Vocabulary

Vocabulary plays a fundamental role in the reading process and is critical to reading comprehension.
Children learn the meanings of most words indirectly, through everyday experiences with oral and
written language. Other words are learned through carefully designed instruction.

Vocabulary learning is all about the words we need to know to both understand what we hear and read,
and to communicate clearly and with precision. Educators often consider four types of vocabulary:

Listening vocabulary refers to the words we need to know to understand what we hear.

Speaking vocabulary consists of the words we use when we speak.

Reading vocabulary refers to the words we need to know to understand what we read.

Writing vocabulary consists of the words we use in writing.

Vocabulary plays an important part in learning to read. Beginning readers must use the words they hear
orally to make sense of the words they see in print. Kids who hear more words spoken at home learn
more words and enter school with better vocabularies. This larger vocabulary pays off exponentially as a
child progresses through school.

Consider, for example, what happens when a beginning reader comes to the word dig in a book. As she
begins to figure out the sounds represented by the letters d, i, g, the reader recognizes that the sounds
make up a very familiar word that she has heard and said many times. It is harder for a beginning reader
to figure out words that are not already part of their speaking (oral) vocabulary.

Vocabulary is key to reading comprehension. Readers cannot understand what they are reading without
knowing what most of the words mean. As children learn to read more advanced texts, they must learn
the meaning of new words that are not part of their oral vocabulary.

The scientific research on vocabulary instruction reveals that most vocabulary is learned indirectly and
that some vocabulary must be taught directly. Thus, research supports using a combination of both
indirect and direct approaches.
Indirect vocabulary learning

Children learn the meanings of most words indirectly, through everyday experiences with oral and
written language.

Children learn word meanings indirectly in three ways:

They engage daily in oral language

They listen to adults read to them

They read extensively on their own

Direct vocabulary learning

Although a great deal of vocabulary is learned indirectly, some vocabulary should be taught directly.

Direct instruction helps students learn difficult words, such as words that represent complex concepts
that are not part of the students’ everyday experiences. Direct instruction of vocabulary relevant to a
given text leads to better reading comprehension.

Direct instruction includes:

Providing students with instruction in specific words that are important to students’ content learning or
understanding of a particular text

Teaching students more general word-learning strategies that they can apply to a variety of words, such
as analyzing parts of words (e.g., root words)

The Importance of Vocabulary Development

According to Steven Stahl (2005), “Vocabulary knowledge is knowledge; the knowledge of a word not
only implies a definition, but also implies how that word fits into the world.” We continue to develop
vocabulary throughout our lives. Words are powerful. Words open up possibilities, and of course, that’s
what we want for all of our students.

pointer Teaching words and vocabulary-learning strategies with Read Naturally programs

Key Concepts

Differences in Early Vocabulary Development

We know that young children acquire vocabulary indirectly, first by listening when others speak or read
to them, and then by using words to talk to others. As children begin to read and write, they acquire
more words through understanding what they are reading and then incorporate those words into their
speaking and writing.

Vocabulary knowledge varies greatly among learners. The word knowledge gap between groups of
children begins before they enter school. Why do some students have a richer, fuller vocabulary than
some of their classmates?

Language rich home with lots of verbal stimulation

Wide background experiences

Read to at home and at school

Read a lot independently

Early development of word consciousness

Why do some students have a limited, inadequate vocabulary compared to most of their classmates?

Speaking/vocabulary not encouraged at home

Limited experiences outside of home

Limited exposure to books

Reluctant reader

Second language—English language learners

Children who have been encouraged by their parents to ask questions and to learn about things and
ideas come to school with oral vocabularies many times larger than children from disadvantaged homes.
Without intervention this gap grows ever larger as students proceed through school (Hart and Risley,
1995).

How Vocabulary Affects Reading Development

From the research, we know that vocabulary supports reading development and increases
comprehension. Students with low vocabulary scores tend to have low comprehension and students
with satisfactory or high vocabulary scores tend to have satisfactory or high comprehension scores.

The report of the National Reading Panel states that the complex process of comprehension is critical to
the development of children’s reading skills and cannot be understood without a clear understanding of
the role that vocabulary development and instruction play in understanding what is read (NRP, 2000).
Chall’s classic 1990 study showed that students with low vocabulary development were able to maintain
their overall reading test scores at expected levels through grade four, but their mean scores for word
recognition and word meaning began to slip as words became more abstract, technical, and literary.
Declines in word recognition and word meaning continued, and by grade seven, word meaning scores
had fallen to almost three years below grade level, and mean reading comprehension was almost a year
below. Jeanne Chall coined the term “the fourth-grade slump” to describe this pattern in developing
readers (Chall, Jacobs, and Baldwin, 1990).

Incidental and Intentional Vocabulary Learning

How do we close the gap for students who have limited or inadequate vocabularies? The National
Reading Panel (2000) concluded that there is no single research-based method for developing
vocabulary and closing the gap. From its analysis, the panel recommended using a variety of indirect
(incidental) and direct (intentional) methods of vocabulary instruction.

Incidental Vocabulary Learning

Most students acquire vocabulary incidentally through indirect exposure to words at home and at
school—by listening and talking, by listening to books read aloud to them, and by reading widely on
their own.

The amount of reading is important to long-term vocabulary development (Cunningham and Stanovich,
1998). Extensive reading provides students with repeated or multiple exposures to words and is also one
of the means by which students see vocabulary in rich contexts (Kamil and Hiebert, 2005).

Intentional Vocabulary Learning

Students need to be explicitly taught methods for intentional vocabulary learning. According to Michael
Graves (2000), effective intentional vocabulary instruction includes:

Teaching specific words (rich, robust instruction) to support understanding of texts containing those
words.

Teaching word-learning strategies that students can use independently.

Promoting the development of word consciousness and using word play activities to motivate and
engage students in learning new words.

Research-Supported Vocabulary-Learning Strategies

Students need a wide range of independent word-learning strategies. Vocabulary instruction should aim
to engage students in actively thinking about word meanings, the relationships among words, and how
we can use words in different situations. This type of rich, deep instruction is most likely to influence
comprehension (Graves, 2006; McKeown and Beck, 2004).

Student-Friendly Definitions

The meaning of a new word should be explained to students rather than just providing a dictionary
definition for the word—which may be difficult for students to understand. According to Isabel Beck,
two basic principles should be followed in developing student-friendly explanations or definitions (Beck
et al., 2013):

Characterize the word and how it is typically used.

Explain the meaning using everyday language—language that is accessible and meaningful to the
student.

Sometimes a word’s natural context (in text or literature) is not informative or helpful for deriving word
meanings (Beck et al., 2013). It is useful to intentionally create and develop instructional contexts that
provide strong clues to a word’s meaning. These are usually created by teachers, but they can
sometimes be found in commercial reading programs.

Defining Words Within Context

Research shows that when words and easy-to-understand explanations are introduced in context,
knowledge of those words increases (Biemiller and Boote, 2006) and word meanings are better learned
(Stahl and Fairbanks, 1986). When an unfamiliar word is likely to affect comprehension, the most
effective time to introduce the word’s meaning may be at the moment the word is met in the text.

Using Context Clues

Research by Nagy and Scott (2000) showed that students use contextual analysis to infer the meaning of
a word by looking closely at surrounding text. Since students encounter such an enormous number of
words as they read, some researchers believe that even a small improvement in the ability to use
context clues has the potential to produce substantial, long-term vocabulary growth (Nagy, Herman,
and Anderson, 1985; Nagy, Anderson, and Herman, 1987; Swanborn and de Glopper, 1999).

Sketching words is vocabulary learning strategySketching the Words

For many students, it is easier to remember a word’s meaning by making a quick sketch that connects
the word to something personally meaningful to the student. The student applies each target word to a
new, familiar context. The student does not have to spend a lot of time making a great drawing. The
important thing is that the sketch makes sense and helps the student connect with the meaning of the
word.

