Introduction To Geography and Environment

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Introduction to Geography and
Environment
Definition and its changing nature
Geography is the study of the earth and its features,inhabitants and phenomena.
The first person to use the word geography was Eratosthenes(276-194 B.C).
The word “Geography” comes from two “Greek” words.’Geo’ means the earth and
‘graphy’ means to write/describe.
The earth refers to the atmosphere ,hydrosphere,lithosphere and biosphere.
“To describe/write in terms of the place,localization and distribution.”
A description of these earth bound phenomena is Geography.
The word geography explained by ‘Where do the people live?
live means distribution and concentration of people ,space and time factor.
“Geography is that part of the mixed mathematics which explains the state of earth
and of its parts depending on quantity namely,its figure,place,magnitude and
motion.”
-Veroneous(1622)
Branches of Geography
Introduction to Geography and Environment 1

1.Physical Geography :Physical geography is concerned with the study of the
description of
nature or physical phenomena .It covers the systematic
sciences of
geology,meterology,astronomy,botany,zoology and
chemistry.
2.Human Geography : Human geography is a branch of geography that
focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with
various environments. It covers human, political, cultural, social, and economic aspects.
Nature of Geography: Geography as a Dynamic Discipline

➢ Nature of Geography: "Philosophy of Geography" has been established following
the different beliefs. Each philosophy provides us with a distinctive view of the nature of
the Geography. Philosophy of Geography can be divided into two portion:
A. We should go about studying phenomena, and in particular it is concerned with the
two operations of description and explanation.
B. What we should study, in identifies a domain of objects and events to which the
operations of description and explanation should be applied.
• In the West during the second half of the 19th and the 20th century, the discipline of
geography went through four major phases:
1. Environmental determinism
2. Regional Geography
3. The quantitative revolution
4. Critical Geography
Environmental Determinism: Environmental determinism is the theory that a people's
physical, mental and moral habits are directly due to the influence of their natural
environment. Prominent environmental determinists included Carl Ritter, Ellen Churchill
Semple, and Ellsworth Huntington.

Popular hypotheses included 'heat makes inhabitants of the tropics lazy. Frequent
changes in barometric pressure make inhabitants of temperate latitudes more
intellectually agile'. Around the 1930s, this school of thought was widely repudiated as
lacking any basis and being prone
to generalizations. Environmental determinism remains an embarrassment to many
contemporary geographers.
• Regional Geography: Regional geographers focused on the collection of descriptive
information about places, as well as the proper methods for dividing the earth up into
regions. Well known names from these period are Alfred Hettner from Germany and
Vidal de la Blache from France. The
philosophical basis of this field in United States was laid out by Richard Hartshorne who
defined geography as a study of areal I differentiation.
• Quantitative Revolution: The quantitative revolution was geography's attempt to
redefine itself as a science, in the wake of the revival of interest in science following the
launch of Sputnik. Quantitative revolutionaries, often referred to as 'space cadets',
declared that the purpose of geography was to test general laws about the spatial
arrangement of phenomena. They adopted the philosophy of positivism from the natural
sciences and turned to mathematics-especially statistics-as a way of proving
hypotheses. The quantitative revolution laid the groundwork for the development of
Geographic Information Systems.
• Critical Geography: Though positivist and post-positivist approaches remain
important in geography, critical geography arose as a critique of positivism. The first
strain of critical geography to emerge was humanist geography. Drawing on the
philosophies of existentialism and
phenomenology, humanist geographers focused on people's sense of, and relationship
with, places. More influential was Marxist geography, which applied the social theories
of Karl Marx and his followers to geographic phenomena.
❖ Geography as a Science:
A. Geography as an applied science
B. Geography as a spatial science

C. Geography as an environmental science
• Geography as an Applied Science: The term 'applied' has been used to refer to that

'practical knowledge' useful in everyday life and necessary to understand the word to
improve the quality of life. Applied Geography concerned with the application of
geographical knowledge and skills to the resolution of real-world social, economic and
environmental problems. The first major statement was made by L.D. Stamp in applied
geography in 1960. After Stamps, in 1981 land use studies geographers concentrated
their views in the journal of applied geography.
• Geography as an Spatial Science: Geography is described as a spatial science

because it focuses is on "where" things are and why they occur there. Geographers
seek to answer all or more than one of four basic questions when studying our
environment. These relate to- 1. Location 2. Spatial pattern 3. Spatial interaction.
One of the most important development of spatial science is Remote sensing-the

gathering and recording of information as a digital image using satellites, drones and
other platform. GIS is another very important technical aspect of spatial science. GIS is
a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyse, manage, and present spatial
or geographic data.
• Geography as an Environmental Science: Environmental science is the study of

interactions among physical, chemical and biological components of the environment.
Environmental Science provides an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary
approach to the study of environmental
systems. Geographers monitor the quality of the environment, interpret the impact of
human actions on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and develop strategies for
restoring ecosystems. Environmental issues encompass with climate change,
conservation, biodiversity, water quality,
groundwater contamination, soil contamination, use of natural resources, waste
management, sustainable development, air pollution, and noise pollution.
❖ Scope and Subject Matters of Geography; Relation of Geography With Other

Disciplines
➢ Scope and subject matters of Geography: There are many complexity among the
geographers about the scope of geography. Geography is the study of the interaction
between natural environment and human communities. Geographers of different age

including Hippocrates to modern geographers have tried to describe the scope of
geography. Two subject matter have been identified that are man and natural
environment.
According to Rager Minshull,

"Geography as a whole studies every variation of each tropic in every part of the world
and then attempts to describe and explain these different variations and combinations."
According to Lukermann "the geographer's purpose is to understand man's experience

in space." Thus, the scope or field of Geography is the assemblage of phenomena that
occur in the zone of contact of the solid, liquid and gaseous masses that make up the
planet or geographers. These phenomena are analysed and rationally described in
relation to place, localization and distribution. Thus, scope and subject matter of
Geography is integrated with physical environment or nature and human life. To give an
expression or description of earth surface, requires both natural
sciences and humanities or social sciences. Human geography focuses largely on the
built environment and how space is created, viewed and managed by humans as well
as the influence humans have on the space they occupy. Physical geography examines
the natural environment and how the climate, vegetation & life, soil, water, and
landforms are produced and interact.
Relation of Geography with other disciplines: Geography is an interdisciplinary

subject that compounds physical science, humanities and social science each other.
The field of geography contains 8 subdivisions which in turn are linked with 8 major
disciplines.
4 subdivisions linked to natural or environmental sciences such as
1. Astronomy
2. Geology
3. Physics
4. Botany.
4 sub-division linked to human sciences such
1. Economy
2. Sociology

3. Anthropology
4. History
➢ Relation with Natural Sciences or Environmental Sciences:
• Astronomy and Geography (Cartography): Astronomy basically deals with the

celestial bodies which include the sun and their planet, satellites and their motion,
constellation and different kind of phenomena occurring in outer space. Geography
attempts to identify and measure the impact
of the motion of the celestial bodies on the surface of the earth. The interaction of
astronomy and geography within mathematical framework has given rise to cartography
in Geography.
• Geology and Geography (Topography): Geology is the natural science which has
traditionally been to closest geography. Geology is the study of rocks, their layout and
arrangement, types minimal constituents, resistance and age, distribution and
alignment. Geography is essentially the study
of the earth's surface especially the morphology of the surface.
• Physics and Geography (Climatology): As geography is the study of variable

phenomena on the earth surface, the mechanism of phenomena requires to be studied
within the framework of physics. The physics of the atmosphere, called meteorology,
uses the methods of physics to interpret and explain atmospheric process. The
interaction with meteorology has given rise to a systematic branch of climatology in
Geography.
• Botany and Geography (Plant Geography): The systematic branch of botany

classify and describes of various kinds plant species on the earth surface. Geography,
being the study of the special section of the earth surface, also attempts to study
distributional aspects of flora phenomena and
also provides their classification.
Relation with Human Sciences:

• Economics and Geography (Economic Geography): Economics is basically

concerned with man's economic activities and the principles governing the location of
units of production forces of production, relations of production divisions of labor and so
on. Since geography is the study
of ensemble of phenomena in relation to place, localization and distribution, it is equally
concerned with the variable character of the economic activities. Geography's
interaction with economics has given rise to economics geography which deals with
activities of producing, exchanging are
consuming goods and services.
• Sociology and Geography (Social Geography): Sociology is mainly concerned with

the institutional aspects of the society which broadly include social organizations of
communities, family structure and systems, rituals, cultures, customs and social system.
Geography attempts to study of
social aspects in special context. The reciprocal relationship between sociology and
geography has resulted in the development of social geography or cultural geography.
• Anthropology and Geography (Anthropogeography): Anthropology attempts to

study human races, their physical characteristics, biological traits, cultural traits and
organization and seeks to classify them accordingly. Geography seek to identify and
classify them on the basis of their
habitant and cultural traits and attempt to study the variable racial phenomena on the
special section of the earth's surface . The reciprocal relationship between anthropology
and geography has resulted in the development of Anthropogeography or Ethnology.
• History and Geography (Political Geography): History and geography fill up the
entire circumference of our perception: history of hat time and geography that of space.
History is narrative and geography is descriptive. History and geography are traditionally
idiographic in nature and are mutually interdependent. Interaction of geography with
history has helped to develop political geography or historical geography.
Geography is a mother discipline from which other some specialized discipline have
emerged. For example:
1• Geodesy
2. Meteorology

3. Soil Science
4. Plant ecology
5. Regional science
Physical Geography: Definition, Scope, Major Branches. Sphere of Earth System

