
Ancient Tamils divided musical instruments into four catagories.
1. Skin instruments:Mridhangam, Parai
2. Stringed instruments:Veenai Yazh
3. Holed instruments: Nadhaswaram
Skin instruments
An atole has the characteristic of making a sound when the skin of a
hunted animal is dried in the sun. Knowing this, Palantamizan wrapped the
skin in a stone and made a sound. This is the cause of the appearance of
the skin instruments.
Examples: Mridhangam, Parai, Murasu …..
1. Mrithangam
1. The mridangam is a double-sided drum whose body is usually
made using a hollowed piece of jackfruit wood about an inch
thick.
2. The two mouths or apertures of the drum are covered with a
goatskin and laced to each other with leather straps along the
length of the drum. These straps are put into a state of high
tension to stretch out the circular membranes on either side of
the hull, allowing them to resonate when struck.
3. These two membranes are dissimilar in diameter to allow for the
production of both bass and treble sounds from the same drum.
2. Parai
1. The parai is a traditional Tamil frame drum about 35 centimeters in
diameter, used in the parai attam dance.
2. It consists of a shallow ring of wood, covered on one side with a
stretched cow hide that is glued to the wooden frame.
3. The preferred wood is neem wood, although other types may be
used. The shell is made up of three pieces of wood each in the shape
of an arc, held together by three metal plates.
4. The parai is played with two sticks.

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Mrithangam Parai

Stringed instruments
3. Yazh
 Yazh is an ancient instrument that was used as a primary instrument
as well as an accompaniment to vocal music.
 Yazh lost its popularity when the Veena emerged.
 As the tip of the stem of Yazh was carved into the head of an animal
called Yali it was named Yazh.
 The head-piece at the tip of the stem is retained even now as the
head-pieceini the Veena.
 This instrument was played with the fingers of both the hands and
was tuned to a particular scale. By shifting tonic note or by retuning
particular strings other scales were played on it.
 Yazh is considered as the precursor of the later Eka Raga Mela
Veena.
Types of yazhs:
1. Periyazh with 21 strings,: The peri yazh might was a large sized harp
with a boat-shaped pattar closed with leather and had twenty-one
stings
2. Makarayazh with 19 strings: A smaller version of the peri yazh.
3. Cakotayazh with 14 strings : had fourteen strings of which four were
tuned in the lower register, seven in the middle octave and three in
the upper one.
4. Cenkottiyazh with 7 strings: Had a resonator which was covered with
a wooden plank end. Its stem was a straight tube instead of a curved
one
5. Other varieties of Yazh are Seeri Yazh, Maruththuva Yazh and Adi
Yaz,VilYazh
The adi yazh is the first yazh. As per legends it was played to win over
asuras during the kreta yuga, the first era of the world. It had thousand
strings arranged in five octaves with two hundred in each.
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5. Veenai
1. The traditional Thanjavur Veena has three parts such as fingerboard,
resonator and peg box.
2. Pala maram (called locally)-Jackfruit wood is used to make veena.
The entire instrument is carved on a single block of wood.
3. A pot-like shape of the Veena is made out using round chisel
called Kolavu uli.
4. The resonator of Veena is made by scooping the wood and then a
circular wood piece is made to cover the resonator.
5. The seven metal strings are tied at the end of the bowl to metallic
fastenings using metal rings. This helps the musician for accurate
tuning.
6. The metal frets of 24 are fixed on the finger board of veena using the
mixture of beeswax and charcoal powder. These metal frets are
made out of brass.
7. The pegs and knobs for the strings are made of rose wood. These
are fitted to the instrument using beeswax.
8. Finally the embellishments of veena are made using lac colors.
Veenai Yazh

6. Nadhaswaram
1.
The nadasvaram contains three parts namely, kuḻal, thimiru, and
anasu.[
2. It is a double reed instrument with a conical bore which gradually
enlarges toward the lower end.
3. The top portion has a metal staple (mel anaichu) into which is
inserted a small metallic cylinder (kendai) which carries the
mouthpiece made of reed.
4. Besides spare reeds, a small ivory or horn needle is attached to the
instrument, and used to clear the reed of saliva and other debris and
allows free passage of air. A metallic bell (keeḻ anaichu) forms the

26
 bottom end of the instrument.
5. Traditionally the body of the nadasvaram is made out of a tree called
aacha (Tamil ஆச்சா; Hindi अंजन), although nowadays bamboo,
sandalwood, copper, brass, ebony, and ivory are also used.
6. For wooden instruments, old wood is considered the best, and
sometimes wood salvaged from demolished old houses is used.
7. The nadasvaram has seven finger-holes, and five additional holes
drilled at the bottom which can be stopped with wax to modify the
tone.The nadasvaram has a range of two and a half octaves, similar
to the Indian bansuri flute, which also has a similar fingering.
8. Unlike the flute where semi and quarter tones are produced by the
partial opening and closing of the finger holes, in the nadasvaram
they are produced by adjusting the pressure and strength of the air-
flow into the pipe.
9. Due to its intense volume and strength, it is largely an outdoor
instrument, and much more suited for open spaces than for indoor
concerts.