Applying the Target Words

Applying the target words provides another context for learning word meanings. When students are
challenged to apply the target words to their own experiences, they have another opportunity to
understand the meaning of each word at a personal level. This allows for deep processing of the
meaning of each word.

Analyzing word parts is a vocabulary learning strategyAnalyzing Word Parts

The ability to analyze word parts also helps when students are faced with unknown vocabulary. If
students know the meanings of root words and affixes, they are more likely to understand a word
containing these word parts. Explicit instruction in word parts includes teaching meanings of word parts
and disassembling and reassembling words to derive meaning (Baumann et al., 2002; Baumann,
Edwards, Boland, Olejnik, and Kame'enui, 2003; Graves, 2004).

Semantic mapping is a vocabulary learning strategySemantic Mapping

Semantic maps help students develop connections among words and increase learning of vocabulary
words (Baumann et al., 2003; Heimlich and Pittleman, 1986). For example, by writing an example, a non-
example, a synonym, and an antonym, students must deeply process the word persist.

Word Consciousness

Word consciousness is an interest in and awareness of words (Anderson and Nagy, 1992; Graves and
Watts-Taffe, 2002). Students who are word conscious are aware of the words around them—those they
read and hear and those they write and speak (Graves and Watts-Taffe, 2002). Word-conscious students
use words skillfully. They are aware of the subtleties of word meaning. They are curious about language,
and they enjoy playing with words and investigating the origins and histories of words.

Teachers need to take word-consciousness into account throughout their instructional day—not just
during vocabulary lessons (Scott and Nagy, 2004). It is important to build a classroom “rich in words”
(Beck et al., 2002). Students should have access to resources such as dictionaries, thesauruses, word
walls, crossword puzzles, Scrabble® and other word games, literature, poetry books, joke books, and
word-play activities.
Teachers can promote the development of word consciousness in many ways:

Language categories: Students learn to make finer distinctions in their word choices if they understand
the relationships among words, such as synonyms, antonyms, and homographs.

Figurative language: The ability to deal with figures of speech is also a part of word-consciousness (Scott
and Nagy 2004). The most common figures of speech are similes, metaphors, and idioms.

Once language categories and figurative language have been taught, students should be encouraged to
watch for examples of these in all content areas.

Teaching Words and Vocabulary-Learning Strategies With Read Naturally Programs

Take Aim at Vocabulary logoTake Aim at Vocabulary: Build Vocabulary in the Middle Grades

These intentional vocabulary learning strategies can be efficiently and effectively implemented using
Read Naturally’s program Take Aim! at Vocabulary. Take Aim is appropriate for students who can read at
least at a fourth grade level. Take Aim is available in two formats:

The semi-independent format provides differentiated instruction for students working mostly
independently.

The small-group format is designed for small-group instruction—up to six students.

 context clues
What are context clues?

Context clues are hints and extra information in a sentence or passage that help you understand the
meaning of an unknown word. Context clues essentially let you learn new words without outside
assistance, like from a teacher or dictionary.

Context clues are quite useful in reading comprehension because they help you define tricky words in
English right then and there, without having to consult a dictionary or other source. This can speed up
the reading process so you don’t have to pause all the time.

Keep in mind that context clues can only do so much; if you consider them and you’re still unclear about
a word’s meaning, it’s best to just look it up. Where context clues really come in handy are texts with a
lot of unknown words, or words that seem familiar except you can’t quite remember what they mean.

As the word “clue” suggests, context clues require some thought. You have to play detective a little bit
by putting all the clues together to get the word’s full meaning. Often, that means using two or more
different types of context clues together to reveal different sides of a word’s meaning. Below, we talk
about the popular types of context clues so you know what to look for.

8 types of context clues

Context clues can come in a variety of different forms, but the eight types of context clues below pop up
most often. We’ll discuss each in detail in the next sections, along with context clue example sentences.

1 in-text definitions

2 examples

3 synonyms
4 antonyms or contrast

5 root words and affixes

6 mood or tone

7 cause and effect

8 inferences

1 Types of context clues: In-text definitions

The easiest and most helpful type of context clue is when a definition is provided directly in the text. A
lot of times, an appositive or adjective clause will come after an unknown word to explain what it is.

Context clues example sentences

Abigail knew that to get a catfish, she would have to try bottom fishing, a technique of dropping the lure
to the water floor to catch the fish that dwell there.

The mechanic needs to replace the entire exhaust manifold, which is a series of pipes that combines
exhaust from different places into one pipe.

2 Examples

Sometimes, you can guess the definition of a word by seeing some of its examples. You may be familiar
with some of the specific examples without knowing what category those things belong to.

Context clues example sentences

Arthropods like millipedes, dragonflies, and scorpions grew to enormous sizes during the Carboniferous
period, about 350 million years ago.

Some of my favorite cooking ingredients—soybeans, chickpeas, and lentils—are legumes.

3 Synonyms

You can easily understand a new word if you can tell it has the same meaning as another word you
already know. Sometimes difficult words are used near a context clue synonym; if you can find the
synonym, you can guess the meaning of the unknown word.

Context clues example sentences

We’ll use the food court as our rendezvous, unless you can suggest a better meeting place.

The coach doesn’t allow taunting, so don’t let her hear you making fun of the other team.

4 Antonyms or contrast

Antonyms, words with opposite meanings, can be context clues like synonyms. Look for certain cue
words like but, however, although, or other phrases that suggest a contradiction or contrast. Keep in
mind that you have to reverse the antonym’s meaning to reveal the definition of the unknown word.

Context clues example sentences

Mika seemed genial at first, but when we started discussing politics she became hostile and even rude.

Even though he was prejudiced as a teenager, his life experiences as an adult led him to be more
accepting and open-minded.

5 Root words and affixes

Root words are small parts of words (called morphemes) that each carry their own meaning. Root words
can change their meaning or word class by combining with different affixes, the prefixes and suffixes
that come before and after words. If you’re familiar with the root words and affixes in an unknown
word, you can figure out its meaning.

Context clues example sentences

The student chose to specialize in dermatology.

(The root word derma means “related to skin,” while –ology and –tology are suffixes for scientific
disciplines. Therefore, dermatology must be the scientific study of skin.)

To me the movie was indescribable . . . because I fell asleep halfway through.

(The prefix in- often negates the meaning of the root word that follows, so indescribable must mean
“not describable” or “can’t be described.”)

6 Mood or tone

If you’re struggling to find the meaning of a word with context clues, you can use the mood or tone of
the passage to help. We’ve discussed tone versus mood before, but to recap, tone refers to details like
word choice or punctuation and how they affect the attitude of a piece of writing, whereas mood refers
to broader writing choices like themes or topics and how they affect the atmosphere of the text as a
whole.

While mood or tone may not reveal the precise definition of an unknown word, they can still hint at
what kind of word it is. This is better than nothing when there are no other context clues present.

Context clues example sentences

What this grim, ungainly, ghastly, gaunt, and ominous bird of yore

Meant in croaking “Nevermore.”

—“The Raven,” Edgar Allen Poe

(If you don’t know what grim, ungainly, ghastly, gaunt, or ominous mean, you can still guess that their
definitions are gloomy and dismal from the mood and tone of the poem.)

He is jubilant as a flag unfurled—

Oh, a girl, she’d not forget him.

My own dear love, he is all my world,—

And I wish I’d never met him.

—“Love Song,” Dorothy Parker

(You may not know what jubilant means, but you can tell it’s positive and complimentary from the rest
of the poem’s tone.)

7 Cause and effect

In English, words like because, so, therefore, and thus show a cause-and-effect relationship. If you
understand the words explaining either the cause or the effect, you can guess the meanings of the other
words as long as you understand how the relationship works.

Context clues example sentences

She wanted to dress her best for the prom, so she asked to borrow her mother’s finest adornments.

Because of the kalopsia from his puppy love, he couldn’t see any of the warnings or red flags.

8 Inference

Last, you can put various types of context clues together to infer the meaning of a new word. Simply
look at the rest of the sentence or passage and review the words you do understand; does their
meaning help you with the unknown word or words?