➢ Physical Geography: Physical geography is concerned with the study of the
description of nature or physical phenomena. It covers the systematic sciences of
geology, meteorology, astronomy, botany, zoology and chemistry.
According to Richard Brayant, 1986,

"Physical geography is the integrated study of the natural environment on or close to
the earth's surface." Physical Geography is the study of our home planet and all of its
components: its
lands, waters, atmosphere, and interior.”
➢ Scope of Physical Geography: The scope of physical geography to examine the
natural environment and how the climate, vegetation & life, soil, water, and landforms
are produced and interact. The field of physical geography is the assemblage of
phenomena that occur in the zone of contact of the solid, liquid and gaseous masses
that make up the planet. Within physical geography there are various fields of study,
mainly but not exclusively focusing on the spheres of the earth.
➢ Major Branches of Physical Geography:
1. Astronomical Geography
2. Geomorphology
3. Oceanography
4. Bio Geography
5. Mathematical Geography
6. Climatology
7. Soil Science.
Astronomical Geography: Astronomy basically deals with the celestial bodies which
includes the sun and their planet, satellites and their motion, constellations and different

kind of phenomena occurring in outer space. Astronomical geography studies the
celestial phenomena which concern
the earth's surface. It is perhaps the oldest branch of geography, developed by Thales,
Anaximander, Eratosthenes, Aristotle and Ptolemy.
• Mathematical Geography: Mathematical geography studies the form, size, and

movement of the earth and of its position in the solar system. It has origin in the work of
Thales, Eratosthenes and Ptolemy. Mathematical geography a branch of geography that
deals with the figure and motions of
the earth, its seasons and tides, its measurement, and its representation on maps and
charts by various methods of projection.
• Geomorphology: Geomorphology is concerned with the study of the landforms on the
earth's surface. Geomorphology seeks to understand landform history and dynamics,
and predict future changes through a combination of field observation, physical
experiment, and numerical
modeling (Geomorphometry).
• Climatology: Climatology is the study of the atmospheric conditions and related
climatic and weather phenomena. Climatology, examines both the nature of micro
(local) and macro (global) climates and the natural and anthropogenic influences on
them. Eratosthenes provided the three-fold climatic divisions of the known world first
time.
• Oceanography: Oceanography is concerned with the study of various types of
phenomena and features, both on the surface of the ocean and on its floor, including
relief of the floor; temperature of the surface water; distribution of salinity, depth,
currents, tides, waves; coral reefs etc. Posidonius
who first investigated tides and measured the depth of sea.
• Soil Geography: Soil geography studies various soil-forming processes, their
chemical, physical and biological constituents, their color and types,distribution and
carrying capacities etc. It was V.V. Dokuchaieve of Russia who pioneered the study of
soil geography.
• Bio-Geography: Bio-geography is concerned with the biological phenomena in space
especially in terms of the distribution of various kinds of floral and faunal species. Bio-
geography may be sub-divided into plant or floral geography, and animal or faunal
geography. Theophratus, a pupil of
Aristotle, is credited to have developed bio-geography.

➢ Spheres of earth system: Four spheres of earth system: A. Lithosphere B.
Hydrosphere C. Atmosphere D. Biosphere
• Lithosphere: Lithosphere is defined as the rock and crust surface that covers the
Earth. It extends to a depth of about 60 miles (100 km). There are two types of
lithosphere: Oceanic lithosphere and continental lithosphere. Oceanic lithosphere is
associated with oceanic crust, and is slightly
denser than continental lithosphere.
• Hydrosphere: The hydrosphere is the part of a planet that's made of water. Oceans,
rivers, lakes, and clouds are all typically included in the hydrosphere. The hydrosphere
covers 71 per cent of the surface of the globe.
• Atmosphere: The deep blanket of gas surrounding the. earth is known as
Atmosphere. Earth's atmosphere is composed of about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and
one percent other gases. About 97 per cent of the total atmosphere remains confined
within 30 kilometers upward from the
earth's crust. The atmosphere remains in contact with the earth's crust due to the
gravitational attraction.
• Biosphere: The biosphere is defined as the area of the planet where organisms live,
including the ground and the air. The biosphere that surround the earth along with the
lithosphere (rock), hydrosphere (water) and atmosphere (air) and it is the sum of all the
ecosystems.
❖ Human Geography: Definition, Scope & Major Branches

➢ Human Geography: Human geography is a branch of geography that focuses on the
study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with various
environments. It covers human, political, cultural, social, and economic aspects.
According to Majid Husain, 1994, "Human geography deals with
the spatial differentiation and organization of human activity with human use of physical
environment.
" According to Sudeepta, 1992, "Human geography is the syntactic study of the
relationship between human societies and earth's surface".
➢ Scope of Human Geography: The scope of human geography is linked to the study
of human societies in their relation to the habitat or environment.

• The scope of human geography includes: Study of human races, the growth;
distribution and density of populations of the various parts of the world;
culture, religion language, settlement types. Demographic attributes and migration
patterns. Physical and cultural differences between human groups and economic
activities. Relation of man and natural environment.
➢ Major branches of Human Geography:
1. Anthropogeography
2. Cultural geography
3. Population geography
4. Economic geography
5. Political geography
6. Historical geography
7. Social geography
8. Urban geography
• Anthropogeography: Anthropogeography studies racial phenomena in their areal
context or the geographical distribution of races. Agartacides firstly classified the
Ethiopian tribes on the basis of their diet and cultural traits. But, Freidrick Ratzel is
credited to coin the term"anthropogeography" to study human aspects.
• Cultural Geography: Cultural geography focuses on the impact of human culture,
both material and non-material, on the natural environment and the human organization
of space. Herodotus pioneered the study of the cultural traits of the people. Cultural
geography describes and analyses the language, religion, economy, government, and
other cultural phenomena which may vary or remain constant from one place to another
and explains how humans function spatially.
• Population Geography: Population geography is the study of the ways in which

spatial variations in the distribution, composition, migration and growth of population are
related to the nature of places. Population geography involves demography in a
geographical perspective. Achenwell
(1748) and Sussmilch (1747) first pioneered the statistical studies of population in
space.

• Economic Geography: Economic geography studies on the location of economic
activity at the local, national and world scale. It is also study of economic phenomena in
their areal context.
Sub-branch of Economic Geography:
Resource Geography: The study of the resources, their distribution production,
utilization and conservation.
Agricultural Geography: The study of spatial variation in agricultural activity. Industrial
geography: The study of spatial arrangement of industrial activity.
Transport Geography: The study of modes of transport, movement of goods, people
and relationship between transport and others geographic factors.
• Political Geography: Political geography is the study of the political phenomena in
their areal or spatial context. It also deals with the boundaries, divisions, territories and
resources of states. Moreover it provides a geographical interrelation of international
relations. Friedrich Ratzel is called
the father of modern political geography.
• Historical Geography: Historical geography studies of the past events in their spatial
context. According to Herodoutus, recreation of past geographies and the tracing of
geographical change through time. Sir Halford J. Mackinder of Great Britain made
substantial contribution to the field
of historical geography.
• Social Geography: Social geography is the analysis of the social phenomena in
space. Social geography was developed in Germany by Otto Schluter,as a reaction
against physical determinism. Sub-branches of Social Geography:
Radical Geography and Welfare Geography: The study of social being, social
problems and their spatial variations and also search for root cause of social problems.
Marxist Geography: The study of new spatial determinism of capitalist society.
Urban Geography: Urban geography is the study of urban areas, their spatial pattern
and functions, origin and hierarchies. It can be considered a part of the larger field of
human geography. Urban geographers are primarily concerned with the ways in which
cities and towns are constructed,
governed and experienced. Its development took place in the 1940s.
❖ Concepts/themes in Geography
➢ Concepts/themes in Geography: The topics included within the broad field of

geography are diverse. Of either a physical or cultural phenomenon,geographers
inquire: What is it? Where is it? Where is it in relation to other physical or cultural
realities that affect it or are affected by it? How is it part of a functioning whole? How
does its location affect people's lives and the content of the area in which it is found?
➢ Fundamental concepts/themes in geography:
Location: The location of places and things is the starting point of all geographic study
as well as of our personal movements and spatial actions in everyday life. Two types of
location: absolute and relative.
• Absolute location: Absolute location is the identification of place by a precise and
accepted system of coordinates; therefore, sometimes it is called mathematical location.
One of them is the global grid of parallels and meridians-that is, latitude and longitude.
The absolute location of
any point on the earth can be accurately described by reference to its degrees, minutes,
and seconds of latitude and longitude.
• Relative Location: The position of a place or thing in relation to that of other places or
things. For example, Dhaka is located about 32 km south of Gazipur. Relative location
can be expressed in terms of distance, travel time, or cost.
➢ Two objects of location:

• Site: Site means the description of physical condition of any area, for example, we can
say that Dhaka stands on the Buriganga river.
• Situation: Comparative location of any area is called situation. Situation means the
relation between any area and its surroundings, such as,Bangladesh is the hinterland of
Chittagong port.
➢ Spatial distribution: Spatial distribution means the description of any subject of the
earth's surface. Space means the part of the earth's surface. For example, describing
the population distribution of a country or all over the world is a spatial distribution. Map
is a visual representation of a spatial distribution. Some geographers said that the
analysis of the spatial distribution is main subject matter of geography. There are three
objects of spatial
distribution:
1. Density of distribution,
2. Dispersion of distribution, and