2.9 Role of Temples in Social and Economic Life of Tamils

‘Don't live in a town without Temple’

- Auwaiyar
 Temples were not only places of worship but also ladders for the
progress of the society,
 Employers providing jobs to thousands of people,

27
  Schools for developing knowledge,
 Medical centers,
 School of cultural centre,
 and Exhibition halls.
Temples to show Kings power
 In those days temples were built to show the power of the King, his
territorial Sovereignty and Royal pride.
 The installation of temple and tank was considered as one of the
virtues.
 The king granted the land, jewels, vessels to the temple for
celebrating his coronation, victory in the battle, birth of his son.
 Not only by kings, landlords, wealthy devotees, business guilds also
gave donations to temple for conducting festival.
Purpose of grants
 The kings and nobles made liberal grants of land and villages for the
support of the customary rites and festivals in temples and also for
the education in the temples.
 The Brahmins who received immense gifts and land grants often
invested gold with the village assemblies and received interests
thereupon for the maintenance, worship, burning of perpetual lamp
and similar other purposes.
 South Indian temples suggest 12% to 15% as the usual rate of
interest for temple investments.
 Thus the temple treasuries overflowed with wealth.
Economic activities of the temple
 The Lands granted to temples had two functions
 To yield an income with which to maintain a specified ritual service in
the name of the donor.
 To provide a productive place to invest funds granted to the Temple.
 The funds received by the temples were utilized for the construction
of irrigation works.
 The income of the temple was utilized for feeding of Brahmins and
poor (Annadanam)

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  The remaining amount after all the expenses was used for the
payment of salaries to Priests and other officials employed in the
temple.
Other functions of Temple
Employment
 Employment was also created by building and maintaining temples
 The construction and maintenance of the temple offered employment
to Architects, Masons, Stone cutters, Sculptors, Painters etc.
 Gave constant jobs to a number of priests, choristers, musicians,
florists, dancing girls, cooks, sweepers and many other classes of
servants.
Centre of Social and Cultural activities
 It served as a center for fairs, festivals, weddings, singing of praises
to God, and meetings of village leaders.
As an Educational centre
 Colleges have been housed in many temples with large halls.
 Literature, Vedas, Vedanta, Astrology, Space science, Medicine and
Epics were taught here.
 There was also a student hostel.
 The teachers were paid a salary and the students were given a
scholarship.
 Some of the larger temples also had libraries. They were called
'Saraswati Bandaram'
Temple and trade
 The temple had encouraged agriculture by irrigation development.
 Temples indirectly helped in the promotion of trade and commerce in
the village.
 During the annual Rath festival, vendors from different areas gather
here and ply their trades.
 The business community was also benefited because generally
pilgrim routes became inland trade routes.
 Traders followed these pilgrim routes for carrying out their business.
 During procession, the image of deity was decorated by jewels with

29
 precious stones. It encouraged the jewelry industry.
Temples as tools of urbanization
 Temple became a huge politco, social and economic centre after
tenth Century AD
 Temples generated huge incomes by various means and by its
services to the people got back again the spent income. This cycle
was continued making Temple important.
 The Economic life of a region surrounded around the temple as it
provided the means of Livelihood to many people
 All this became possible with the Royal Patronage
 Thus Temples acted as a tool of urbanization by developing
commercial activities in and around the center.
UNIT- III
FOLKS & MARTIAL ARTS
3.1 FOLK ARTS
KARAKATTAM
❖ Karagam is a folk dance with musical accompaniment, performed
balancing a pot on the head.
❖ Traditionally, this dance was performed by the villagers in praise of
the rain Goddess Mariamman and river Goddess, Gangai Amman,
performed with water pots balanced on their heads.
❖ In Sangam literature, it is mentioned as 'Kudakoothu'.
❖ This dance has two divisions - one, Aatta Karagam and the other
'Sakthi Karagam'.
❖ Sakthi Karagam is limited to the premises of sacred temples of Tamil
Nadu,
❖ Aatta Karagam is performed on public platforms too.
❖ Today, the pots have transformed from mud pots to bronze ware and
even stainless steel in modern times.
❖ The pots are decorated with a cone of flower arrangements, topped
by a paper parrot.
❖ This dance is danced by an individual or two persons.
❖ Both male and female performers participate in this.

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OYILATTAM
❖ Oyil means beauty. This dance is hence the dance of beauty.
❖ Traditionally, it is danced only by men. Ten years ago women also
began to participate.
❖ First a few people will stand in a row and start dancing with rhythmic
steps with musical accompaniment.
❖ Then gradually the row will become longer as the new comers and
guests all join and dance along as they like.
❖ The dancers have coloured kerchiefs tied to their fingers and wear
ankle-bells.
❖ Normally, the dance is performed with the accomplishment of
musical instruments and songs.
❖ It is performed near the temples or public places in the morning and
evening hours, at times even till midnight.
❖ This dance is prevalent in the south districts and Kongu Nadu in
particular.

PULI ATTAM(TIGER DANCE)

❖ Puli Attam is a dance performed by young men dress up as tigers.
❖ They painted
● with yellow and black coloured stripes on their bodies,
● complete with fangs, head gear with ears, paws with claws and
long tail.
❖ Their every move is like that of a ferocious tiger.

31
 ❖ Wildly beating drums add frenzy to the performance.
❖ Sometimes, a goat is tied and brought along with the dancers, who
pretend to pounce on it and kill it.
❖ This dance is regularly performed during temple festivals, drawing
large crowds.