Context clues example sentences

The soldiers are tired, unmotivated, and falling into despair; we desperately need to raise morale.

Everything I did or said, he complimented. It was cute at first, but by the end of the night it got
annoying. I’m never dating a sycophant again.

Context clues FAQs

What are context clues?

Context clues are hints and extra information in a sentence or passage that help you understand the
meaning of an unknown word. Context clues essentially let you learn new words without outside
assistance like a teacher or dictionary.

What are some common types of context clues?

Context clues can be anything that helps you understand the meaning of an unknown word. However,
some of the most common and effective types of context clues are in-text definitions, listed examples,
synonyms, antonyms, root words/affixes, mood/tone, cause and effect, and inferences.

Why are context clues important to reading comprehension?

If you encounter words you’ve never seen before, context clues can help you define them right then and
there, without having to pause to consult a dictionary or other source. This can quicken the reading
process so you don’t have to stop to check a dictionary app all the time.

When in doubt about the meaning of an unfamiliar word, look around in the sentence; check to see if
there is a definition or synonym clue to help you unlock meaning.

Another kind of context clue (in addition to definitions and synonyms embedded in sentences) is a word
or words of opposite meaning (antonym) set somewhere near a word that is unfamiliar. If you find a
word or words of opposite meaning and you recognize it or them, you are "home free." You can unlock
the meaning of the unfamiliar word.

For example, read the following sentence: "I was not exactly enamored of the travel plans my agent
made for me; my lack of enthusiasm was triggered by the eight-hour layover required between flights."
What is the meaning of the word enamored? You can use the context of the sentence to reason in this
way: Enamored of means just the opposite of lacking in enthusiasm for.

Strategy

Step 1: Check for synonyms or definitions embedded right there. If you find a synonym or definition,
reread the sentence with the new term keeping that synonym or definition in mind.

Step 2: Check for an antonym clue. If you find one, think about its meaning, actually telling yourself the
opposite meaning. Then reread the sentence and rephrase it in your own mind.

Context Clues: Substitution

At times, rereading a sentence that contains an unfamiliar term and substituting a word or phrase for it
that makes sense can help you to unlock the meaning of the unfamiliar word. To understand the
substitution strategy, read the following sentence:
"When we stayed at the military base, each Saturday we went to the commissary to buy the food and
supplies we would need for the next week."

Although you may never have visited a commissary, given the use of the word in this sentence, you
immediately can substitute the word store for the word commissary. You probably can wrestle an even
more complete meaning for commissary from the overall context of the sentence: a store for food and
supplies that is located on a military base.

Steps in the substitution strategy are as follows:

Step 1: When you read a sentence that you have trouble understanding because of an unfamiliar word
in it, reread the sentence and substitute a word that seems to make sense in the context.

Step 2: Read on. If the word you substituted does not make sense in the context of the rest of the
paragraph, try again.

Step 3: If the sentence still does not make sense to you and you do not understand the main point the
author is making in the paragraph, look for synonym, definition, and antonym clues. If you are still
uncertain, check a dictionary.

Context Clues: Multiple Meanings

As you have learned, a basic strategy for unlocking the meaning of an unfamiliar word is to search the
context of the sentence in which a new word appears for clues. This is especially important when a
word has multiple meanings that you already know and you must decide the particular one that applies.
Try using the following strategy:

Step 1: Check the context for clues: definitions and synonyms given "right there" as well as words of
opposite meaning – antonyms.

Step 2: Substitute each meaning you know in the context of the sentence until you find one that makes
good sense there. (Hennings, p. 48)
 Prefixes and suffixes
Prefixes and suffixes are short syllables added to the beginning or end of words to change their meaning
and/or function in a sentence. In this article, you will be introduced to the meaning and definition of a
prefix and a suffix, along with an extensive list of base words and their prefixes and suffixes. You will also
learn how the base word and the word with the prefix or suffix change meaning and function.

Table of Contents

What Is a Prefix and a Suffix? – Meaning and Definition

Spelling Rules to Be Followed When Adding a Prefix or a Suffix

List of Commonly-Used Prefixes and Suffixes with Examples

List of Words with a Prefix and a Suffix

Frequently Asked Questions on Prefix and Suffix

What Is a Prefix and a Suffix? – Meaning and Definition

A prefix is a short morphological unit that is added to the beginning of a root word in order to alter its
meaning and/or function. It can be just a single letter or two to five letters. The Oxford Learner’s
Dictionary defines a prefix as “a letter or group of letters added to the beginning of a word to change its
meaning, such as un- in unhappy and pre- in preheat”.

A suffix, on the other hand, is a short morphological unit that follows the root word. In other words, it is
added to the end of the root word. A suffix can contain two to four letters. It is defined as “a letter or
group of letters added to the end of a word to make another word, such as -ly in quickly or -ness in
sadness”, according to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary.

Spelling Rules to Be Followed When Adding a Prefix or a Suffix

The construction of new words from existing words in English always includes a change in their spellings.
This is why there are spelling rules in English to help you easily remember and use them. Likewise, there
are some basic spelling rules that you will have to apply when adding suffixes or prefixes.

When adding a prefix,

You need not make any changes to the spelling of the base word; you can just write the prefix followed
by the base word. For example, popular unpopular.
In the case of prefixes such as ‘non’ and ‘ex’, you might have to add a hyphen in between the prefix and
the root word. For example, non-violence, ex-serviceman.

When adding a suffix,

The spelling of the root word might/might not change.

For all words that end with consonants other than ‘y’, you can simply add the suffix to the end of the
root word. For example, truth truthful, quick quickly.

For words ending with ‘y’, you will have to remove the ‘y’, add an ‘i’ and then add suffixes such as ‘al’ or
‘ly’. For instance, try trial, happy happily.

An exception to the above rule is in the case of monosyllabic words without vowels. For example, shy
shyly, sly slyly.

There are words to which ‘ity’ is added instead of ‘ty’. This is for words that end with an ‘e’. The ‘e’ is
omitted and ‘ity’ is added. For example, sensitive sensitivity, creative creativity. This is also the case
when the suffix ‘al’ is already added to the base word. For example, sentimental sentimentality,
functional functionality.

For most monosyllabic words and some disyllabic words ending in ‘e’, you will have to remove the ‘e’
and add suffixes such as ‘able’ and ‘age’. For example, use usage, move movable, love lovable, adore
adorable, relate relatable.

There are some exceptions to the above rule. For instance, like likeable, manage manageable, recharge
rechargeable.

The same is the case with words that take the suffix ‘ible’. For example, sense sensible, collapse
collapsible.

With suffixes such as ‘tion’ and ‘sion’, you will have to omit the last consonant and the silent ‘e’. This is
in the case of words ending in ‘de’ or ‘te’. For example, divide division, fixate fixation, ignite ignition.

When only the silent ‘e’ has to be omitted before adding ‘tion, you will have to add an ‘a’ before the
suffix ‘tion’. This applies to words ending in ‘re’ or ‘se’. For instance, converse conversation, mechanise
mechanisation, admire admiration.

When adding ‘er’ and ‘est’ to the adjective, it forms the comparative and superlative degrees of
comparison. Some monosyllabic adjectives would require you to double the final consonant before
adding the suffix. You can learn more about this by going through the article on degrees of comparison.

For words ending with ‘y’, when adding suffixes like ‘ness’, you will have to change the ‘y’ into ‘i’ and
then add ‘ness’. For example, happy happiness, lively liveliness. Words such as ‘dry’ and ‘shy’ do not
follow the same pattern. For example, shyness, dryness.

Sometimes, you will have to add ‘li’ and then ‘ness’ to the end of the root word. For instance, clean
cleanliness, kind kindliness/kindness.

When adding a prefix and a suffix,

The above-said spelling rules of prefixes and suffixes apply. For example, success unsuccessful, happy
unhappily.

List of Commonly-Used Prefixes and Suffixes with Examples

The most common prefixes are as follows.