3. Pattern of distribution.
➢ Agglomeration: Agglomeration refers to the clustering of productive activities and
people for mutual advantage. The clustering of industrial activities often produces
benefits for individual firms that they could not experience in isolation. Agglomeration
economies-may accrue in the form of savings from shared transport facilities, social
services, public utilities, communication facilities, and the like. Clustering may also
create pools of skilled and ordinary labor, specialized knowledge, capital, ancillary
business services, and, of course, a market built of other industries and urban
populations.
➢ Spatial interaction: Spatial interaction refers to interdependence between
geographic areas. This interdependency appears to be complementary to the society-
environment interdependence within a single area and it's a major focus of geographical
inquiry. It includes the movement of goods, passengers,migrants, money, information
etc. between geographic areas.
There are three bases for spatial interaction in terms of commodity flow between two
regions, 1. Character of the regions. 2. Nature of commodities 3. The existence of
closure source of supply or markets.
➢ Time: Concept of time is very important for every geographical analysis. Geography
provides scientific procedures for describing or explaining phenomena in relation to their
development over time. Everything is changing with time. Landscape of every area are
changed with time. Geography
always analyze the processes of changes, it can be happened in many way, such as,
change of landform due to erosional process, change of settlement by urbanization, etc.
➢ Direction: Direction is another universal spatial concept. Like location, it has more
than one meaning and can be expressed in absolute or relative terms.Absolute direction
is based on the cardinal points of north, south, east, and west. These appear in all
cultures, derived from the obvious "givens" of nature: the rising and setting of the sun
for east and west. We also commonly use relative, or relational, directions. The most
common relative directions
are left, right, forward, backward, up, and down.
➢ Distance: Distance joins location and direction as a commonly understood term that
has dual meanings for geographers. Like its two companion spatial concepts, distance
may be viewed in both an absolute and a relative sense. Absolute distance refers to the
spatial separation between two points on the earth's surface, measured by an accepted
standard unit-such as miles or kilometers for widely separated locales, feet or meters for

more closely spaced points. Relative distance is the distance that we are felt to cover
up, taking the time used to obtain there. Further, relative distance is calculated
measuring distance, using metrics such as time, effort, or cost.
➢ Scale: Map represents the whole or a part of the earth's surface, scale is the method
to measure the actual distance of two points that represented in map. The scale of a
map is the ratio of a distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground.
➢ Methods of showing scale on the map: There are three ways the scale is depicted on
the map. 1. By statement 2. By graphical method 3. By Representative Fraction (R.F.)
• 1. By statement: Scale can be expressed in the map by statement or by language. As
for instance, 1 inch to 4 miles, 16 inches to a mile, 1 cm. to 1 hectometre. Here, in every
case, the first figure indicates the distance on the map and the second figure indicates
the corresponding actual distance on the ground.
• 2. By graphical method: By dividing a line of inches or of cms. into equal parts and
further into smaller divisions and marking the values to each part, the scale of the map
is expressed. As, for instance, if the scale of 1 cm. to 50 miles is to be expressed
graphically, then a line of 4 cms. long is to be divided into 4 equal parts and the value
each part would be 50 miles.
• 3. By Representative Fraction (R.F.):This expresses the proportion of the scale by a
fraction in which the numerator is 1 which denotes the length on the map and the
denominator in the same unit denotes the corresponding length on the ground.
Example: .R.F. 1: 10,000 or 1/10,000, It says 1
unit (inch/cm) on map is equal to 10,000 units (inch/cm) on the ground. That means all
ground features are reduced by 10,000 times in order to be represented on the map.
These processes of change can be done in two types: Short-term change, and Long-
term change. Daily or seasonal changes are the short-term changes. Long-term
changes are happened along with hundreds or thousands years. Normally physical
processes show the long-term changes and short-term changes are found in human
geography.
➢ Region: The concept of region has evolved from the concept of areal Differentiation.
Region is the area that contains the geographic phenomena of same characteristics. A
region is an area of land that has common features. These features can be natural,
such as climate or landscape. They can also be artificial, such as Language or religion.
➢ Types of Region:
• A. Administrative region: Administrative regions are created by laws, treaties, or
regulations. Examples include countries, states, cities, and districts. The political map of

the world shows the boundaries of one set of administrative regions.
• B. Formal region: A formal (or uniform) region is an area of essential uniformity for a
Single physical or cultural feature or a limited combination of physical or cultural
features. Formal (uniform) region can be by languages (Bangla, Arabic, Turkish etc.)
Formal (uniform) region can be by climate (Tropical, Sub-tropical, Temperate, Cold
regions) Formal (uniform) region can be by land uses (Paddy region, wheat region,
Forest region,Hilly region, Plain land regions etc.)
• C. Functional (or nodal) region: Functional region has been identified on the basis of
region interaction. Its parts are interdependent, and throughout its extent the functional
region operates as a dynamic, organizational unit. Examples are the trade areas of
towns/cities, the circulation
area of a newspaper, the area that covers by particular mobile companies network.
• D. Perceptual (or vernacular) region: A perceptual or vernacular region is defined by
feelings and prejudices that may or may not be true. It can also be an idea of a person’s
mental map. It can be viewed as how people think about or perceive a region based on
factors that may not reflect the
truth. For example, if you say, “1 was living in this town in the past, and there are no job
opportunities” it points to a perceptual region. Another person could see the same place
entirely differently. They Could say, “there are chances for growth, and new business
opportunities in this town”.
➢ Spatial Organization: Spatial organization is the way a group or phenomenon is
arranged on the surface of the Earth. It could be people are concentrated into cities or
perhaps they’re more spread out. Perhaps there are more rivers north of the Equator
than south. If we can see how things are
spatially organized, we can next ask the question: ‘Why are they organized that way?’
And that is what geography is all about. Environments, Places and People are vital
factors behind this spatial organizations.
❖ Major Approaches to the Study of Geography

➢ Major Approaches to the Study of Geography: Subject matter of geography is
logically indivisible as it deals with phenomena’ on the earth surface,with distinct areal
expressions and variations. The problem arises, how to deal with these variable
phenomena and what approaches be adopted for their study.
Consequently, there are several major approaches to study of Geography:

A. Regional Approach
B. Landscape Approach
C. Ecological Approach
• 1. Regional Approach: Regional approach took very important role in geographical

analysis. Thousands of researches have been done regional analysis.
These researches started since 1750. But regional analysis was introduced by Vidal de
la Blache (1845-1918). He observed variations of human activities among the small
provinces of South France. According to him, man-environment relation can be
understood these observations. In Germany, Alfred Hettner (1927) supported regional
approach. Britain, Herbertson (1905) divided the whole world in some climatic region.
• Concept of Region: The concept of region has evolved from the concept of area
differentiation. Region is a unit of space which is homogeneous in respect to some
particular set of associated conditions, weather of the land or the people such as
industry, farming, the distribution of population.Commerce or the general sphere of
influence of a city. Concept of region concluded huge number of book in geography how
the boundary of a region should be identified, what should be the definition of region,
how the map would be make, etc.
• Concept of Regional Approach: John Glasson (1974), the famous British
geographer, described two approaches of region, two basic objects arose from concept
of region:
1. Subjective view, and
2.Objective view.
o 1. Subjective view: To find out the region and their description is the basic objective
of geography. In this concept, there is a real entity of region. One can see well-identified
region in bird’s eye view.
o 2. Objective view: Region is the ‘means to an end’. That means, another group say
that there is nothing as region, it is only an idea and method to know the earth. Both of
these two approaches contain part of the truth. If the main aim of geography is to know
the world; region is the
basic method this in aim.

Hartshomes subjective region: According to Hartshome, regions the method for
geographers to realize the world. Regions the model “There may be as many
regions as they are geographers” Subjective view is the main concept of
Hartshorme. According to him, we will get many criteria of region by subject
geographic research such as agriculture region will be found agricultural
researchers.
• Herbertson's general (objective) region:

o Polar region: a. Lowland (Tundra), b. Highland (Greenland)
o Cool subtropical region: a. West European coastal area, b. Sent. Laurence type,
c. Siberian type, d. Altai type,
o Sub-tropical region: a. Mediterranean type, b. China type, c. Turan type, d. Iran
type
o Tropical warm region: a. Sahara type, b. Monsoon rainfall region, c. Sudan type,
o Equatorial type (Amazon type).
• Other approach to classify the region: The another approach of region has classified it
as: A. Formal region, and B. Functional region.
o Formal region: Formal region is based on the physical and socio-economic

characteristics of the region. Herbertson's general region was
'physical formal region'. The basic characteristics of formal region are that they are
contiguous and non-overlapping. Sometimes a problem
has risen during fixing the boundary of the region.
o Le Play's functional region: Le play had identified functional regions on the basis of
agricultural land use. His regions stands along with a
valley. -Hunting and livestock area.-Woods and mining industry -Sustainable agriculture
and villages -Agriculture, dairy and vegetable cultivation -Location of city
o Functional region: According to Minshull (1967), “Functional region is the complex of
areas which function together as a whole.” Functional region has been identified on the
basis of region interaction. Its parts are interdependent, and throughout its extent the
functional region
operates as a dynamic, organizational unit. Examples are the trade areas of
towns/cities, the circulation area of a newspaper, the area that covers by particular
mobile companion network.