VILLU PATTU
❖ There will be at least five peoples in Villu Pattu.
❖ The main singer here uses main instrument, the Villu or Bow, fixed with
bells.
❖ When villu is struck rhythmically, the bells jingle in tune.
❖ The main singer narrates a tale, interspersed with lively songs.
❖ The main singer here is accompanied by a chorus and other musical
instruments.
❖ Villu pattu troupes usually perform for festivals associated with deities
such as Sudalai Madan, Mutharamman, Pechiamman, Isakkiamman,
etc.
❖ The local government sometimes utilises this as a vehicle for social
messages and propaganda.

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THERU KOOTHU
❖ Normally conducted during village festivals, during the months of
Panguni and Aadi.
❖ This is performed where three or four streets meet; in open air, the
place being lit by gas lights.
❖ A wooden bench is set up to seat the singers and the musical troupe.
❖ Here, makeup and costumes are considered of prime importance.
❖ Only men take part; the female roles also played by them.
❖ The performance consists of storytelling, dialogue-rendering, songs
and dance, all performed by the artistes.
❖ Thus the artists should have a very good performing ability, being an
all-rounder.
❖ The stories are taken from Puranas, epics and also local folklore.
❖ The play starts in the late evening and gets over only during the
small hours of the nights.
❖ The performance is so captivating that the audience are spell-bound
unaware of the longs hours.

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Kankiyan Koothu
❖ Kaniyan Koothu is the folk art form including Dance,Music and
Drama.
❖ It has its roots way back; as it is mentioned in a famous book of
Sangam Literature i.e. SILAPATHIKARAM.
❖ It is performed by men for several hours during the KODAI festival.
❖ During Koothu performance, there is a lead singer known as annavi;
supported by second singer. Two artist play magudam and two men
dressed as women dance to the tune.
❖ Women are not allowed to perform this art form.
❖ Through this gathering, the 'Kaivettu' program of blood sacrifice will
be held at the end.

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LEATHER PUPPETRY
❖ ``Thor Pa Vaik Koothu'' is a folk art in which leather puppets (Pawais) are
tied with thread and played with the help of light from behind a white
screen.
❖ The stories enacted in the puppet shows are from puranas, epics and
folklore.
❖ They make this art sweet with musical instruments like music, brass and
flute.
❖ These shows will keep both adults and children engrossed for hours.

MARTIAL ARTS(OWN FIGHTING ARTS)

Written evidence of martial arts in Tamilnadu dates back to the Sangam
literature of about the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD. The
Akananuru and Purananuru describe the use of spears, swords, shields,
bows and Silambam in the Sangam era.

SILAMBATTAM
❖ Silambattam is a martial art that dates back to the time of the Tamil
kings
❖ A silambam is a bamboo stick.
❖ Fights were characterised by
1. moves of self defence,
2. practise of skillful methods of approaching the opponent,
3. overpowering and subduing him, and
4. finally teaching him a lesson, all to put an end to violence.
 Now, this violent fighting art has evolved into a dance in the above
style.

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VALARI
 Valari (throwing weapon) carved blade with flat end and round knob
at handle. Both sides of weapon are slightly convex.
 It is a traditional weapon, primarily used by the Tamil people.
❖ The valari resembles, and is used like, a boomerang.
❖It has been used by the Tamil people in ancient battles, for protecting
cattle from predators, and for hunting.

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 SPORTS AND GAMES OF TAMILS
1. Kabaddi
The state game of Tamil Nadu is Kabaddi. The sport is played between two
teams where each team contains seven players. The name Kabaddi is derived
from the Tamil name kai-pidi.

2. SEVAL SANDAI
 Seval Porr is another name of Seval Sandai, which is a popular rural sport
of Tamil Nadu.
 In this sport, owners of the cock will tie a long blade on its feet and start
the fight between two cocks.
 After three or four rounds, withstanding cock is considered as the winner.
 The sport was mentioned in some historical literature like Manu Needhi
Sastiram, Kattu Seval Sastiram and other Sangam literature.

JALLIKATTU
 Jallikattu is a bull-taming sport was practised since Tamil Sangam period
that particularly conducted during the Pongal festival.
 This sport is also popularly called as eru thazhuvuthal and manju virattu.
 Pulikulam or Kangayam breed bulls are used for this game with proper
training to show the strength and power of the people.
 In this game, people try to hold the large hump of the bull and the person
who holds it for a long time is the winner.

37
4. Rekla
 Rekla is the form of bullock cart racing which is an ancient game of Tamil
Nadu.
 The game shows the power of every person and their bullocks.
 This race is conducted as a part of Pongal celebration.

5. Sathurangam
 Sathurangam is an ancient game of Tamil Nadu which is now called
as Chess.
 In the game, they use four divisions of military forces named infantry,
cavalry, elephants, and chariotry.
 To this modern era, all the four forces were changed as a pawn,
knight, bishop, and rook.

38
6. MALYUTHAM
 The game Malyutham originated from Tamil Nadu which is an unarmed
martial art.
 According to ancient literature, the art Malyutham is marked as one of the
64 arts of Tamil tradition.
 The first focus of the sport is physical fitness, and then the trainer will
teach the Grappling techniques to their students.
 Another name of Malyutham is Marpor, and the game will be played in a
circle of 30 feet radius filled with soft sand.