A- (abiotic, atypical)

Un- (undo, unfold)

Im- (impolite, immature)

In- (intolerant, indisciplined)

Il- (illogical, illegible)

Ir- (irregular, irresponsible)

De- (decode, destress)

Re- (redo, reappear)

Dis- (disinterested, disobedient)

Mis- (misunderstand, misinterpret)

Pro- (proactive)

Sub- (subconscious, substandard)

Pre- (preset, predetermine)

Non- (nonexistent, non-violence)

Anti- (antifungal, antiviral)

Post- (postmodern, postoperative)

Inter- (interdependent, interrelated)

Check out the prefixes list for more examples.

The most common suffixes are

-y (honesty, noisy)

-ly (quickly, softly)

-ty (loyalty, sincerity)

-ry (bravery, mockery)

-er (larger, brighter)

-al (parental, bacterial)

-est (fastest, biggest)

-age (usage, breakage)

-ing (trying, binding)

-ful (truthful, fruitful)

-ment (shipment, basement)

-ness (happiness, blindness)

-able (bearable, eatable)

-ible (sensible, convertible)

-less (fearless, baseless)

-ship (friendship, internship)

-hood (parenthood, brotherhood)

-sion (conversion, invasion)

-tion (invention, exhibition)

Check out the suffixes list for more examples.

Let us take a look at words that take both prefixes and suffixes.

https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_business-english-for-success/s07-04-prefixes-and-suffixes.html

https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/cmchang/chapter/15-4-prefixes-and-suffixes/

Here are a few things to remember when learning prefixes:

Different prefixes in English can have similar meanings, such as un-, in- and non- all of which mean "not"
or "opposite of." Also, the prefixes mis- and ir- mean "wrong," "wrongly," or "incorrectly."

Notice that double letters are possible. For example, when you add the prefix im- to words that begin
with the letter "m," you get two "m"s as in "immeasurable." That's also true when you add un- to words
that begin with the letter "n," as in "unnoticeable." The same is true for many other prefixes.

When adding a prefix to a word, the spelling of the base word never changes. For example, the prefix
un- did not change the spelling of the word "happy." And, the prefix re- would not change the spelling of
the word "live" in "relive."

Watch out for "lookalikes" – words that look like they contain prefixes but, in fact, do not. For example,
the un- in the word "uncle" is not a prefix, nor is the re- in the words "reach" or "real."

Suffixes

Now, let's turn to suffixes.

A suffix is a letter or group of letters added to the end of a word. Suffixes are commonly used to show
the part of speech of a word. For example, adding "ion" to the verb "act" gives us "action," the noun
form of the word. Suffixes also tell us the verb tense of words or whether the words are plural or
singular.

Some common suffixes are -er, -s, -es, -ed, -ing and -ly.

Here are a few things to remember when learning suffixes:

Some suffixes have more than one meaning. For example, the suffix -er may suggest a person who
performs an action, like a teacher. But "er" is also commonly added to the ends of adjectives and
adverbs. They compare two things and show that one is "more" than the other, such as in "faster" and
"stronger."

The spelling of a base word can change when a suffix is added. This is true of most base words ending in
the letter "y." For instance, when we add the suffix -ness to the word "crazy" to make "craziness," we
replace the "y" with an "i." This rule is also true of many base words ending in a silent "e" when the
suffix begins with a vowel. For example, in the words "write," "make" and "manage," we drop the "e" in
the words when we add -ing to make: "writing," "making" and "managing." We also often drop the silent
"e" before the suffix -able such as in "usable." Be careful, though, because with some words, we keep
the "e," such as in "changeable" and "loveable."
Important Points on Prefixes

Different prefixes which are used in the English language can also have the same meaning. For example,
in-, un-, not- all have the same meaning which is, ‘opposite of’ or ‘not’. Similarly, the prefix is- and mis-
means incorrectly or wrongly.

Repetition of letters is also possible. That is to say that when im- or unto word and if the word starts
with ‘m’ and ‘n’ respectively then the double letters are also possible. For example immeasurable and
unnoticeable.

You need to be careful while seeing the words which starts with the prefix but do not contain the prefix.
For example, the word uncle is a whole word. It does not have any prefix at the beginning.

The addition of prefix should not change the spelling of the base word. For example, when you add ‘un’
to the word happy the spelling will be unhappy which is the same spelling as the base word.

Important Points on Suffixes

Like prefixes, many suffixes have the same meaning. The best example is the use of the word ‘er’, which
when you add to the end of any word, represents a person who is performing an action. Further, ‘er’ is
also added at the end of adverbs and adjectives. This helps in the comparison of two things. Like slow
will be slower and fast will be faster.

For suffixes, the spelling of the base word can change when you add a suffix at the end. This is mostly
true for the words ending with ‘y’ at the end. For example, when a suffix is added to the word crazy it
will change into crazier or craziness.

The above statement is also true for the base words which end with a silent ‘e’. For example, make and
manage will change into making and managing when you add the suffix ‘ing’ to both the words. But not
all words ending with ‘e’ will have a different spelling.
 Communication
Communication is fundamental to the existence and survival of humans as well as to an organization. It
is a process of creating and sharing ideas, information, views, facts, feelings from one place, person or
group to another. Communication is the key to the Directing function of management.

A manager may be highly qualified and skilled but if he does not possess good communication skills, all
his ability becomes irrelevant. A manager must communicate his directions effectively to the
subordinates to get the work done from them properly.

Process of Communication

Communications is a continuous process that mainly involves three elements viz. sender, message, and
receiver. The elements involved in the communication process are explained below in detail:

1. Sender

The sender or the communicator generates the message and conveys it to the receiver. He is the source
and the one who starts the communication

2. Message

It is the idea, information, view, fact, feeling, etc. that is generated by the sender and is then intended to
be communicated further.

Browse more Topics under Directing

Introduction, Meaning, Importance & Principles of Directing

Elements of Direction

Incentives

Leadership

3. Encoding

The message generated by the sender is encoded symbolically such as in the form of words, pictures,
gestures, etc. before it is being conveyed.
4. Media

It is the manner in which the encoded message is transmitted. The message may be transmitted orally or
in writing. The medium of communication includes telephone, internet, post, fax, e-mail, etc. The choice
of medium is decided by the sender.

Learn more about Types of Communication here in detail.

5. Decoding

It is the process of converting the symbols encoded by the sender. After decoding the message is
received by the receiver.

6. Receiver

He is the person who is last in the chain and for whom the message was sent by the sender. Once the
receiver receives the message and understands it in proper perspective and acts according to the
message, only then the purpose of communication is successful.

7. Feedback

Once the receiver confirms to the sender that he has received the message and understood it, the
process of communication is complete.

8. Noise

It refers to any obstruction that is caused by the sender, message or receiver during the process of
communication. For example, bad telephone connection, faulty encoding, faulty decoding, inattentive
receiver, poor understanding of message due to prejudice or inappropriate gestures, etc.

communication

(Source: businessjargons)

Importance of Communication

1. The Basis of Co-ordination

The manager explains to the employees the organizational goals, modes of their achievement and also
the interpersonal relationships amongst them. This provides coordination between various employees
and also departments. Thus, communications act as a basis for coordination in the organization.

2. Fluent Working

A manager coordinates the human and physical elements of an organization to run it smoothly and
efficiently. This coordination is not possible without proper communication.

3. The Basis of Decision Making

Proper communication provides information to the manager that is useful for decision making. No
decisions could be taken in the absence of information. Thus, communication is the basis for making the
right decisions.

Learn more about Barriers of Communication here in detail.

4. Increases Managerial Efficiency

The manager conveys the targets and issues instructions and allocates jobs to the subordinates. All of
these aspects involve communication. Thus, communication is essential for the quick and effective
performance of the managers and the entire organization.

5. Increases Cooperation and Organizational Peace

The two-way communication process promotes co-operation and mutual understanding amongst the
workers and also between them and the management. This leads to less friction and thus leads to
industrial peace in the factory and efficient operations.

6. Boosts Morale of the Employees

Good communication helps the workers to adjust to the physical and social aspects of work. It also
improves good human relations in the industry. An efficient system of communication enables the
management to motivate, influence and satisfy the subordinates which in turn boosts their morale and
keeps them motivated.