o Von Thunen's functional region: Von thunen's functional regions are located around
the city area. His functional region is famous as'agricultural location theory'. His
functional region is situated on a universal plain. His agricultural location theory is also
popular still today.
-Grain farming -Weeds industry -Vegetable cultivation -Dairy.
o More about functional region: Ebeneezer Howard of Britain was one of the main
supporter of functional region. Patrik Geddes highlighted the interrelationship between
man, function and space. Functional regions rise by the interrelation and interaction
among the see three components. British geographer Dickinson identified functional
region of Leads city on the basis of news paper circulation.
• Regionalization: The main problems in regional analysis is that to find out the
specialty of the region and to identify their benefits. The regionalization process breaks
larger territories into useful units that geographers need in order to conduct their specific
research. One of the things that's really important to this process an understanding of
scale. Roads Marphey (1969) had described widely about regionalism and he called this
problem 'gestalt. According to him, "a pattern of factors which trends to operate as a
unit and which is more than the simple sum of its
parts." According to Marphey, "the concept of the region is primarily an intellectual
device, useful as a tool for the better understanding and analysis of human society”.
• 2. Landscape (cultural landscape) approach: An approach to geography that
emphasizes the relationships or interactions among social and physical phenomena in a
particular study area Interaction between man, environment and culture is running
continuously, for example, in agriculture, land and climate are physical components,
manpower and labour are human components and seeds, fertilizer and equipment’s are
cultural components. The number of cultural components in human activities increasing
day by day, such as new technologies are included man’s activities.
➢ Culture: E. B. Tylor (1871) defined culture as, “that complex whole which Includes
knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of society.”
There are two types of components of culture:
a. Material (instrument, factories, houses, furniture, etc.), and
b. Non-material (knowledge, experience, religion, etc.)
Modern geographers want to concentrate two cultural components separately to realize

the interaction among man, environment and culture. According to modern

geographers, non-material cultural components can be divided into two types:
a. Organizations (marriage, relativity, etc.), and b. Institutions (laws, rituals, etc.).
Types of culture: a. Macro culture (culture of all over the world), and
b. Micro culture (culture of a small area).
• Cultural Landscape: Physical landscape means the distribution of landform, river,

forests and other components of physical environment. Cultural landscape means the
cultural properties that represent the combined works of man and nature. There are
three contents of cultural landscape:
a. Human settlement, b. Land-division pattern, and c. Architectural style.
o Human Settlement: Settlement build up by dwelling units that situated together.
Rural settlements can be clustered or scattered in type.Rural settlements are changed
into urban settlement in response to the rhythm of cultural change. Settlements can be
permanent or
temporary.
o Land-division pattern: Land-division pattern always express cultural characteristics.
In ancient age, land was divided by natural obstructs.Nature obstructs were rivers, hills,
mountains, etc. Thus, region boundaries were determined by these obstructs.
o Architectural style: Geographers were thought that, land is the only factor for
building settlement. Not only the sources of raw materials but also style and
technologies depend on nature. But geographers in recent days believe that
architectural style depends on culture.
There are two main concepts on architectural style:
a. Folk (brought traditionally from ancient ages)
b. Professional (industries and manpower are engaged in this sector that caused a
professional approach)
Development of cultural landscape approach: According to Carl O. Sauer, cultural
landscape is “a complete and characteristic product of the complicated interplay
between a given human community embodying certain cultural preferences and
potentials, and a particular set of natural
circumstances.” Cultural landscape concept has developed from Ratzel’s (1844-1904)
culture spread concept, though it is fully differentiated from environmental determinism
concept. Otto Schluter (1972-1952) has popularized the landscape approach in Europe.
According to him, geography
can be called ‘landscape science. Landscape approach follows the morphological

processes like geomorphology (according to otto Schiuter). Vidal de la Blache's ife style'
concepts are quite similar to cultural landscape concep Other supporters of cultural
landscape approach after Carl Sauer are
Mark Jefferson, Robert Platt (1948), G. P. Marsh, D. W. Meinig and David Lowenthal.
• Cultural contact and divergence: Present geographers are concentrated with

cultural contact and cultural divergence. Man always moves from one space to another,
he collects cultural components both material and non-material. He also collects
knowledge after come in touch of other
cultural group. This process of collecting cultural components is called cultural contact.
All of our foods, clothes, house equipment’s are not originated in our country. They are
brought from other country as well as other culture. These cultural contacts happen
during colonialism,
religious missions, military reign, development of modern trade and commerce.
• The process of cultural diffusion: Cultural diffusion is the spread of cultural beliefs
and social activities from one group of people to another.
There are eight factors influence cultural diffusion.

1. Area or Environment
2. Time
3. Item
4. Origin
5. Destination
6. Path
7. Stage
8. Trend
3.Ecological Approach: The great Greek philosopher Hippocrates, Aristotle told about
the ecological view. But the matter is that they don’t define it as ‘ecology’, because there
was no Greek synonym of the word. In 1869 Ernst Haeckel first used the term ‘ecology’.
The relation between man and

environment, and the contribution of man in the ecosystem is known as ecological
approach.
• Ecology: Ecology is the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of life and
the interactions between organisms and their Environment.Agriculture, fisheries,
forestry, medicine and urban development are among human activities that would fall
within Krebs (1972) explanation of his definition of ecology.
• Ecological factors: Ecological factors affect dynamic change in a population or
species in a given ecology or environment.bThese are usually divided into two groups:
abiotic and biotic.
o Abiotic factors: These are geological, geographical, hydrological and climatological
parameters. Example includes: water, air, soil,temperature, light, natural disasters.
o Biotic factors: Biotic factors can be described as any living component that affects
another organism or shapes the ecosystem. Example include animals, plants, fungi,
bacteria, and protists.
• Food chain: In an ecosystem, the connections between organisms are generally
related to food and their role in the food chain. There are three categories of organisms:
o Producers: Producers re those organisms that use photosynthesis to capture energy
from sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to create carbohydrates. Producers are mostly
green plants.
o Consumers: Consumers are animals of an ecological food chain that consumes
other organisms.
o Decomposers: Bacteria, mushrooms which degrade organic matter of all categories
(dead organisms), and restore minerals to the environment.
Man and Ecosystem: Man is a live component of the ecosystem. Man always tries to
adjust him with nature, he meet his needs from nature, try to collect his essential things
(food, clothes, house equipment’s, furniture, etc.) from nature. Man is not only a
consumer, he can enforce ecological
change, he can build ecosystem by construct a new forest and finally he can destroy
ecosystem. Three basic objects of man’s influences on ecosystem:
a. Build up settlement in every environment,
b. Population explosion, and

c. Huge technological development and their use against nature.
o Build up settlement in every environment: Ancient man is called ‘gypsy’, they
moved from one place to another, they had no permanent house. Now man need to
change ecosystem to build settlement, to extent agricultural land, to collect mining and
forest resources.
o Population explosion: Now-a-days population has increased so much, which is
called ‘population explosion’. Present situation of population growth directly change
natural components.
o Huge technological development and their use against nature: Technological
development has introduced large scale commercial farming and industrialization all
over the world. Mining activities became easier due to technological development. Man
enforces change the way of
river by building dam, which changes biotic environment of the river valley.
• Human ecosystem: Concepts and processes of ecosystem were taken in bio-
geography at first time. And the concept of human ecosystem has been using in
geography in 1910. "Human ecosystem" is study the way people interact with their
ecosystems. Human ecosystem is an interdisciplinary study of the relationship between
humans and their natural, social, and built environments.
• Contribution of different geographers to ecological approach: Use of ecological
approach in physical and cultural geography is a logical extension of scientific concept.
According to Barros, “we will be benefited by using the principles of ecosystem in
regional geography”. Fleure
(1937) said that, “there is no difference between human geography and human
ecology”. In Germany, Carl Troll (1939) used the word “landscape ecology” at first time.
He has written a book namely ‘Geoecology, where he includes the concepts of Botany.
Robert E. Park and Earnest Burgess,
professors of Chicago University have done ecological research on urban societies of
1920s and 1930s. Geographers of Chicago School have studied the characteristics by
using the principles of ecosystem. Concept of human ecosystem became more
popularize after 1960s. Stoddard (1965)
described the ecological approach as a geographic principle and method.
➢ Environment
Environment is the sum total of all surroundings of a living organism including natural
forces and other living things. The word Environment is derived from the French word

“Environ” which means “surrounding”. Our surrounding includes biotic factors like
human beings, plants,animals, microbes, etc and abiotic factors such as light, air, water,
soil, etc. All living things live in their environment.
• Components of natural Environment: There are four major components :
1. Lithosphere,
2. Hydrosphere,
3. Atmosphere,
4. Biosphere
o Lithosphere: Lithosphere is defined as the rock and crust surface that covers the
Earth. There are two types of lithosphere: Oceanic lithosphere and continental
lithosphere. Oceanic lithosphere is associate with oceanic crust, and is slightly denser
than continental lithosphere.
o Hydrosphere: The hydrosphere is the part of a planet that’s made of water. Oceans,
o Atmosphere: The deep blanket of gas surrounding the earth is known as
Atmosphere. Earth’s atmosphere is composed of about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and
one percent other gases.
o Biosphere: The biosphere is defined as the area of the planet where organisms live,
ecosystems.
• Types of Environment: Environment can be categorized into three types:
1. Natural Environment
2. Built Environment
3. Social Environment.
o Natural Environment: The term ‘natural environment’ refers to the non-human-made
surroundings and conditions in which all living and non- living thing exist on Earth. The
common concept of the natural environment encompasses two different components:
Ecological units
that operate as natural systems (such as soil, vegetation and so on). Universal natural
resources (such as air and water).

