Kinematics

Kinematics
SECTION II: NEWTONIAN MECHANICS
3.0 Kinematics
Position
 In order to describe the motion of an object, you must first be able to describe its
position—where it is at any particular time.
 The position is specified relative to a convenient reference frame. Earth is often
used as a reference frame.
 In other cases, we use reference frames that are not stationary but are in motion
relative to the Earth.
 To describe the position of a person in an airplane, for example, we use the
airplane, not the Earth, as the reference frame.
Displacement
 If an object moves relative to a reference frame this change in position is known

as displacement. The word “displacement” implies that an object has moved, or
has been displaced.
 Displacement is the change in position of an object:
Δx = xf − x0,
where Δx is displacement, xf is the final position, and x0 is the initial position.
Kinematics
 Note that the SI unit for displacement is the metre (m)

 Note that displacement has a direction as well as a magnitude.
Distance and Displacement
 Although displacement is described in terms of direction, distance is not.

 Distance is defined to be the magnitude or size of displacement between
two positions.
 Note that the distance between two positions is not the same as the
distance travelled between them.
 Distance travelled is the total length of the path travelled between two
positions. Distance has no direction and, thus, no sign.
 Displacement is distance travelled in a particular direction.
Time
 As discussed in Physical Quantities and Units, the most fundamental physical

quantities are defined by how they are measured.
 The amount of time or change is calibrated by comparison with a standard.
 The SI unit for time is the second, abbreviated s.
 Elapsed time Δt is the difference between the ending time and beginning time,
Δt = tf − t0,
where Δt is the change in time or elapsed time, tf is the time at the end of the
motion, and t0 is the time at the beginning of the motion
 motion starts at time equal to zero (t0 = 0)
Kinematics
Velocity
 velocity is the rate of change of displacement

v = Δx/t, Δx = (xf − x0)
,
xf and x0 are the final and beginning positions
 the definition indicates that velocity is a vector because displacement is a vector.
It has both magnitude and direction.
 The SI unit for velocity is meters per second or m/s, but many other units, such
as km/h, mi/h (also written as mph), and cm/s, are in common use.
Acceleration
 Acceleration is the rate at which velocity changes,

a = Δv/t, Δv = vf – v0
 the SI units for acceleration are m/s2 , meters per second squared.
 Recall that velocity is a vector—it has both magnitude and direction.
 This means that a change in velocity can be a change in magnitude (or speed),
but it can also be a change in direction.
 For example, if a car turns a corner at constant speed, it is accelerating because
its direction is changing
 Acceleration as a vector
 When an object slows down, its acceleration is opposite to the direction of its
motion. This is known as deceleration.
Displacement-time graphs
 For a displacement-time graph, the gradient at a point is equal to the

speed.
Kinematics
Speed-time graphs
 For a speed-time graph, the area under the curve is the distance travelled.
 The gradient at any point on the curve equals the acceleration.
 Note, the acceleration is also the second derivative of a speed-time function.
Equations of Motion
 These equations apply only if the motion takes place along a straight line and the
acceleration is constant; {hence, for e.g., air resistance must be negligible.}
 One of the equations of motion stems from the definition of acceleration:
Acceleration = the rate of change of speed
rearranging
if we define the distance 's' as the average speed times the time(t), then:
rearranging
Kinematics
rearranging (i
subtracting these two equations to eliminate v
 If we multiply the two equations we show that:
Summary:
Example #1
A car starts from rest and accelerates at 10 ms-2 for 3 secs.

What is the maximum speed it attains?
Example #2
Kinematics
A car travelling at 25 ms-1 starts to decelerate at 5 ms-2.

How long will it take for the car to come to rest?
Example #3
A car travelling at 20 ms-1 decelerates at 5 ms-2.

How far will the car travel before stopping?
Example #4
A car travelling at 30 ms-1 accelerates at 5 ms-2 for 8 secs.

How far did the car travel during the period of acceleration?
Kinematics
Vertical motion under gravity

Weight
 The weight of an object is defined as the gravitational force acting on the object,
and is dependent on the mass of the body.
 Note that the acceleration due to gravity (or acceleration of free-fall, usually
denoted by g) is taken as constant for all bodies, although it varies slightly from
place to place.
 The direction of that force (weight) is always toward the centre of this planet.
 We can calculate the weight of an object from its mass by the equation W = mg,
where W=weight, m=mass and g=acceleration of free fall.
Weight of the teacher = 70 × 9.81 = 687N
 Consider a body moving in a uniform gravitational field under 2 different
conditions:
WITHOUT AIR RESISTANCE
 These problems concern a particle projected vertically upwards and falling

'under gravity'.
 Whether the body is moving up, or at the highest point or moving down, the
weight of the body, W, is the only force acting on it.
 The body therefore experiences a constant acceleration.
 In these types of problem it is assumed that:
 air resistance is minimal

 displacement & velocity are positive(+) upwards & negative(-) downwards
 acceleration(g) always acts downwards and is therefore negative(-)
 acceleration due to gravity(g) is a constant
Example #1
A stone is thrown vertically upwards at 15 ms-1.
(i) what is the maximum height attained?