Types of Communication

1. Formal Communication
Formal communications are the one that flows through the official channels designed in the
organizational chart. It may take place between a superior and a subordinate, a subordinate and a
superior or among the same cadre employees or managers. These communications can be oral or in
writing and are generally recorded and filed in the office.

Formal communication may be further classified as Vertical communication and Horizontal

communication.

Vertical Communication

Vertical Communications as the name suggests flows vertically upwards or downwards through formal
channels. Upward communication refers to the flow of communication from a subordinate to a superior
whereas downward communication flows from a superior to a subordinate.

Application for grant of leave, submission of a progress report, request for loans etc. are some of the
examples of upward communication. Sending notice to employees to attend a meeting, delegating work
to the subordinates, informing them about the company policies, etc. are some examples of downward
communication.

Horizontal Communication

Horizontal or lateral communication takes place between one division and another. For example, a
production manager may contact the finance manager to discuss the delivery of raw material or its
purchase.

Types of communication networks in formal communication:

Single chain: In this type of network communications flows from every superior to his subordinate
through a single chain.

Wheel: In this network, all subordinates under one superior communicate through him only. They are
not allowed to talk among themselves.

Circular: In this type of network, the communication moves in a circle. Each person is able to
communicate with his adjoining two persons only.

Free flow: In this network, each person can communicate with any other person freely. There is no
restriction.

Inverted V: In this type of network, a subordinate is allowed to communicate with his immediate
superior as well as his superior’s superior also. However, in the latter case, only ordained
communication takes place.
2. Informal Communication

Any communication that takes place without following the formal channels of communication is said to
be informal communication. Informal communication is often referred to as the ‘grapevine’ as it spreads
throughout the organization and in all directions without any regard to the levels of authority.

Informal communication spreads rapidly, often gets distorted and it is very difficult to detect the source
of such communication. It also leads to rumours which are not true. People’s behaviour is often affected
by rumours and informal discussions which sometimes may hamper the work environment.

However, sometimes these channels may be helpful as they carry information rapidly and, therefore,
may be useful to the manager at times. Informal channels are also used by the managers to transmit
information in order to know the reactions of his/her subordinates.

Learn more about 7 C’s of Communication here in detail.

Types of Grapevine network:

Single strand: In this network, each person communicates with the other in a sequence.

Gossip network: In this type of network, each person communicates with all other persons on a non-
selective basis.

Probability network: In this network, the individual communicates randomly with other individuals.

Cluster Network: In this network, the individual communicates with only those people whom he trusts.
Out of these four types of networks, the Cluster network is the most popular in organizations.

3. Unofficial Communication

There is also an unofficial way of communication. Unofficial communication refers to employee

communication outside of the workplace on matters unrelated to work. Friendly meetings, dinner
outings, and social gatherings among employees are examples of unofficial communication channels.
The management must be aware of the existence of such a channel and the information flowing through
it.

Barriers of Communication

The communication barriers may prevent communication or carry incorrect meaning due to which
misunderstandings may be created. Therefore, it is essential for a manager to identify such barriers and
take appropriate measures to overcome them. The barriers to communication in organizations can be
broadly grouped as follows:
1. Semantic Barriers

These are concerned with the problems and obstructions in the process of encoding and decoding of a
message into words or impressions. Normally, such barriers result due to the use of wrong words, faulty
translations, different interpretations, etc.

For example, a manager has to communicate with workers who have no knowledge of the English
language and on the other side, he is not well conversant with the Hindi language. Here, language is a
barrier to communication as the manager may not be able to communicate properly with the workers.

2. Psychological Barriers

Emotional or psychological factors also act as barriers to communication. The state of mind of both
sender and receiver of communication reflects in the effective communication. A worried person cannot
communicate properly and an angry recipient cannot understand the message properly.

Thus, at the time of communication, both the sender and the receiver need to be psychologically sound.
Also, they should trust each other. If they do not believe each other, they cannot understand each
other’s message in its original sense.

3. Organizational Barriers

The factors related to organizational structure, rules and regulations authority relationships, etc. may
sometimes act as barriers to effective communication. In an organization with a highly centralized
pattern, people may not be encouraged to have free communication. Also, rigid rules and regulations
and cumbersome procedures may also become a hurdle to communication.

4. Personal Barriers

The personal factors of both sender and receiver may act as a barrier to effective communication. If a
superior thinks that a particular communication may adversely affect his authority, he may suppress
such communication.

Also, if the superiors do not have confidence in the competency of their subordinates, they may not ask
for their advice. The subordinates may not be willing to offer useful suggestions in the absence of any
reward or appreciation for a good suggestion.
Communication Channels

Communication channels are the means by which people in a company communicate and interact with
one another. Without the proper communication channel, it is exceedingly difficult for employees to
align with the business objectives and goals, as well as drive innovation and progress in the workplace.

Along with Formal and Informal Communication Channels, we also have a few different types of
channels used in business organizations. They are as follows:

Digital communication channels –

To reach and engage their staff, most firms use digital communication platforms. They include a variety
of online tools that employees utilize to stay in touch with one another and stay up to date on corporate
news and developments. This form of communication channel is thought to be the most effective of all.

A few examples are social media, intranets, employee collaboration software, project management
tools, feedback software, etc.

Face-to-face communication channels –

Face-to-face communication is still vitally crucial in the workplace, despite the fact that electronic forms
of communication are gaining over. It is still crucial since many situations require nonverbal
communication (body language, gestures, signs, facial expressions, etc.).

Written communication channels –

Within corporations, this sort of communication is nearly extinct. However, textual communication is
still required when communicating critical policies, letters, memos, manuals, notices, and
announcements to employees. But, for external communications with the customers, retailers,
distributors and other individuals, written communication is still the most effective.

A few examples are emails, live chat, text messages, blogs, newsletters, written documents, etc.

Models of Communications

The communication process is divided into three standard models: linear, interactive, and transactional.
They are useful because they simplify the fundamental structure of communication and can help us
understand it not only verbally, but also visually. Most importantly, they identify the many
communication pieces and act as a form of a map to explain how different portions of the
communication process are interconnected.

Linear Model –

In this model, a sender encrypts a message and sends it to the recipient via a channel. The message is
decoded by the receiver. There could be obstacles or background noise in the communication process.
Also known as Straight-line communication, it is most common in mainstream media such as television,
radio, and newspapers. There is no way to get immediate feedback in this model.

Interactive Model –

The Interactive model is similar to the Linear model, except it includes feedback. The feedback concept
was introduced to the model, which gave a closer simulation of interpersonal human interaction than
was previously known. Interactional models follow two channels in a more dynamic perspective of
communication. After receiving the message, the receiver encodes and transmits a response to the
original sender, who has now become the receiver. A common example of this model is a telephonic
call.

Transactional Model –

In the Transactional Model, the receiver and sender can both perform the same roles at the same time,
as messages can be sent back and forth at the same time. People generate shared meaning in a more
dynamic process in the transactional model. To create common meaning, there must be some overlap in
realms of experience. In other words, if people are to communicate at all, communicators must share at
least some degree of cultural, linguistic, or environmental commonality.

Verbal Communication

Vocal communication is accompanied by auditory signals produced by a vibrating organ, such as the
larynx in mammals’ throats. The vocal communication is the process through which speakers’ express
emotions by changing the nonverbal components of their speech, and listeners use nonverbal aspects of
speech to infer the speaker’s emotional experience. This comprises aspects of the voice such as
intonation, stress, volume, speed, and accent interference. We use vocal communication to frame our
message more effectively. This form of communication, as well as voice features such as pauses and
focus stress, are used to build a structure that allows the listener to follow your message.

Intonation – Intonation defines how the pitch of your voice increases and falls during a speech. A shift or
variation in pitch can have an impact on the meaning of what we say.
Stress – Stressing is the process of emphasizing a word or statement in order to bring attention to it.
Stress syllables and words are said louder, for a longer period of time, and with a higher pitch. When the
speaker is monotone, these crucial cues are missing, and the message becomes puzzling.