8. KILLITHATTU
 Killithattu is one of the energetic game which shows our Tamil heritage
and identity.
 The effective game requires rapid action, tactical thinking and amazing
teamwork.
 The game has two teams one guards the base, and another tries to
capture the base.
 A team of 6 members will play in the game; the last person of the team
is called Killi who will stand in the centre of the first lane.
 The person called Kili can move anywhere around the court but not
horizontally.
 The defence team has to plan properly and safeguard its territory.

9. Gillidanda
39
  The game Gilli Danda was originated from the rural areas and small towns
of the Indian subcontinent.
 The game is played with two sticks; the large stick is called danda, which
is used to hit the small stick, Gilli.
 This game is also like other bat and ball sports such as cricket, baseball
and more.

10. SEVEN-STONES
 It is a traditional game in Tamilnadu. They use seven stones that can
be piled on top of each other and has a minimum of 2-6 player in a
team
 A member of one team (the seekers) throws a ball at a pile of stones
to knock them over.
 The seekers then try to restore the pile of stones while staying safe
from the opposing team's (the hitters’) throws.
 The hitters' objective is to hit the seekers with the ball before they
can reconstruct the stone pile.
 If the ball touches a seeker, that seeker is out and the team which the
seeker came from continues, without the seeker.
 A seeker can always safeguard themselves by touching an opposite
team member before the ball hits the seeker.

40
 UNIT IV THINAI CONCEPT OF TAMILS
4.1 Flora & Fauna of Tamils
 The Sangam Society was split into five distinct ecological zones
according to ancient Tamil literature. Each zone is called Thinai.
 There are five Thinais which are called Ainthinai.
 Each of these have their own God or Goddess, Flowers, Flora, Fauna,
Occupation, People and Cultural life which is related to the
environmental conditions of that region.
 The five Thinais are:
1. Kurunji - hilly or mountain region
2. Mullai - Forest or pastoral region
3. Marutham - Fertile riverine valley
4. Neythal - Coastal region
5. Paalai - Desert region
Kuṟinji Mullai Marudam Neithal Pālai
Landscape Mountains Forest, Agricultural Seashore Parched
pasture areas wasteland
Flower Kuṟinji Mullai Marudam Water lily Pālai
(Jasmine)
Flora Jackfruit, Konrai Mango Punnai Cactus
bamboo,
venkai
Fauna Monkey, Cow, bull, Water Crocodile, Fatigued
elephant, sheep, Buffalo, shark elephant,
horse, bull, goat and freshwater tiger, or
Tiger deer. fish wolf
Avifauna Peacock, Sparrow Heron Seagull. Eagle
parrot. and wild
fowl.
People Vettuvar Kovalar or Vellalars Meenavarand Maravar
and Ayar Umanar
Kuravar
Occupation Hunting and Animal Agriculture Fishing and Highway
gathering husbandry salt collection robbery,
Main Deity Muruga Vishnu Indra Varuna Kotravi

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4.2 Aham and Puram concept from Tholkappiyam and Sangam Literature
❖ Thinai is a type of poetic mode or theme in which classical Tamil poems are
set in classes which refer to a particular habitat or ecozone.
❖ These poems are also based on one of the two themes which are:
1. Akathinai - The word Akam means interior. It is related to situations related to
love and family life. Tholkappiyam divides the akathinai into 7 types as
1. Kurunji – Union of lovers
2. Mullai – Patient waiting on the part of wife
3. Marutham – Lovers quarrel
4. Neythal – Bemoaning the lover’s absence
5. Paalai – Separation of lovers
6. Kaikilai*- One side love
7. Perunthinai*- Forcing love
*The Kikilai and perunthinai were not accepted by Tamil Scholar.
Features Kurinji Mullai Marutam Neytal Palai
Akathinai Making love Patient waiting on the Lovers Bemoaning Separation of
part of wife for the quarrel due to the lover’s lovers
return of her husband hero’s absence
from a journey infidelity

2. Purathinai - The word Puram means exterior. It deals with exterior factors mainly
with war and heroism .
 Tolkappiyar mentions the seven purathinais as Vetchi, Vanchi, Uzhijnai,
Tumbai, Vagai, Kanchi and Patan.
 The grammarians who came after Tolkappiyar divided the Purathinai into
twelve. They were called Vetchi, Karanthai, Vanchi, Kanchi, Uzhinnai, Nochi,
Tumbai, Vagai, Patan, General, Kaiklai, Peruntinhai.