o Built Environment: The term built environment refers to the human-made
surrounding that provide the setting for human activity. The built environment
encompasses places created or modified by people including buildings, parks or green
spaces, and supporting infra structures,
such as water supply, or energy networks, transportation systems etc.
o Social Environment: The social environment refers to the immediate physical and
social setting in which people live or in which something happens or develops. It
includes the culture that the individual was educated or lives in, and the people and
institutions with whom they interact. The interaction may be in person or through
communication media, even anonymous or one-way and may not imply equality of
social status.
• Man’s interaction with Environment: Perhaps man-environment view is the broadest
realm from the context of ‘Views’. The actions, reactions,interactions and influences
over man built environment, and over environment by man, their causes and
consequences all these are the subject matter of man-environment view. Man and
environment are related to each other very intimately. This relationship started its
initiation from the beginning of human history. Environment has the greatest influences
on human life. In strict sense, it controls the economic activities of man.
The main three bases of the man-environment relationship:

o First base: It is not necessary to build up similar human society in a given
environment. For instance, the kind of Pre-Greek and Roman civilization that grown up
in the Mediterranean climate, was not available in the other Mediterranean climatic
region. The environmental determinism has no explanation about this.
o Second base: It is possible to grow up similar human society in different
environmental system. For example, we can see the similarities of the European and
the North American human societies. For historical purpose, the North American human
society has grown up by the influence
of the European. Therefore environmental determinism does not work in this case also.
o Third base: Man also has a great influence on his environment. From the beginning
of the human civilization man influenced his environment in many ways. Man makes his
environment that is necessary for their work and comfortable. Modern man has almost
all power to influence
his nature.

• Major concepts of Man-Environment relationship: There are many concepts for the
relationship of Man-Environment. Three major concepts are as follows –
2. Environmental possiblism
3. Neo-determinism.
o 1. Environmental determinism: Environmental determinism is the belief that human

growth development and activities are controlled by the physical environment. Greek-
Roman philosophers and scientists like Hepocrates, Aristotle Herodotas etc. Describe
the physical environment to identify different characteristics of man. Arabian Muslim
Geographers also depicted relationship between man’s life style,activities with
Environment. German Geographer Carl Ritere (1779-1859) set the environmental
determinism as a geographical theory in nineteenth century.
▪ Principle of environmental determinism: Natural environment especially climate
and landscape play a vital role to innovate man’s culture. Man is the inactive and
inanimate production of natural environment. Nature especially controls the activities of
man. In the same way, natural environment produce culture. Natural environment
controls human life, is said by three main geographers of 19th century. Ellen Churchill
Semple (1911) , Ellsworth Huntington (1907 & 1919), Edmond Demolins (1901 & 1903).
▪ Falling of environmental determinism: The extreme concept about the activities and
behavior of people controlling by nature reach at climax till 1925 AD. Geographer’s
gradually become alert against their concept. They said that such kinds of natural
environment does not create any human reaction. For example, though the same
characteristics of Mediterranea climate exist in the western coast of California of North
America, the middle Chili of South America, South Africa and South Australia civilization
does not expand like Greek and Roman civilization those region.
o 2. Environmental possibilism: Environmental possibilism is an opposing scientific

belief that argue that while the physical environment controls the human growth
development and activities, Man still has the ability to alter their environment to adjust to
their needs. Here, the role of natural environment is secondary. Man is not liable to
natural environment rather he can use the environment of his own choice.
▪ Supporters of environmental possibilism:
▪ Paul Lucien Febvre (1925): French historian Lucien Febvre in 1924 in his ‘A
Geographic Introduction to History’ said, “Nature does not drive man along particular

road, but it offers a number of opportunities from among which man is free to select”. It
is similar to the concept of Vidal de la Blache (1845-1918).
▪ Vidal de la Blache (1845-1918): Vidal de la Blache thinks that the job of the
geographers is to identify and examine the relationship between man and environment.
He said that environment represents a set of opportunity in front of man. Men choose
his necessary element from that. He also said, there is no necessities but everywhere
possibilities an man as master of these
possibilities is the judge of their use. Jean Brunhes (1920) and Albert Demangeon
(1872-1940) were supporters of Vidal de la Blache ideas.
o 3. Neo-Determinism: An Australian geographer, Griffith Taylor (1880-1963), given the
concept of Neo-determinism. As per Taylor: A human can change the environment
through various innovations and activities, but there is a limit to change by a human,
environment compels them to stop.
V. Anuchin (1843-1923) said that “Determinism is one of the most indispensable facts
of dialectical thought”. From this NeoDeterminism gets rise once again. Geographers
start to find out the necessity of environment in human life. They said that it like a
advisor in the way of human succession technology. This is why, this concept is known
as Neo-Determinism.
➢ Tools in Geography:
• Map: A map is a visual representation of an entire area or a part of an area, typically
represented on a flat surface. Maps depict the spatial organisation of the physical and
social world at any scale. A globe is the only true representation or model of the earth
surface. But globes are not as convenient as flat maps to store of use, and they cannot
depict much detail. Maps are much more versatile but are an abstraction of reality.
• Map projection: Projection is a fundamental component of map production. Map
Projection – attempts to portray the surface of the earth or a proportion of the earth on a
flat surface.
• Coordinate system: To conduct measurements of location or position measurement
on/in/around the earth requires knowledge and use of:
Coordinate system: i.e, (Blue Lake = [D,8]). The simple coordinate system, Defined by
grid square and divided by page number.
Types of coordinate System: A. Cartesian coordinate system B. Geographic
coordinate system
o Cartesian coordinate system: Denote the unique location of a point along a plane

through an x and y value. X and y is defined by the distance along the 2 axes.
o Geographic coordinate system: Geographic coordinate system is a derivation of the
spherical coordinate system. Uses latitude and longitude to define the locations of
points on the surface of a sphere or spheroid.
• Latitude and Longitude: Latitude and longitude are measures of angle from the
centre of the Earth.
• Types of Projections:
1. Cylindrical,
2. Conical and
3. Planer projection and more
• Distortions:
o Shape: preserved by conformal projections
o Area: preserved by equal-area projections.
o Distance: equidistant projections preserve distances between points.
o Direction: azimuthal projections represent distortions correctly with respect to centre.
Types of Map: There are two main types of maps- A. General reference maps B.
Special purpose or thematic maps
o General reference maps: These maps are simply to display one or more natural
and/or cultural features of an area or of the world as a whole. Common examples of
the natural features shown on maps are water features (coastlines, rivers, lakes,
and so on) and the shape and elevation of terrain. Cultural features include
transportation routes, populated areas, property ownership lines, political
boundaries, and names.
o Special purpose or thematic maps: These maps show a specific spatial
distribution or category of data. The phenomena is mapped may be physical
(climate, vegetation, soils, and so on) and/or cultural (e.g.,the distribution of
population, religions, diseases, or crime). Unlike in
reference maps, the features on thematic maps are limited to just those that
communicate the specific spatial distribution.
➢ Tools in Geography: Model

• Models in Geography: Model is a purposeful ‘simplification of reality’. According
to Skilling (1960), “A model can be a theory, or law or relation or hypothesis or an

equation or a role.” According to Brodbeck (1959), “Two theories whose laws have
the same form are isomorphic or structurally similar to each other. If the laws of one
theory have the same form as the laws of another theory, then one may be said to
be a model for the other.”
• Functions of models: Chorley and Haggett (1967) emphasize the many different
functions which a model may perform in scientific investigation.
They suggested, for example, that a model may act: As a psychological device
which enables complex interactions to be more easily visualized; As a normative
device which allows broad comparisons to be made; As an organizational device for
the collection and manipulation of data; As a direct explanatory device; As a
constructional device in the search for geographic theory or for the extension of
existing theory etc.
• Types of models: A model may have various functions and definitions, so it may
perform its function through a multiplicity of media. Chorley(1964) regards all
models as being analogues of some kind but suggests a classification of models
into those which translate into analogue natural circumstances.
1. Natural analogue system: a. Historical analogue, b. Spatial analogue,
2. Physical system:
a. Hardware model: i. Scale,

ii. Analogue,
b. Mathematical model: i. Deterministic,
ii. Stochastic,
c. Experimental design
1. System: a. Synthetic, b. Partial, c. Black box.
Procedural rules of models: The proposed function of the model should be clearly
specified. The function of a particular model should not change within a particular
research design without adequate safeguards. Over-identified or unidentified models
should be restructured so as to allow
identification-otherwise alternative theoretical interpretations should be fully considered.
Conclusions drawn regarding a theory from the manipulation of a model for that theory
should not be automatically accepted unless a. The model is identified with the theory,
or b. The domain of

the model and the nature of the model-theory relationship can be fully specified. The
multiplicity of functions, types, and definitions, given to the concept of a model should
be fully appreciated in any research design.
• Problems of model use: The model-concept presents considerable methodological
difficulty. In most of the social sciences and in many areas of natural sciences, the
required general theory does not exist. In geography, theory is weakly developed. The
use of models in geography involve a
priori analysis. The most serious problem is identification.There are three kinds of
problem situation in identification:
o Over-identified models: We may postulate a model and then find that the model has
more than one possible theoretical interpretation.
o Unidentified models: We may postulate a model and find that the model gives
excellent results, but that it is impossible to find any firm theoretical interpretation.
o Identified models: A postulates model may give rise to one and only one theory.
➢ Tools in Geography: GIS
• Geographic Information System (GIS): GIS is concerned with the description,
explanation, and prediction of patterns and processes at geographic scale. Geographic
information systems are computer-based spatial information systems for compiling,
storing, manipulating, managing processing and analysing geographic data, modelling
spatially variable phenomena and disseminating primary or derived geospatial
information.
• Components of GIS: GIS consists of 6 components:
Network: internet, communication, sharing
Hardware: user’s device People
Software: web browser, ArcGIS, Google Earth
Database: structure and organisation of data
Procedures: maintain quality, function
People: users, developers, etc
Functions of GIS: Four main functions of a GIS:
Integration of spatial data
Management of spatial data