Pauses – The pause allows the speaker to gather his or her thoughts before making the final argument.
This allows the audience to stay up with you while also giving them time to process what you just stated.

Focus Stress – The listener’s attention is drawn to a certain word or phrase when there is focus tension.
The employment of focus stress is used to clarify, emphasize, or demonstrate the difference.

Pace – Pace is the rate at which you speak. The pace might be rapid, slow, or moderate, and it can
fluctuate throughout. It is claimed to vary the tempo, quickening up at times and then slowing down
depending on the scenario and the significance of the context, in order to keep the audience’s attention.

Nonverbal Communication

Non-Vocal Communication is the technique of transmitting meaning without the use of written or
spoken words. Non-verbal communication refers to any communication between two or more people
that involves the use of facial expressions, hand motions, body language, postures, and gestures. These
non-vocal cues can provide insights, supplementary information, and significance in addition to spoken
communication.

Non-vocal elements such as unspoken symbols, signs, and signals to express meaning are examples of
verbal communication. Non-vocal elements such as body language, gestures, facial emotions, and eye
contact are examples of nonverbal communication.

Signals

Signals are movements that are used to express to others one’s wants, desires, and feelings. Signaling is
a type of expressive communication. The primary goal of signals is to change a single environmental
aspect in order to attract attention and convey meaning.

Signs

Signs do not belong to any specific language, although they are found in practically every region of the
world. The primary distinction between a sign and a signal is that a sign (such as traffic lights or a police
officer’s badge) has inherent meanings, but a signal (such as a scream for aid) is only a means through
which extrinsic meanings can be formulated.

Symbols

The symbol has been defined as any device that can be used to create an abstraction. Symbols are visual
representations of an event, activity, object, person, or location that can be used to convey information
about that event, action, thing, person, or location. Symbols can be used to communicate in both
receptive and expressive modes. The more closely a symbol resembles what it represents, the more
tangible it is.

Icons

An icon is a visual representation of an application, a capability, or another concept or distinct thing that
has meaning for the user. Icons are typically thought to be dense collections of linked and unconnected
symbols.

Gestures

A gesture is a movement of the hand, arms, or other bodily part meant to express or accentuate
something, most often while speaking. Gestures can also develop a communication lexicon that is more
or less unique to each culture.

Proxemics

Proxemics is the study of how people from diverse cultures use time and space, as well as body positions
and other elements, to communicate. The proxemics is the study of what people express by standing
closer or farther apart. Standing very close to someone to whom we are about to disclose something
private is one example. Another example is backing away from someone when we feel our personal
space is being infringed upon.

Mass and Public Communications

The process of developing, sending, receiving, and analyzing messages for large audiences via vocal and
written media is known as Mass communication. Print media, outdoor media, digital media and the
Internet, social media, films, radio, and television are all examples of these mediums. The method
through which media companies develop and disseminate messages to large audiences, as well as the
process by which those messages are sought, used, interpreted, and influenced by the audience, is
known as mass communication.

When a person or a group of individuals meet and begin sharing information with an audience or give a
presentation on specific themes to deliver a message, this is referred to as public communication. Public
communication can be defined as the act of sharing information with the general public. Public speaking
events, conferences, seminars, and press conferences are all instances of public communication.

Control of mass communications

In serving the people, public communicators are not totally free to follow their own whims. In several
nations, national authorities have complete control over all broadcasting, and in some areas, print and
cinema media are strictly regulated by the government. Written and visual communications may be
subject to censorship and limits under local law.

Effects of mass communications

Mass communications are capable of creating learning and changing attitudes and opinions in their
listeners, with the depth of the learning and changes restricted by the situation’s connected elements.
Some people believe that the overall impacts of mass communication are safe for both children and
adults. Many sociologists believe that mass communication influences attitudes and behaviour. In the
voting behaviour of so-called undecided voters, the influence of newspapers, journals, and television in
shaping political opinions are fairly well recognized. Advertising firms well-versed in television tactics
have been introduced into the political arena to organize campaigns and promote their customers’
images.

FAQ on Communication

Q: List the measures to improve communication effectiveness?

Answer: Measures to improve communication effectiveness are as follows

Communication of Clarification of the idea.

Communication should be according to the needs of the receiver.

Consulting others before communication.

Awareness about the language, tone and body postures and gestures.

Convey information useful to the receiver.

Ensure proper feedback.

Follow up communications.

Be a good listener.

Verbal Communication

Verbal communication occurs when we engage in speaking with others. It can be face-to-face, over the
telephone, via Skype or Zoom, etc. Some verbal engagements are informal, such as chatting with a
friend over coffee or in the office kitchen, while others are more formal, such as a scheduled meeting.
Regardless of the type, it is not just about the words, it is also about the caliber and complexity of those
words, how we string those words together to create an overarching message, as well as the intonation
(pitch, tone, cadence, etc.) used while speaking. And when occurring face-to-face, while the words are
important, they cannot be separated from non-verbal communication.

Non-Verbal Communication

What we do while we speak often says more than the actual words. Non-verbal communication includes
facial expressions, posture, eye contact, hand movements, and touch. For example, if you’re engaged in
a conversation with your boss about your cost-saving idea, it is important to pay attention to both the
their words and their non-verbal communication. Your boss might be in agreement with your idea
verbally, but their nonverbal cues: avoiding eye contact, sighing, scrunched up face, etc. indicate
something different.

Written Communication

Whether it is an email, a memo, a report, a Facebook post, a Tweet, a contract, etc. all forms of written
communication have the same goal to disseminate information in a clear and concise manner – though
that objective is often not achieved. In fact, poor writing skills often lead to confusion and
embarrassment, and even potential legal jeopardy. One important thing to remember about written
communication, especially in the digital age, is the message lives on, perhaps in perpetuity. Thus, there
are two things to remember: first, write well – poorly constructed sentences and careless errors make
you look bad; and second, ensure the content of the message is something you want to promote or be
associated with for the long haul.

Listening

The act of listening does not often make its way onto the list of types of communication. Active listening,
however, is perhaps one of the most important types of communication because if we cannot listen to
the person sitting across from us, we cannot effectively engage with them. Think about a negotiation –
part of the process is to assess what the opposition wants and needs. Without listening, it is impossible
to assess that, which makes it difficult to achieve a win/win outcome.

Visual Communication

We are a visual society. Think about it, televisions are running 24/7, Facebook is visual with memes,
videos, images, etc., Instagram is an image-only platform, and advertisers use imagery to sell products
and ideas. Think about from a personal perspective – the images we post on social media are meant to
convey meaning – to communicate a message. In some cases that message might be, look at me, I’m in
Italy or I just won an award. Others are carefully curated to tug on our heartstrings – injured animals,
crying children, etc.
We communicate continually throughout each and every day. We do it without thinking – we operate
on communication autopilot. However, I encourage you to think about how you communicate. How do
you communicate verbally? What nonverbal cues do you use when you are disinterested? Excited?
Nervous? Are you a good listener? Can you write a concise, clearly articulated message? Are there
barriers to how you communicate effectively?

Understanding how you communicate is the first step to communicating more effectively. You can easily
look online for communication courses. There are a variety of credit and non-credit course available to
help you improve your communication skills, including our non-credit series.

https://www.vedantu.com/commerce/communication

https://ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in/mgmtp05/chapter/communication-process-types-barriers/

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/what-is-communication/
 Idiomatic expression
English idioms, proverbs, and expressions are an important part of everyday English. They come up all
the time in both written and spoken English. Because idioms don't always make sense literally, you'll
need to familiarize yourself with the meaning and usage of each idiom. That may seem like a lot of work,
but learning idioms is fun, especially when you compare English idioms to the idioms in your own
language.