42
No Types Details
1. Vetchi Cattle raiding
Before starting a war against an enemy country, the king,
who thinks that no harm should be done to the anirai in that
country, sends his soldiers to capture the goats and cows
that are the anirai. Those warriors will wear Vetchipoo. Nirai
means goats and cows. This is called cattle attraction.
2. Karanthai Anirai meetal
They wear Karanthipo to bring back their cows and goats
lured away by Vetchi soldiers.
3. Vanji Territorial war
Warriors fight by wearing vanchipoo to conquer other
country.
4. Kanchi Fight against enemy who came to conquer the country by
wearing Kanchipoo.
5. Uzhinnai War at fort
Wearing the Uzhinai flower and entered the fort of
Matarasana with his soldiers and captured the wall.
6. Nochi Defends the wall by fighting with the enemy king from
outside.
7. Thumbai Battle
The opponents will wear thumbai flower and fight together
with their soldiers with one goal of victory.
8. Vagai, Victory
The victorious king will be rejoicing by wearing vagai flowers.
9. Patan Thinai: Patu + Man + Thinai = Patanthinai
Patan Thinai sings in praise of education, bravery, wealth,
fame, kindness etc. of a man who is qualified to sing.
10. General States about Public welfare
11. Kaikilai* One side lust
12. Perunthinai* Love between 2 persons of long age gap

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 4.3 ARAM CONCEPT OF TAMILS
 Aram is the morals followed by the people living in the society.
 Tamils used to focus Aram on every field of their lives.
 The Aram was present in all activities such as domesticity, asceticism, love,
warfare and politics.
 There are many virtues to be followed in life.
1. The benefits of Charity

 A bowl of rice to eat; Two clothes to wear, top and bottom. This is the
rule of everyone. Therefore, the benefit of wealth is to give to others.If
you think that you will enjoy it yourself, you will lose a lot.
2. Giving is pleasure
The act of giving should be done with the intention of doing it as a
good deed, and not with the commercial motive of doing virtue in this birth
will help in rebirth.

3.
Universality
The world is one. All the men living on this one planet are all related. Only
44
the perpetrators are responsible for their actions, both good and bad.

4.
Good manners
Doing good requires Wealth.Do not do evil even if you are unable to do
good.
That is the norm that everyone wants.

5.
Sharing
Even if we get the nectar of Indra's world, We have to share it.

6.
Gratitude


Cutting the cow's udder; Mutilation of the fetus of a woman wearing a thali; abuse of
a priest;There is a remedy for such sins.
 But even if the world turns upside down, "There is no rest for those who have
forgotten gratitude," the hymn sings.
 Thiruvalluvar also points out the same

4.4 EDUCATION AND LITERACY OF TAMILS DURING THE SANGAM AGE

The Tamil term ‘kalvi’ corresponds to the word ‘Education’ which means
‘drawing out’ of a child’s latent potentialities.
Tamils -the most literate peoples
 Education was common for all men and women, rich and poor, kings
and commoners, high-born and low-born.
 About 500 poets have lived on Sanga day.More than 50 poets were
women.
 Perungobendu, Pari Mahalir, Kakaipadiniyar, Kuriyeini, Ilaveini and
Venni Kuyathi have become great poets.
 Avvaiyar, a respected scholar, was the poetess of Athiyaman and an
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 ambassador at the court of Kanji Thondaiman.
 No other country had so many poets during that period.
The place and the function of the teacher
1. The teachers were known as Kanakkayar, Asiriar, Asan, Ubattiyayar.
2. Those who taught
 literature and mathematical science were called Kanakkayar.
 music and dance were known as Aasan and
 martial arts and swords were known as Vaathiyar.
3. The teachers of primary school were known as Ilampalar asiriar.
4. The teachers of a large number of pupils were known as Kulapati.
5. Many Scholars have been from all over the city. Parents had the privilege
of sending their children to study during the Sangam period. Nalaikizhavan
and Kapilar are proofs of this.

Kanakkayar Teachers of Literature and Mathematical Sciences

Asiriar Teachers of Grammar and Etymology
Asan Dance teachers
Vaathiyar Instructors of swordsmanship and martial arts
kuravar A teacher of religious concepts and philosophies

Sangam, Pallis, Mandram, Private scholar training have been the fields of
Sangam teaching.
Sangam A system for reviewing and accepting new Tamil works

School A place to teach the arts and education

Mandram A venue for performing arts

Curriculum and the subject taught

 Knowledge in the Sangam period was understood to be of two kinds:

Knowledge of Humanities ii) Knowledge of Science
 The Humanities are represented by the study of languages and literature
 The Sciences by Mathematics, astronomy ….
 The two branches of knowledge are spoken of by Valluvar as the
“two eyes” of a rational being

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 ❖
❖ The pattern of education in the Sangam period was not merely
reading and understanding of books, but listening to learned persons.
❖ Though the education which prevailed in the Sangam Age was of a
general nature, the system of instructions varied between men and
women.
❖ Men were instructed in such subjects as making money, the art of
war, and administration, while women had a thorough grounding in
family education.
❖ Both sexes were well-trained in literary and artistic pursuits.
Learning Process
 Tamil was the language of instruction during the Sangam period. Palm
leaves were used for writing on that day.
 The pupils wrote on the dried palm leaves of size 1x 2" using
ezhuthaani.
 One of the Eladis says that the best virtue is to give suvadi, food,
ezhuthaani and clothes.
 In order to write on the leaf without mistake, first the children were
given writing practice by spreading sand on the floor.
 Teachers also administered corporal punishment on that day
 Exercises like developing memory, verbal repetition, and developing
the ability to create thousands of verses were given.
Education – the duty of parents
❖ The parents are the first and the chief educators. A poem in the
Puraurananuru collection states that it is the duty of the father to
educate and to make his son as a scholar.
❖ The kural says that “ a mother’s joy when she hears of her son’s
greatness transcends than at his birth.”
❖ The Pandya ruler Nedunchezhian advised his people to take to learning
either by giving all they have to the teacher or by rendering service to
him because
❖ Even as a mother, she gives priority to an intelligent child.
❖ The government will be done by the wise man.
❖ Even if he is born in a lower caste, education will advance him.