Manipulation and analysis of spatial data
Production and display of spatial data
• Spatial dimension of data: Spatial data translates into simple objects: Points, Lines,
Areas, Grids.
• Spatial data model (conceptualisation):
Static vs time variant phenomena
Discrete
Continuous fields
Methods to reduce geographic phenomena - vector and raster.
• Data model: Representation of the real world through raster and vector model
Definition and its changing nature
Geography is the study of the earth and its features,inhabitants and phenomena.
The first person to use the word geography was Eratosthenes(276-194 B.C).
The word “Geography” comes from two “Greek” words.’Geo’ means the earth and
‘graphy’ means to write/describe.
The earth refers to the atmosphere ,hydrosphere,lithosphere and biosphere.
“To describe/write in terms of the place,localization and distribution.”
A description of these earth bound phenomena is Geography.
The word geography explained by ‘Where do the people live?
live means distribution and concentration of people ,space and time factor.
“Geography is that part of the mixed mathematics which explains the state of earth
and of its parts depending on quantity namely,its figure,place,magnitude and
motion.”
-Veroneous(1622)
Branches of Geography

1.Physical Geography :Physical geography is concerned with the study of the
description of
nature or physical phenomena .It covers the systematic
sciences of
geology,meterology,astronomy,botany,zoology and
chemistry.
2.Human Geography : Human geography is a branch of geography that
focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with
various environments. It covers human, political, cultural, social, and economic aspects.
Nature of Geography: Geography as a Dynamic Discipline

➢ Nature of Geography: "Philosophy of Geography" has been established following
the different beliefs. Each philosophy provides us with a distinctive view of the nature of
the Geography. Philosophy of Geography can be divided into two portion:
A. We should go about studying phenomena, and in particular it is concerned with the
two operations of description and explanation.
B. What we should study, in identifies a domain of objects and events to which the
operations of description and explanation should be applied.
• In the West during the second half of the 19th and the 20th century, the discipline of
geography went through four major phases:
2. Regional Geography
3. The quantitative revolution

4. Critical Geography
Environmental Determinism: Environmental determinism is the theory that a people's
physical, mental and moral habits are directly due to the influence of their natural
environment. Prominent environmental determinists included Carl Ritter, Ellen Churchill
Semple, and Ellsworth Huntington.

Popular hypotheses included 'heat makes inhabitants of the tropics lazy. Frequent
changes in barometric pressure make inhabitants of temperate latitudes more
intellectually agile'. Around the 1930s, this school of thought was widely repudiated as
lacking any basis and being prone
to generalizations. Environmental determinism remains an embarrassment to many
contemporary geographers.
• Regional Geography: Regional geographers focused on the collection of descriptive
information about places, as well as the proper methods for dividing the earth up into
regions. Well known names from these period are Alfred Hettner from Germany and
Vidal de la Blache from France. The
philosophical basis of this field in United States was laid out by Richard Hartshorne who
defined geography as a study of areal I differentiation.
• Quantitative Revolution: The quantitative revolution was geography's attempt to
redefine itself as a science, in the wake of the revival of interest in science following the
launch of Sputnik. Quantitative revolutionaries, often referred to as 'space cadets',
declared that the purpose of geography was to test general laws about the spatial
arrangement of phenomena. They adopted the philosophy of positivism from the natural
sciences and turned to mathematics-especially statistics-as a way of proving
hypotheses. The quantitative revolution laid the groundwork for the development of
Geographic Information Systems.
• Critical Geography: Though positivist and post-positivist approaches remain
important in geography, critical geography arose as a critique of positivism. The first
strain of critical geography to emerge was humanist geography. Drawing on the
philosophies of existentialism and
phenomenology, humanist geographers focused on people's sense of, and relationship
with, places. More influential was Marxist geography, which applied the social theories
of Karl Marx and his followers to geographic phenomena.
❖ Geography as a Science:
A. Geography as an applied science
B. Geography as a spatial science
C. Geography as an environmental science
• Geography as an Applied Science: The term 'applied' has been used to refer to that

'practical knowledge' useful in everyday life and necessary to understand the word to
improve the quality of life. Applied Geography concerned with the application of
geographical knowledge and skills to the resolution of real-world social, economic and
environmental problems. The first major statement was made by L.D. Stamp in applied
geography in 1960. After Stamps, in 1981 land use studies geographers concentrated
their views in the journal of applied geography.
• Geography as an Spatial Science: Geography is described as a spatial science

because it focuses is on "where" things are and why they occur there. Geographers
seek to answer all or more than one of four basic questions when studying our
environment. These relate to- 1. Location 2. Spatial pattern 3. Spatial interaction.
One of the most important development of spatial science is Remote sensing-the
gathering and recording of information as a digital image using satellites, drones and
other platform. GIS is another very important technical aspect of spatial science. GIS is
a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyse, manage, and present spatial
or geographic data.
• Geography as an Environmental Science: Environmental science is the study of

interactions among physical, chemical and biological components of the environment.
Environmental Science provides an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary
approach to the study of environmental
systems. Geographers monitor the quality of the environment, interpret the impact of
human actions on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and develop strategies for
restoring ecosystems. Environmental issues encompass with climate change,
conservation, biodiversity, water quality,
groundwater contamination, soil contamination, use of natural resources, waste
management, sustainable development, air pollution, and noise pollution.
❖ Scope and Subject Matters of Geography; Relation of Geography With Other

Disciplines
➢ Scope and subject matters of Geography: There are many complexity among the
geographers about the scope of geography. Geography is the study of the interaction
between natural environment and human communities. Geographers of different age

including Hippocrates to modern geographers have tried to describe the scope of
geography. Two subject matter have been identified that are man and natural
environment.
According to Rager Minshull,
"Geography as a whole studies every variation of each tropic in every part of the world
and then attempts to describe and explain these different variations and combinations."
According to Lukermann "the geographer's purpose is to understand man's experience

in space." Thus, the scope or field of Geography is the assemblage of phenomena that
occur in the zone of contact of the solid, liquid and gaseous masses that make up the
planet or geographers. These phenomena are analysed and rationally described in
relation to place, localization and distribution. Thus, scope and subject matter of
Geography is integrated with physical environment or nature and human life. To give an
expression or description of earth surface, requires both natural
sciences and humanities or social sciences. Human geography focuses largely on the
built environment and how space is created, viewed and managed by humans as well
as the influence humans have on the space they occupy. Physical geography examines
the natural environment and how the climate, vegetation & life, soil, water, and
landforms are produced and interact.
Relation of Geography with other disciplines: Geography is an interdisciplinary

subject that compounds physical science, humanities and social science each other.
The field of geography contains 8 subdivisions which in turn are linked with 8 major
disciplines.
4 subdivisions linked to natural or environmental sciences such as
1. Astronomy
2. Geology
3. Physics
4. Botany.
4 sub-division linked to human sciences such

1. Economy
2. Sociology

3. Anthropology
4. History
➢ Relation with Natural Sciences or Environmental Sciences:
• Astronomy and Geography (Cartography): Astronomy basically deals with the

celestial bodies which include the sun and their planet, satellites and their motion,
constellation and different kind of phenomena occurring in outer space. Geography
attempts to identify and measure the impact
of the motion of the celestial bodies on the surface of the earth. The interaction of
astronomy and geography within mathematical framework has given rise to cartography
in Geography.
• Geology and Geography (Topography): Geology is the natural science which has
traditionally been to closest geography. Geology is the study of rocks, their layout and
arrangement, types minimal constituents, resistance and age, distribution and
alignment. Geography is essentially the study
of the earth's surface especially the morphology of the surface.
• Physics and Geography (Climatology): As geography is the study of variable

phenomena on the earth surface, the mechanism of phenomena requires to be studied
within the framework of physics. The physics of the atmosphere, called meteorology,
uses the methods of physics to interpret and explain atmospheric process. The
interaction with meteorology has given rise to a systematic branch of climatology in
Geography.
• Botany and Geography (Plant Geography): The systematic branch of botany

classify and describes of various kinds plant species on the earth surface. Geography,
being the study of the special section of the earth surface, also attempts to study
distributional aspects of flora phenomena and
also provides their classification.
Relation with Human Sciences:
• Economics and Geography (Economic Geography): Economics is basically

concerned with man's economic activities and the principles governing the location of
units of production forces of production, relations of production divisions of labor and so
on. Since geography is the study
of ensemble of phenomena in relation to place, localization and distribution, it is equally
concerned with the variable character of the economic activities. Geography's
interaction with economics has given rise to economics geography which deals with
activities of producing, exchanging are
consuming goods and services.
• Sociology and Geography (Social Geography): Sociology is mainly concerned with

the institutional aspects of the society which broadly include social organizations of
communities, family structure and systems, rituals, cultures, customs and social system.
Geography attempts to study of
social aspects in special context. The reciprocal relationship between sociology and
geography has resulted in the development of social geography or cultural geography.
• Anthropology and Geography (Anthropogeography): Anthropology attempts to

study human races, their physical characteristics, biological traits, cultural traits and
organization and seeks to classify them accordingly. Geography seek to identify and
classify them on the basis of their
habitant and cultural traits and attempt to study the variable racial phenomena on the
special section of the earth's surface . The reciprocal relationship between anthropology
and geography has resulted in the development of Anthropogeography or Ethnology.
• History and Geography (Political Geography): History and geography fill up the
entire circumference of our perception: history of hat time and geography that of space.
History is narrative and geography is descriptive. History and geography are traditionally
idiographic in nature and are mutually interdependent. Interaction of geography with
history has helped to develop political geography or historical geography.
Geography is a mother discipline from which other some specialized discipline have
emerged. For example:
1• Geodesy
2. Meteorology