Learning to use common idioms and expressions will make your English sound more native, so it's a
good idea to master some of these expressions. The tables below are organized by how common the
idioms are in American English. You can start by learning the very common English idioms, since these
are the ones you'll encounter regularly watching American movies or TV, or visiting the United States.
When you've mastered those, move on to rest. None of the idioms on this page are unusual or old
fashioned, so you can be confident using any of them with native English speakers from all English-
speaking countries.

https://beelinguapp.com/blog/33-useful-english-idiomatic-expressions-and-their-meanings

What Is an Idiom? – Meaning and Definition

An idiom is a group of words, or in other words, a phrase that has a meaning different from the literal
meaning of the words in it. According to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, an idiom is defined as “a group
of words whose meaning is different from the meanings of the individual words”, and according to the
Cambridge Dictionary, an idiom is defined as “a group of words in a fixed order that has a particular
meaning that is different from the meanings of each word on its own”.

The Collins Dictionary defines an idiom as “a group of words which have a different meaning when used
together from the one they would have if you took the meaning of each word separately.” The Merriam-
Webster Dictionary provides a more elaborate definition. According to them, an idiom is “an expression
in the usage of a language that is peculiar to itself either in having a meaning that cannot be derived
from the conjoined meanings of its elements (such as up in the air for “undecided”) or in its
grammatically atypical use of words (such as give way).”

Why Use Idioms in Sentences?

Idioms can be a powerful linguistic tool only when they are used in the right way in the right places. The
only thing that makes learning idioms a time-consuming process is the fact that one cannot depend
merely on the meaning of individual words to understand what the entire phrase means.
Idioms are not meant to be used in academic or professional writing. In a lighter context, the use of
idioms can make your piece of writing or speech unique. Idioms can also be used to indicate pun or even
sarcasm. Like any other components of a language, you have to be careful with the use of idioms as well.
The only problem is that it would make no sense or effect to a group of people who do not know the
meaning of the idiom you are using. So, always make sure you are using idioms with an audience who
would be able to comprehend the meaning.

https://leverageedu.com/blog/idioms-with-examples/
 What is a pronoun?
A pronoun is a word that can replace a noun in a sentence. The noun that is
replaced by a pronoun is called an antecedent. For example, in the sentence I
love my dog because he is a good boy, the word he is a pronoun that replaces
the noun dog.
Generally speaking, pronouns allow us to shorten our sentences and make
them sound less repetitive. For example,

 The construction workers are building the office. The construction

workers are making good progress. The construction
workers should finish the project in no time.
 The construction workers are building the office. They are making
good progress. They should finish the project in no time.

Common types of pronouns

Possessive pronouns

A possessive pronoun is a pronoun that expresses possession, ownership, origin, relationship, etc.

Possessive pronoun examples

mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs

Possessive pronouns used in sentences

That toy on the shelf is mine.

All of the houses in our neighborhood look the same, but ours is the only one with a satellite dish.

Wendy and Ronald separated the french fries into two piles: the left one was hers and the right one was
his.

Personal pronouns

Personal pronouns are pronouns that we use to refer to people and, sometimes, animals. The pronouns
it, they, and them can also apply to objects.

Personal pronoun examples

I, you, she, he, it, we, they, me, us, them

Personal pronouns used in sentences

I am afraid of mice.

The toaster gets really hot when it heats bread.

My cats are friendly, so you can safely pet them.

Do you know the history behind using they and themself as singular pronouns? Find out more and why
they are making a comeback now.

Relative pronouns

Relative pronouns connect dependent clauses to independent clauses.

Relative pronoun examples

who, whom, which, what, that

Relative pronouns used in sentences

I need to find a person who can read Swedish.

She doesn’t want to eat a meal that is too spicy.

This book, which ends on a cliffhanger, is really exciting.

Reflexive pronouns

A reflexive pronoun is a pronoun used as an object of a verb that refers to the same person or thing as
the subject of the verb.

Reflexive pronoun examples

myself, yourself, itself, herself, himself, ourselves, themselves

Reflexive pronouns used in sentences

Ken looked at himself in the mirror.

I like to cheer myself up with desserts.

The silly clowns made fools of themselves.

Intensive pronouns

Intensive pronouns refer back to the subject in order to add emphasis. Intensive pronouns are identical
in appearance to reflexive pronouns.
Intensive pronoun examples

myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, themselves

Intensive pronouns used in sentences

I built my house myself.

The children made the cookies themselves.

Often, the stress of giving a speech is worse than the speech itself.

Indefinite pronouns

An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that doesn’t specifically identify who or what it is referring to.

Indefinite pronoun examples

some, somebody, anyone, anywhere, nothing, everybody

Indefinite pronouns used in sentences

This note could have been written by anybody.

Someone ate my lunch.

The water splashed everywhere.

Demonstrative pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns are used to point to specific things.

Demonstrative pronoun examples

this, that, these, those

Demonstrative pronouns used in sentences

This is my favorite shirt.

I don’t know what that is, but it definitely isn’t friendly.

I need you to fix these.

Interrogative pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are pronouns used to ask questions about unknown people or things.
Interrogative pronoun examples

who, whom, what, which, whose

Interrogative pronouns used in sentences

Who wrote this letter?

What is an amphibian?

Which is the correct answer?

Reciprocal pronouns

Reciprocal pronouns express mutual relationships or actions.

Reciprocal pronoun examples

each other, one another

Reciprocal pronouns used in sentences

My sister and I love each other.

The members of the team support one another.

The two fishermen love to compete with each other.

https://byjus.com/english/pronouns/

https://www.scribbr.com/nouns-and-pronouns/pronouns/

https://www.grammarly.com/blog/pronouns/
 Verbs
https://www.scribbr.com/category/verbs/

What is a verb?
When we write sentences or clauses, we need to include a verb. What is a verb? A verb is a
word that we use to refer to actions (what things do) and states of being (how things are). For
example, the words describe, eat, and rotate are verbs. As you are about to see, verbs come in
a lot of different types that don’t all behave the same way. When using proper grammar, it is
important that you use verbs correctly. So, we are going to explore the many different types of
verbs that we use and how to successfully use them to create great, clear sentences.

Types of verbs
We are going to explore 11 different types of verbs. Because every type deserves some
attention, we won’t be going into too much detail on each type. If you want to learn more than
what is covered here, you’re in luck. Listed below are each of the 11 types of verbs we are going
to look at and a link to an article entirely focused on that specific type of verb.

Action verbs
Stative verbs
Transitive verbs
Intransitive verbs
Linking verbs
Helping verbs (also called auxiliary verbs)
Modal verbs
Regular verbs
Irregular verbs
Phrasal verbs
Infinitives
1. Action verbs
Action verbs, as their name says, are used to refer to actions. These can refer to physical actions
that are performed with bodies or objects, such as jump, hit, or sing, or mental actions that we
use our brains to perform, such as think, consider, or memorize. Most verbs you will find are
action verbs.

List of action verbs

run
swim
help
ignore
believe
Examples of action verbs in a sentence
Each of these sentences uses action verbs. You’ll see that each verb is referring to a physical or
mental action.

I work at a factory.
Cats chase mice.
We listened to the woman’s amazing story.
2. Stative verbs
Unlike action verbs, stative verbs refer to conditions or states of being. Generally speaking, we
use stative verbs to describe things like qualities, states of existence, opinions, beliefs, and
emotions. When used in a sentence, stative verbs do not refer to actions. It is important to
know that some verbs can be used as either action or stative verbs depending on their meaning
in the sentence. We are less likely to use stative verbs in the continuous verb tenses.

List of stative verbs

love
want
own
have
resemble
Get to know the stative verb have even better with this examination of has vs. have.

Examples of stative verbs in a sentence

These sentences all use stative verbs. You’ll notice that none of these verbs refer to actions.

The mansion has five bathrooms.

Allie loves her younger sisters.
My car needs an oil change.
3. Transitive verbs
A transitive verb is a verb that is accompanied by a direct object in a sentence. The direct object
is the noun, pronoun, or noun phrase that is having something done to it by the subject of the
sentence. Both action and stative verbs can have direct objects, which means they can both be
used as transitive verbs.