47
People of Sangam era realized that education is needed to achieve excellence
in all three levels namely family, government and society.
It is revealed that all sects were educated in Sangam era. The Tamil society of
the Sangam Age was an advanced and civilized society and was in no way
barbarous.
4.5 ANCIENT CITIES AND PORTS OF SANGAM AGE
The Sangam Age saw the first urbanization in Tamilagam. Cities developed and
they had brick buildings, roof tiles, ring wells and planned towns, streets, and store
houses. The towns worked as ports and artisanal centres.
Arikkamedu, Kaveripoompattinam, Azhagankulam and Korkai on the east coast
and Pattanam in Kerala were port centres.
Kanchipuram, Uraiyur, Karur, Madurai and Kodumanal were inland trade centres.
Ancient Ports:
1. Musiri: Cheras port located on the west coast. The Romanians and Greeks
bought pepper here.
2. Tondi: Cheras port located on the west coast.
3. Korkai:
 Pandiyas main port located near the confluence of Thampraparani with the
Bay of Bengal.
 It was famous for pearl fishery and chank diving.
4. Puhar(Kaveripattinam): Cholas Chief port town located near the confluence
of Thampraparani with the Bay of Bengal.

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 4.6 Export and Import during Sangam age
 Commodities from Tamilakam had a great demand in Rome. Black
pepper, cardamom, pearls and gemstones, especially Beryl which was
mined from sites in Kodumanal, Padiyur and Vaniyampadi, were highly
sought after in Rome.
 Arikamedu, known as Poduk’e in the Greco-Roman world was a
manufacturing hub of textiles particularly of Muslin clothes, fine
terracotta objects, jewelleries from beads of precious and semi-precious
stones, glass and gold. The city had an extensive glass bead
manufacturing facilities and is considered as “mother of all bead
centres” in the world.
 The handicraft included weaving, metal works and carpentry, ship building
and making of ornaments using beads, stones and ivory.
 These were in great demand in the internal and external trade that was at its
peak during the Sangam period.
 A high expertise was attained in spinning and weaving of cotton and silk
clothes. These were in great demand in the western world especially for
the cotton clothes woven at Uraiyur.
 The port city of Puhar became an important place of foreign trade, as big
ships entered this port containing precious goods.
 Other significant ports of commercial activity were Tondi, Musiri, Korkai,
Arikkamedu and Marakkanam.
 Many gold and silver coins that were issued by the Roman Emperors like
Augustus, Tiberius and Nero have been found in all parts of Tamil Nadu
indicating flourishing trade.
 Major exports of the Sangam age were cotton fabrics and spices like
pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon and turmeric along with ivory
products, pearls and precious stones.
 Major imports for the traders were horses, gold, and sweet wine.
4.6 OVER SEAS CONQUEST OF CHOLAS
1. Rajaraja Chola I launched several naval campaigns that resulted in the
capture of Sri Lanka, Maldives and the Malabar Coast In 1025.
2. Rajendra Chola launched naval raids on ports of Srivijaya and against the

49
 Burmese kingdom of Pegu.
3. A Chola inscription states that he captured or plundered 14 places, which
have been identified with Palembang, Tambralinga and Kedah among others.
4. A second invasion was led by Virarajendra Chola, who conquered Kedah in
Malaysia of Srivijaya in the late 11th century.
UNIT-V
CONTRIBUTION OF TAMILS TO INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT AND
INDIAN CULTURE
5.1 Contribution of Tamils to Indian Freedom Struggle
Introduction
 Freedom Fighters in Tamilnadu played a pivotal role in the Indian
Independence Movement.
 Tamilnadu was home to several prominent leaders who fought for India’s
freedom from British colonial rule.
 Tamils aggression against the British is very old.
 There have been rulers who stood strong against the colonial aggression.
 But the fate is that many have not been told to the world.
 It is time for us to know the great leaders who still are the symbol of
Bravery.
Prominent Freedom fighters of Tamilnadu
Freedom Fighters Contribution
1. Maveeran Alagumuthu Kone (1710–1759) ★ He was a polygar from Katalangulam
- Polygar of Katalangulam ★ The first Who opposed the British and
to stop the Polygars from paying tax
to the British was Veera Azhagu
muthu kone
★ He lead and fought India’s first war
against the British in 1759 at
Pethanayakanur.
★ He was captured and was asked to
seek mercy and pay tax.
★ He refused to both and was executed
at Nadukattur.

2. Veerapandia Kattabomman (1760-1799) Fought against tax collection by East Indian

-Polygar from Panchalankurichi Company rulers.
1. A meeting with the British over the
collection of pending rents ended in
violence when a British officer was
killed by Kattabomman.
2. Kattabomman escaped but the British
put a bounty on his head. This

50
 prompted many polygars to rebel
openly.
3. Kattabomman was ultimately captured
after he was betrayed by Ettappan, the
Pudukottai Raja.
4. He was sentenced to death and
publicly hanged at Kayatharu.