3. Soil Science
4. Plant ecology
5. Regional science
Physical Geography: Definition, Scope, Major Branches. Sphere of Earth System

➢ Physical Geography: Physical geography is concerned with the study of the
description of nature or physical phenomena. It covers the systematic sciences of
geology, meteorology, astronomy, botany, zoology and chemistry.
According to Richard Brayant, 1986,
"Physical geography is the integrated study of the natural environment on or close to
the earth's surface." Physical Geography is the study of our home planet and all of its
components: its
lands, waters, atmosphere, and interior.”
➢ Scope of Physical Geography: The scope of physical geography to examine the
natural environment and how the climate, vegetation & life, soil, water, and landforms
are produced and interact. The field of physical geography is the assemblage of
phenomena that occur in the zone of contact of the solid, liquid and gaseous masses
that make up the planet. Within physical geography there are various fields of study,
mainly but not exclusively focusing on the spheres of the earth.
➢ Major Branches of Physical Geography:
1. Astronomical Geography
2. Geomorphology
3. Oceanography
4. Bio Geography
5. Mathematical Geography
6. Climatology
7. Soil Science.
Astronomical Geography: Astronomy basically deals with the celestial bodies which
includes the sun and their planet, satellites and their motion, constellations and different

kind of phenomena occurring in outer space. Astronomical geography studies the
celestial phenomena which concern
the earth's surface. It is perhaps the oldest branch of geography, developed by Thales,
Anaximander, Eratosthenes, Aristotle and Ptolemy.
• Mathematical Geography: Mathematical geography studies the form, size, and

movement of the earth and of its position in the solar system. It has origin in the work of
Thales, Eratosthenes and Ptolemy. Mathematical geography a branch of geography that
deals with the figure and motions of
the earth, its seasons and tides, its measurement, and its representation on maps and
charts by various methods of projection.
• Geomorphology: Geomorphology is concerned with the study of the landforms on the
earth's surface. Geomorphology seeks to understand landform history and dynamics,
and predict future changes through a combination of field observation, physical
experiment, and numerical
modeling (Geomorphometry).
• Climatology: Climatology is the study of the atmospheric conditions and related
climatic and weather phenomena. Climatology, examines both the nature of micro
(local) and macro (global) climates and the natural and anthropogenic influences on
them. Eratosthenes provided the three-fold climatic divisions of the known world first
time.
• Oceanography: Oceanography is concerned with the study of various types of
phenomena and features, both on the surface of the ocean and on its floor, including
relief of the floor; temperature of the surface water; distribution of salinity, depth,
currents, tides, waves; coral reefs etc. Posidonius
who first investigated tides and measured the depth of sea.
• Soil Geography: Soil geography studies various soil-forming processes, their
chemical, physical and biological constituents, their color and types,distribution and
carrying capacities etc. It was V.V. Dokuchaieve of Russia who pioneered the study of
soil geography.
• Bio-Geography: Bio-geography is concerned with the biological phenomena in space
especially in terms of the distribution of various kinds of floral and faunal species. Bio-
geography may be sub-divided into plant or floral geography, and animal or faunal
geography. Theophratus, a pupil of
Aristotle, is credited to have developed bio-geography.

➢ Spheres of earth system: Four spheres of earth system: A. Lithosphere B.
Hydrosphere C. Atmosphere D. Biosphere
• Lithosphere: Lithosphere is defined as the rock and crust surface that covers the
Earth. It extends to a depth of about 60 miles (100 km). There are two types of
lithosphere: Oceanic lithosphere and continental lithosphere. Oceanic lithosphere is
associated with oceanic crust, and is slightly
denser than continental lithosphere.
• Hydrosphere: The hydrosphere is the part of a planet that's made of water. Oceans,
• Atmosphere: The deep blanket of gas surrounding the. earth is known as
Atmosphere. Earth's atmosphere is composed of about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and
one percent other gases. About 97 per cent of the total atmosphere remains confined
within 30 kilometers upward from the
earth's crust. The atmosphere remains in contact with the earth's crust due to the
gravitational attraction.
• Biosphere: The biosphere is defined as the area of the planet where organisms live,
ecosystems.
❖ Human Geography: Definition, Scope & Major Branches

➢ Human Geography: Human geography is a branch of geography that focuses on the
study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with various
environments. It covers human, political, cultural, social, and economic aspects.
According to Majid Husain, 1994, "Human geography deals with
the spatial differentiation and organization of human activity with human use of physical
environment.
" According to Sudeepta, 1992, "Human geography is the syntactic study of the
relationship between human societies and earth's surface".
➢ Scope of Human Geography: The scope of human geography is linked to the study
of human societies in their relation to the habitat or environment.

• The scope of human geography includes: Study of human races, the growth;
distribution and density of populations of the various parts of the world;
culture, religion language, settlement types. Demographic attributes and migration
patterns. Physical and cultural differences between human groups and economic
activities. Relation of man and natural environment.
➢ Major branches of Human Geography:
1. Anthropogeography
2. Cultural geography
3. Population geography
4. Economic geography
5. Political geography
6. Historical geography
7. Social geography
8. Urban geography
• Anthropogeography: Anthropogeography studies racial phenomena in their areal
context or the geographical distribution of races. Agartacides firstly classified the
Ethiopian tribes on the basis of their diet and cultural traits. But, Freidrick Ratzel is
credited to coin the term"anthropogeography" to study human aspects.
• Cultural Geography: Cultural geography focuses on the impact of human culture,
both material and non-material, on the natural environment and the human organization
of space. Herodotus pioneered the study of the cultural traits of the people. Cultural
geography describes and analyses the language, religion, economy, government, and
other cultural phenomena which may vary or remain constant from one place to another
and explains how humans function spatially.
• Population Geography: Population geography is the study of the ways in which

spatial variations in the distribution, composition, migration and growth of population are
related to the nature of places. Population geography involves demography in a
geographical perspective. Achenwell
(1748) and Sussmilch (1747) first pioneered the statistical studies of population in
space.

• Economic Geography: Economic geography studies on the location of economic
activity at the local, national and world scale. It is also study of economic phenomena in
their areal context.
Sub-branch of Economic Geography:
Resource Geography: The study of the resources, their distribution production,
utilization and conservation.
Agricultural Geography: The study of spatial variation in agricultural activity. Industrial
geography: The study of spatial arrangement of industrial activity.
Transport Geography: The study of modes of transport, movement of goods, people
and relationship between transport and others geographic factors.
• Political Geography: Political geography is the study of the political phenomena in
their areal or spatial context. It also deals with the boundaries, divisions, territories and
resources of states. Moreover it provides a geographical interrelation of international
relations. Friedrich Ratzel is called
the father of modern political geography.
• Historical Geography: Historical geography studies of the past events in their spatial
context. According to Herodoutus, recreation of past geographies and the tracing of
geographical change through time. Sir Halford J. Mackinder of Great Britain made
substantial contribution to the field
of historical geography.
• Social Geography: Social geography is the analysis of the social phenomena in
space. Social geography was developed in Germany by Otto Schluter,as a reaction
against physical determinism. Sub-branches of Social Geography:
Radical Geography and Welfare Geography: The study of social being, social
problems and their spatial variations and also search for root cause of social problems.
Marxist Geography: The study of new spatial determinism of capitalist society.
Urban Geography: Urban geography is the study of urban areas, their spatial pattern
and functions, origin and hierarchies. It can be considered a part of the larger field of
human geography. Urban geographers are primarily concerned with the ways in which
cities and towns are constructed,
governed and experienced. Its development took place in the 1940s.
❖ Concepts/themes in Geography
➢ Concepts/themes in Geography: The topics included within the broad field of

geography are diverse. Of either a physical or cultural phenomenon,geographers
inquire: What is it? Where is it? Where is it in relation to other physical or cultural
realities that affect it or are affected by it? How is it part of a functioning whole? How
does its location affect people's lives and the content of the area in which it is found?
➢ Fundamental concepts/themes in geography:
Location: The location of places and things is the starting point of all geographic study
as well as of our personal movements and spatial actions in everyday life. Two types of
location: absolute and relative.
• Absolute location: Absolute location is the identification of place by a precise and
accepted system of coordinates; therefore, sometimes it is called mathematical location.
One of them is the global grid of parallels and meridians-that is, latitude and longitude.
The absolute location of
any point on the earth can be accurately described by reference to its degrees, minutes,
and seconds of latitude and longitude.
• Relative Location: The position of a place or thing in relation to that of other places or
things. For example, Dhaka is located about 32 km south of Gazipur. Relative location
can be expressed in terms of distance, travel time, or cost.
➢ Two objects of location:

• Site: Site means the description of physical condition of any area, for example, we can
say that Dhaka stands on the Buriganga river.
• Situation: Comparative location of any area is called situation. Situation means the
relation between any area and its surroundings, such as,Bangladesh is the hinterland of
Chittagong port.
➢ Spatial distribution: Spatial distribution means the description of any subject of the
earth's surface. Space means the part of the earth's surface. For example, describing
the population distribution of a country or all over the world is a spatial distribution. Map
is a visual representation of a spatial distribution. Some geographers said that the
analysis of the spatial distribution is main subject matter of geography. There are three
objects of spatial
distribution:
1. Density of distribution,
2. Dispersion of distribution, and