Examples of transitive verbs in a sentence

The following sentences all contain examples of transitive verbs. As you read each one, consider
what the direct object of the sentence is.

Leonardo ate a delicious pepperoni pizza.

The wealthy man bought three paintings.
She really hates broccoli.
4. Intransitive verbs
The opposite of a transitive verb is an intransitive verb. A verb is an intransitive verb if it is not
used with a direct object. Remember, only nouns, pronouns, and noun phrases can be direct
objects. Prepositional phrases, adjectives, and adverbs cannot be used as direct objects. Once
again, both action and stative verbs can be used as intransitive verbs.
Examples intransitive verbs in a sentence
Each of these sentences uses intransitive verbs. Look carefully and you will see that none of
these sentences have direct objects.

Airplanes fly.
The children slept while the adults worked.
The terrified monkeys hid in the trees after they saw the gigantic hungry snake.
5. Linking verbs
Linking verbs are a special type of stative verb whose name gives a big clue as to what they do.
Linking verbs are used to link a subject with a subject complement. A subject complement
describes or identifies the subject of the sentence or clause. Linking verbs can function as
intransitive verbs, which do not take direct objects.

List of words used as linking verbs

be
become
seem
appear
grow
Examples of linking verbs in a sentence
In each of the following sentences, linking verbs are used to link a subject with a subject
complement.

Mike is a great dancer.

That gold watch looks expensive.
Suddenly, the mall got really crowded.
6. Helping verbs (auxiliary verbs)
Helping verbs, also called auxiliary verbs, are helpful verbs that work with other verbs to change
the meaning of a sentence. A helping verb combines with a main verb in order to accomplish
different goals. These include changing the tense of the verb or altering the mood of a
sentence.

List of words used as helping verbs

be
have
do
can
will
Examples of helping verbs in a sentence
Each of the following sentences uses a helping verb. Take a moment to consider what each
sentence is saying and how a helping verb contributes to the meaning of the sentence.

The musician has performed in concerts all over the world.

My cat is getting slow in her old age.
Cheetahs can run incredibly fast.
7. Modal verbs
Modal verbs are a subgroup of helping verbs that are used to give a sentence a specific mood.
Each modal verb is used differently, and they can express concepts such as ability, necessity,
possibility, or permission.

List of verbs used as modal verbs

can
may
might
must
would
Examples of modal verbs in a sentence
The following sentences all use modal verbs to express a certain tone. You’ll see that each
sentence would have a different meaning (or wouldn’t make sense) without the modal verb.

Once you finish your homework, you may play outside.

We must carefully add two eggs to the mixing bowl.
I would go to the movies if I wasn’t busy working.
Learn about one certain mood that confuses many: the subjunctive mood.

8. Regular verbs
A verb is considered a regular verb if its past tense form and past participle ends in -ed, -d, or
the verb is a -t variant verb. For example, the verb look is a regular verb because both its past
tense form and past participle is looked. Sometimes, regular verbs may slightly change spelling.
For example, the past tense and past participle of cry is cried.

List of regular verbs

jump becomes jumped
slip becomes slipped
try becomes tried
sleep becomes slept
lend becomes lent
Examples of regular verbs in a sentence
Each of the following sentences use regular verbs in either their past tense form or as a past
participle.

He walked two miles to the post office.

We purchased all of the supplies that we needed for the camping trip.
Tiffany had noticed something strange about Marcus’s story.
9. Irregular verbs
An irregular verb is a verb whose past tense and past participle form doesn’t end in -ed, -d, and
doesn’t use the –t variant. Often, the spelling of these verbs changes dramatically or may not
even change at all.

List of irregular verbs

be becomes am, is, are, was, were, be, being, and been
eat becomes ate, eaten
fly becomes flew, flown
catch becomes caught, caught
set becomes set, set
Examples of irregular verbs in a sentence
The following sentences use irregular verbs. Despite being used in the past tense or as a past
participle, none of these verbs end in -ed, -d, or are a -t variant verb.

Cindy knew all of the right answers.

This junky computer has given me nothing but headaches since I bought it.
The workers took the furniture out of the moving truck.
10. Phrasal verbs
Phrasal verbs are combinations of a verb with prepositions and/or adverbs that have a different
meaning from the individual words used to form them. For example, the verb shut means “to
close,” and the adverb down means “not up” or “in a descending direction.” However, the
phrasal verb shut down means to stop the operation of something.

List of phrasal verbs

ask for
put up with
talk down to
lock up
cut across
Examples of phrasal verbs in a sentence
The following sentences show how we can use phrasal verbs. Sometimes, we can separate out
the words of a phrasal verb and the sentence is still grammatically correct.

The frustrated business owner closed down his store.

Dave loves to show off his baseball trophies.
My mother always told me it is a good idea to put some money away in case of emergencies.
11. Infinitives
Our last type of verb isn’t actually a verb at all—sorry about that! However, infinitives look a lot
like verbs because they are derived from them. An infinitive of a verb is identical to the base
form of the verb. For example, the infinitive form of the verb open is open. Typically, we use
infinitives with the word to in order to form infinitive phrases. Infinitive phrases can be used for
a variety of reasons, such as to act like nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.

Examples of infinitive phrases in a sentence

All of the following sentences use infinitive phrases. In order, the infinitive phrases are acting as
a noun (nominal infinitive), an adjective (adjectival infinitive), and an adverb (adverbial
infinitive).

To play guitar in a rock band is my goal.

If you are looking for the best restaurants in town, Luis is the person to ask.
The writing in the letter was too small to see.

https://www.grammarly.com/blog/verbs/
 ADJECTIVE

https://www.grammarly.com/blog/adjective/
https://www.scribbr.com/parts-of-speech/adjectives/

ADVERB

https://www.grammarly.com/blog/adverb/
https://www.scribbr.com/parts-of-speech/adverbs/

SENTENCE PATTERN

https://byjus.com/english/sentence-structure/
The Basic Elements of a Sentence
A sentence has two basic elements: the subject and the predicate. The
subject is always a noun, a pronoun, or a group of words acting as a
noun. It is what the entire sentence is about. Meanwhile, the
predicate contains a verb that describes the subject. Take note, verbs
do not always have to be action verbs. Lastly, subjects and predicates
can be either simple or compound.
A sentence is a group of words that usually contain a subject (S) and a
verb (V) and expresses a complete idea.

The subject is a noun, noun phrases, or pronoun that usually comes

before the main verb. It also represents the person or thing that acts
as the verb, or about which something is stated.

Verb, on the other hand, is a word or group of words that describes

an action or state.

A transitive verb has an object.

An intransitive verb does not have an object.

In the following examples, the subjects are in bold, while the

predicates are italicized:

Grandma is awake.

He makes cakes and cookies.

Aside from the subject and predicate, sentences also contain objects.
We have two kinds of objects in English grammar: Direct and Indirect
object.

A Direct Object refers to the person or thing affected by the action of

the verb. (He bought a ball.)

An Indirect Object usually refers to the person who ‘benefits’ from the
action of the verb. (He bought her a ball.)

Additionally, we have the complement. A complement tells us

something about the nature of the Subject or Object. There are two
types of complements: Subject Complement and Object Complement.

Subject Complement = She is happy. S=C

Object Complement = He made her happy. O=C

And lastly, we have the modifier. A modifier is a word or group of

words that modifies another word or group.

Now that we’re done with this recap, it is time to proceed to the
lesson properly.
 The 5 Basic Sentence Patterns in English
You might have not noticed this one, but English sentences may present
themselves in varying patterns. These patterns refer to the
arrangements of the elements of a sentence. It starts from the most
basic, to the most complex. As mentioned, there are five basic sentence
patterns in English. Among them are:

Subject + Linking Verb + Complement ( S – LV – C)

Subject + Intransitive Verb ( S – IV )
Subject + Transitive Verb + Direct Object ( S – TV – DO )
Subject + Transitive Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object ( S – TV – IO –
DO )
Subject + Transitive Verb + Direct Object + Object Complement ( S – TV
– DO – OC)