3. Rani Velu Nachchiyar (1730 -1780) ★ The British killed her and took away
the throne saying a Woman cannot
inherit the throne.
★ Extraordinary War Strategy defeated
the British forces and recaptured the
throne of Sivaganga Kingdom.

4. Maruthu Brothers (1748-1801)  Fought against East India

Company.
 They were hanged to death along
with their families and commanders
on palmyra trees in Thirupathur.

5. V. O. Chidambharam Pillai (1872-1936)- ★ He challenged the British monopoly in

Kappalottiya Tamilan Maritime trade and established
shipping Company in 1906. Hence he
was called Kappalottiya Tamilan.
★ The frustrated British for his political
revolt, arrested VOC.
★ VOC’s Lawyer Licence was stripped
and at prison he was asked to press
oil. So he was Known as Sekilutha
semmal

6. Subramaniya Bharathi (1882-1921)  His songs and poems echoed the

sounds of Freedom struggle into
every man’s heart.
 He was arrested and imprisoned
several times for his writings against
british.

51
7. Tirupur Kumaran (1902-1932)  He died from injuries sustained
- Kodi Kaatha Kumaran from a police assault.
 At the time of his death, he was
holding the flag of the Indian
Nationalists. So he was known
"Kumaran who protected the
flag".
8. Senbaga Raman Pillai (1891 –1934) ★ Coined the word of Indian war
cry “JAI HIND”. Fore runner of
Netaji.

9. Maveeran Vanchinathan (1886-1911) ★ shot

dead Tirunelveli Collector Ash
Durai .

10. C. RajaGopalachery (1878-1972) ★ Mootharignar Rajaji, was an Indian

statesman, writer, lawyer, and
independence activist.
Rajagopalachari was the last
Governor-General of India, as India
became a republic in 1950.
★ First recipients of India's highest
civilian award, the Bharat Ratna.
52
 ★ Led imprisonment for Vedaranyam
salt Satyagraha

Conclusion
★ The role played by Tamils in Indian Freedom struggle is as vast
as an ocean. The List is so lengthy.
5.2 CULTURAL INFLUENCE OF TAMILS OVER THE OTHER PARTS OF
INDIA
1. Love and Domesticity
2. Friendship Not the face’s smile of welcome shows the friend sincere, But
the heart’s rejoicing gladness when the friend is near
Friendship is not more smile on face It is the smiling heart’s embrace-
Thirukural
3. Hospitality
4. Heroism( Armed solider force, Cavalry force, elephant force, chariotry
force, spy/team
5. Charity

A bowl of rice to eat; Two clothes to wear, top and bottom. This is the rule
of everyone. Therefore, the benefit of wealth is to give to others.If you think
that you will enjoy it yourself, you will lose a lot.
6. Chastity and Virtue are common for both men and women.
7. Integrity (World) –
“யாதும் ஊரே யாவரும் ரேளிே்” - kaniyan Poongudran
“We are all connected to everyone and everything in the universe. Therefore,
everything one does as an individual affects the whole. All thoughts, words,

53
 images, prayers, blessings, and deeds are listened to by all that is.
8. Fine arts and Sports
Dance, Music and sports like Sathurangam, Silambattam, Daming of Bull
and Kabadi
10..The Self-Respect Movement played a significant role in the political, social and
religious life of the people of South India. It brought the message of the Tamil
Nationalism to the masses.
11. In Periyar's model of society, Women were given the right to choose
partners as well as divorce them and remarry
 The campaign was a breakthrough moment for feminism in India.
12. Subramaniya Bharathiyar songs and poems echoed the sounds of
Freedom struggle into every man’s heart.
13. Senbaga Raman Pillai coined the word of Indian war cry “JAI HIND”
5.3 SELF RESPECT MOVEMENT
1. Self-Respect Movement was started by E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker in Tamil
Nadu in 1925.
2. This movement fought for people of the lower castes to have "self-respect" in
society.
3. Thanthai Periyar believed that developing self-respect in individuals will
end caste discrimination and gives self confidence.
4. It was an egalitarian movement that propagated
 the ideologies of breaking down of the Brahminical hegemony,
 equal rights for the backward classes and women in the society
 and revitalization of the Dravidian languages like Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, and
Malayalam
4. Key Objectives:
● To build a society in which backward castes have the same basic civil rights as
higher castes.
● Complete eradication of untouchability and establishment of a just and
harmonious society.
● Friendship and fellow feeling should come naturally to everyone.
● To provide shelter for the destitute, orphans, and widows and to establish
schools and colleges.
● To discourage people from building new temples, mutts, Vedic Schools.
● People should drop the caste titles in their names.
● Common funds should be utilized for educational purposes and for creating
employment opportunities
5. In Periyar's model of society, women were to be allowed access to
contraception (the ways of preventing a woman from becoming pregnant)

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 and even permanent birth control measures.
 Women were given the right to choose partners as well as divorce them and
remarry
 The campaign was a breakthrough moment for feminism in India.
Significance
1. The monopoly of power and influence enjoyed by the Brahmins was slowly lost
due to E.V.R.’s unceasing propaganda against orthodoxy. It filled with the sense of
self-respect and above all self-confidence, to fight against social injustice perpetrated
by the Brahmins of the day.
2. It led to the promotion of inter-caste and inter-religious marriages and legalization
of marriages without Brahman priest. Post independence, Tamil Nadu passed a law
and became the first state to legalise Hindu marriage without Brahmin priest.
3. The system of allotting separate places for Harijan members in the Municipal
Councils was also discontinued.
4. Due to relentless fight of supporters of the movement, the name boards of the
hotels were changed from “Brahmins Hotel” to “Vegetarian Hotel”.
5. People started taking pride in giving up their caste name.