(ii) how long is the stone in the air before hitting the ground?
(Assume g = 9.8 ms-2. Both answers to 2 d.p.)

Kinematics
Example #2
A boy throws a stone vertically down a well at 12 ms-1.

If he hears the stone hit the water 3 secs. later,
(i) how deep is the well?

(ii)what is the speed of the stone when it hits the water?
(Assume g = 9.8 ms-2. Both answers to 1 d.p.)

Kinematics
WITH AIR RESISTANCE
 If air resistance is NOT negligible and if body is projected upwards with the same
initial velocity, as the body moves upwards, both air resistance and weight act
downwards.
 Thus its speed will decrease at a rate greater than 9.81 m s-2 .
 This causes the time taken to reach its maximum height reached to be lower
than in the case with no air resistance.
 The max height reached is also reduced.
 At the highest point, the body is momentarily at rest; air resistance becomes zero
and hence the only force acting on it is the weight. The acceleration is thus 9.81
m s-2 at this point.
 As a body falls, air resistance opposes its weight.
 The downward acceleration is thus less than 9.81 m s-2.
 As air resistance increases with speed, it eventually equals its weight (but in
opposite direction).
 From then there will be no resultant force acting on the body and it will fall with
a constant speed, called the terminal velocity.
Kinematics
Projectiles
Vertical & horizontal components of velocity
 When a particle is projected under gravity at a velocity u at an angle θ to the

horizontal (neglecting air resistance) it follows the curve of a parabola.
 The particle has an initial horizontal speed of ucosθ, which is unchanged

throughout the motion.
 Vertically the particle has an initial speed of usinθ. It falls under gravity and is
accelerated downwards with an acceleration of g ms-1,where g = 9.8 ms-2
(approx.)
Time of flight
 The time of flight is calculated from the vertical component of the velocity.
 It is the time it takes for the particle to go up, reach its maximum height and
come down again.
 So this is twice the time to maximum height.
 If the time to maximum height is t secs. Then the time of flight is 2t.
 Consider motion up to maximum height. This is attained when the final velocity v
= 0.
Kinematics
Maximum height attained (H)
 The maximum height attained occurs when the particle is momentarily

stationary, before falling under gravity.
 The vertical component of speed is zero at this point (v=0).
Range(R)
 The range is simply the horizontal component of speed multiplied by the time of
flight.
Velocity (speed & direction) at time t

Kinematics
 Solution of problems is to find the vertical component of speed at time t and

combine this with the original horizontal component of speed, which remains
unchanged.
Example
A particle P is projected at an angle of 45 degrees to the horizontal at a speed of 30 ms-1.
What is the speed and direction of the particle after 3 secs?
(g=9.8 ms-2)

Kinematics

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Kinematics

SECTION II: NEWTONIAN MECHANICS

 If an object moves relative to a reference frame this change in position is known

 Note that the SI unit for displacement is the metre (m)

Distance and Displacement

 Although displacement is described in terms of direction, distance is not.

 As discussed in Physical Quantities and Units, the most fundamental physical

 velocity is the rate of change of displacement

 Acceleration is the rate at which velocity changes,

 For a displacement-time graph, the gradient at a point is equal to the

 Note, the acceleration is also the second derivative of a speed-time function.

 One of the equations of motion stems from the definition of acceleration:

Acceleration = the rate of change of speed

subtracting these two equations to eliminate v

 If we multiply the two equations we show that:

A car starts from rest and accelerates at 10 ms-2 for 3 secs.

A car travelling at 25 ms-1 starts to decelerate at 5 ms-2.

A car travelling at 20 ms-1 decelerates at 5 ms-2.

A car travelling at 30 ms-1 accelerates at 5 ms-2 for 8 secs.

Vertical motion under gravity

WITHOUT AIR RESISTANCE

 These problems concern a particle projected vertically upwards and falling

 In these types of problem it is assumed that:

 air resistance is minimal

A stone is thrown vertically upwards at 15 ms-1.

(i) what is the maximum height attained?

(Assume g = 9.8 ms-2. Both answers to 2 d.p.)

A boy throws a stone vertically down a well at 12 ms-1.

(i) how deep is the well?

(Assume g = 9.8 ms-2. Both answers to 1 d.p.)

WITH AIR RESISTANCE

 When a particle is projected under gravity at a velocity u at an angle θ to the

 The particle has an initial horizontal speed of ucosθ, which is unchanged

Maximum height attained (H)

 The maximum height attained occurs when the particle is momentarily

Velocity (speed & direction) at time t

 Solution of problems is to find the vertical component of speed at time t and

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