5.4 ROLE OF SIDDA MEDICINE IN INDIGENOUS SYSTEMS OF MEDICINE

 Saint Agathiyar, the popular person in the realm of Tamil Siddha Medicine
System, is one among the 18 Siddha’s.
 He is the chief exponent of Tamil Siddha Medicine System and hence,
considered “FATHER OF TAMIL SIDDHA MEDICINE SYSTEM”.
 He has recorded his discoveries in Siddha Medicine System in the form of
palm leaf manuscripts, which is now available in the form of text books
after strenuous works of conversion.
 His works range from curing small to big diseases by using simple herbs
and mineral combinations to the complex preparation of Siddha medicine.
 His works in the pathology division of Siddha Medicine system like Jeeva
Nadi (ஜீவநாடி) , Kandar Nadi muraigal (ேந்தே்நாடிமுறைேள் ), nadi
noolgal (நாடிநூல் ேள் ) are unparalleled.
 His works on preparation of Universal salt* (Muppu and Amuri) for both
alchemical and medicinal purpose is of high value………
 *Universal salt- muppu and amuri are called universal salt because, when
added to medicines in small amounts, they have the ability to potentiate the
original medicine to multiple times and it can be added to any medicine,
hence they are called universal solvent or salt.
 Food is Medicine; Medicine is Food” is one of the core doctrines mentioned
in Siddha classics for healthy life. This maxim acknowledges the emphasis

55
 laid by Siddhars on healthy eating and the nutritional importance of a
balanced diet. Siddha Medicine describes the significance of balancing
food (Thirithoda) ingredients namely pepper, turmeric, cumin seeds,
asafoetida, dried ginger, cardamom, fenugreek and garlic maintain the
homeostasis between the three humours namely Vali, Azhal and Aiyam..

5.5 INSCRIPTIONS AND MANUSCRIPTS

1. Inscriptions Epigraphical information for the Sangam period is scanty.
2. The Asokan Edicts refer to the Chera, Chola and Pandya kingdoms.
3. The Hathikumba Inscriptions of the Kalinga king , Kharavela also mentions the three
Tamil Kingdoms.
4. The Kalugumalai inscriptions help us to know about ancient Tamil scripts called
Tamil Brahmi. (Tamili)
5. The Tirukkovalur inscriptions refer to the local chieftains and the tragic end of the
Tamil Poet, Kapilar.
6. The inscriptions at Thirupparankundrum mention the gift of cave beds to the Jain
monks.
7. The inscriptions found at Arnattar hills, near Pugalur belonged to the First Century
A.D. and these inscriptions furnish information regarding the Chera kings.
Manucsripts
Ancient Tamil works were obtained as Olai suvadigal manuscripts.
U.V.Swaminatha Iyer, was instrumental in the revival of interest in the Sangam
age literature in Tamil Nadu. He travelled all over the Tamil country, collecting,
deciphering and publishing ancient books such as Cilappatikaram, Kuruntokai,
etc. He published over 90 books and wrote En saritham, an autobiography.
5.6 PRINT HISTORY OF TAMIL BOOKS
 The first printed book in Indian languages was the Tamil book.
 The historically significant Cartilha was printed in Roman script in Lisbon
in Portugal in the year 1554. Though it was a Tamil work, it was printed
and published only using Roman script as Tamil print characters had not
developed.
 This book was printed on the directions of king Swam III of Portugal for
facilitating Christian missionaries in their work in India. Vincent D Nazareth,
Yodge Kavalco and Thomas De Cruz are the three Tamils who translated
the prayers and hymns in that work.
 “Two colours have been used in this book. Also, they printed the Christian
56
 meditative hymns and the religious tenets in bold letters in Tamil and gave
the same in Portuguese language too, along with. Further, they also printed
the word-to-word translation of the Tamil hymns in Portuguese against
every word in red.
 Likewise, ‘Thambiran Vanakkam’ is the first Tamil book printed in our country and
this happened in Kollam in 1578.
 This is a translated work, which contains the translations of the prayer hymns
found in Christian sacred scriptures. This is a book of 16 pages. Rev. Andrick
Adigalar took the help of Manuel Adigalar
 Above all, it was Andrick Adigalar who translated the printed Tamil works and
also wrote them as separate books in the 16th century and he deserves special
mention for his great contributions to Tamil. Born in Portugal, he came to India,
learnt and mastered the Tamil language, and lived and died here in our land.

 Ancient Tamil works were obtained as Olai suvadigal manuscripts.

 U.V.Swaminatha Iyer, was instrumental in the revival of interest in the Sangam
age literature in Tamil Nadu. He travelled all over the Tamil country, collecting,
deciphering and publishing ancient books such as Cilappatikaram, Kuruntokai,
etc. He published over 90 books and wrote En saritham, an autobiography.

57
58