3. Pattern of distribution.
➢ Agglomeration: Agglomeration refers to the clustering of productive activities and
people for mutual advantage. The clustering of industrial activities often produces
benefits for individual firms that they could not experience in isolation. Agglomeration
economies-may accrue in the form of savings from shared transport facilities, social
services, public utilities, communication facilities, and the like. Clustering may also
create pools of skilled and ordinary labor, specialized knowledge, capital, ancillary
business services, and, of course, a market built of other industries and urban
populations.
➢ Spatial interaction: Spatial interaction refers to interdependence between
geographic areas. This interdependency appears to be complementary to the society-
environment interdependence within a single area and it's a major focus of geographical
inquiry. It includes the movement of goods, passengers,migrants, money, information
etc. between geographic areas.
There are three bases for spatial interaction in terms of commodity flow between two
regions, 1. Character of the regions. 2. Nature of commodities 3. The existence of
closure source of supply or markets.
➢ Time: Concept of time is very important for every geographical analysis. Geography
provides scientific procedures for describing or explaining phenomena in relation to their
development over time. Everything is changing with time. Landscape of every area are
changed with time. Geography
always analyze the processes of changes, it can be happened in many way, such as,
change of landform due to erosional process, change of settlement by urbanization, etc.
➢ Direction: Direction is another universal spatial concept. Like location, it has more
than one meaning and can be expressed in absolute or relative terms.Absolute direction
is based on the cardinal points of north, south, east, and west. These appear in all
cultures, derived from the obvious "givens" of nature: the rising and setting of the sun
for east and west. We also commonly use relative, or relational, directions. The most
common relative directions
are left, right, forward, backward, up, and down.
➢ Distance: Distance joins location and direction as a commonly understood term that
has dual meanings for geographers. Like its two companion spatial concepts, distance
may be viewed in both an absolute and a relative sense. Absolute distance refers to the
spatial separation between two points on the earth's surface, measured by an accepted
standard unit-such as miles or kilometers for widely separated locales, feet or meters for

more closely spaced points. Relative distance is the distance that we are felt to cover
up, taking the time used to obtain there. Further, relative distance is calculated
measuring distance, using metrics such as time, effort, or cost.
➢ Scale: Map represents the whole or a part of the earth's surface, scale is the method
to measure the actual distance of two points that represented in map. The scale of a
map is the ratio of a distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground.
➢ Methods of showing scale on the map: There are three ways the scale is depicted on
the map. 1. By statement 2. By graphical method 3. By Representative Fraction (R.F.)
• 1. By statement: Scale can be expressed in the map by statement or by language. As
for instance, 1 inch to 4 miles, 16 inches to a mile, 1 cm. to 1 hectometre. Here, in every
case, the first figure indicates the distance on the map and the second figure indicates
the corresponding actual distance on the ground.
• 2. By graphical method: By dividing a line of inches or of cms. into equal parts and
further into smaller divisions and marking the values to each part, the scale of the map
is expressed. As, for instance, if the scale of 1 cm. to 50 miles is to be expressed
graphically, then a line of 4 cms. long is to be divided into 4 equal parts and the value
each part would be 50 miles.
• 3. By Representative Fraction (R.F.):This expresses the proportion of the scale by a
fraction in which the numerator is 1 which denotes the length on the map and the
denominator in the same unit denotes the corresponding length on the ground.
Example: .R.F. 1: 10,000 or 1/10,000, It says 1
unit (inch/cm) on map is equal to 10,000 units (inch/cm) on the ground. That means all
ground features are reduced by 10,000 times in order to be represented on the map.
These processes of change can be done in two types: Short-term change, and Long-
term change. Daily or seasonal changes are the short-term changes. Long-term
changes are happened along with hundreds or thousands years. Normally physical
processes show the long-term changes and short-term changes are found in human
geography.
➢ Region: The concept of region has evolved from the concept of areal Differentiation.
Region is the area that contains the geographic phenomena of same characteristics. A
region is an area of land that has common features. These features can be natural,
such as climate or landscape. They can also be artificial, such as Language or religion.
➢ Types of Region:
• A. Administrative region: Administrative regions are created by laws, treaties, or
regulations. Examples include countries, states, cities, and districts. The political map of

the world shows the boundaries of one set of administrative regions.
• B. Formal region: A formal (or uniform) region is an area of essential uniformity for a
Single physical or cultural feature or a limited combination of physical or cultural
features. Formal (uniform) region can be by languages (Bangla, Arabic, Turkish etc.)
Formal (uniform) region can be by climate (Tropical, Sub-tropical, Temperate, Cold
regions) Formal (uniform) region can be by land uses (Paddy region, wheat region,
Forest region,Hilly region, Plain land regions etc.)
• C. Functional (or nodal) region: Functional region has been identified on the basis of
region interaction. Its parts are interdependent, and throughout its extent the functional
region operates as a dynamic, organizational unit. Examples are the trade areas of
towns/cities, the circulation
area of a newspaper, the area that covers by particular mobile companies network.
• D. Perceptual (or vernacular) region: A perceptual or vernacular region is defined by
feelings and prejudices that may or may not be true. It can also be an idea of a person’s
mental map. It can be viewed as how people think about or perceive a region based on
factors that may not reflect the
truth. For example, if you say, “1 was living in this town in the past, and there are no job
opportunities” it points to a perceptual region. Another person could see the same place
entirely differently. They Could say, “there are chances for growth, and new business
opportunities in this town”.
➢ Spatial Organization: Spatial organization is the way a group or phenomenon is
arranged on the surface of the Earth. It could be people are concentrated into cities or
perhaps they’re more spread out. Perhaps there are more rivers north of the Equator
than south. If we can see how things are
spatially organized, we can next ask the question: ‘Why are they organized that way?’
And that is what geography is all about. Environments, Places and People are vital
factors behind this spatial organizations.
❖ Major Approaches to the Study of Geography

➢ Major Approaches to the Study of Geography: Subject matter of geography is
logically indivisible as it deals with phenomena’ on the earth surface,with distinct areal
expressions and variations. The problem arises, how to deal with these variable
phenomena and what approaches be adopted for their study.
Consequently, there are several major approaches to study of Geography:

A. Regional Approach
B. Landscape Approach
C. Ecological Approach
• 1. Regional Approach: Regional approach took very important role in geographical

analysis. Thousands of researches have been done regional analysis.
These researches started since 1750. But regional analysis was introduced by Vidal de
la Blache (1845-1918). He observed variations of human activities among the small
provinces of South France. According to him, man-environment relation can be
understood these observations. In Germany, Alfred Hettner (1927) supported regional
approach. Britain, Herbertson (1905) divided the whole world in some climatic region.
• Concept of Region: The concept of region has evolved from the concept of area
differentiation. Region is a unit of space which is homogeneous in respect to some
particular set of associated conditions, weather of the land or the people such as
industry, farming, the distribution of population.Commerce or the general sphere of
influence of a city. Concept of region concluded huge number of book in geography how
the boundary of a region should be identified, what should be the definition of region,
how the map would be make, etc.
• Concept of Regional Approach: John Glasson (1974), the famous British
geographer, described two approaches of region, two basic objects arose from concept
of region:
1. Subjective view, and

2.Objective view.
o 1. Subjective view: To find out the region and their description is the basic objective
of geography. In this concept, there is a real entity of region. One can see well-identified
region in bird’s eye view.
o 2. Objective view: Region is the ‘means to an end’. That means, another group say
that there is nothing as region, it is only an idea and method to know the earth. Both of
these two approaches contain part of the truth. If the main aim of geography is to know
the world; region is the
basic method this in aim.

Hartshomes subjective region: According to Hartshome, regions the method for
geographers to realize the world. Regions the model “There may be as many
regions as they are geographers” Subjective view is the main concept of
Hartshorme. According to him, we will get many criteria of region by subject
geographic research such as agriculture region will be found agricultural
researchers.
• Herbertson's general (objective) region:

o Polar region: a. Lowland (Tundra), b. Highland (Greenland)
o Cool subtropical region: a. West European coastal area, b. Sent. Laurence type,
c. Siberian type, d. Altai type,
o Sub-tropical region: a. Mediterranean type, b. China type, c. Turan type, d. Iran
type
o Tropical warm region: a. Sahara type, b. Monsoon rainfall region, c. Sudan type,
o Equatorial type (Amazon type).
• Other approach to classify the region: The another approach of region has classified it
as: A. Formal region, and B. Functional region.
o Formal region: Formal region is based on the physical and socio-economic

characteristics of the region. Herbertson's general region was
'physical formal region'. The basic characteristics of formal region are that they are
contiguous and non-overlapping. Sometimes a problem
has risen during fixing the boundary of the region.
o Le Play's functional region: Le play had identified functional regions on the basis of
agricultural land use. His regions stands along with a
valley. -Hunting and livestock area.-Woods and mining industry -Sustainable agriculture
and villages -Agriculture, dairy and vegetable cultivation -Location of city
o Functional region: According to Minshull (1967), “Functional region is the complex of
areas which function together as a whole.” Functional region has been identified on the
basis of region interaction. Its parts are interdependent, and throughout its extent the
functional region
operates as a dynamic, organizational unit. Examples are the trade areas of
towns/cities, the circulation area of a newspaper, the area that covers by particular
mobile companion network.

o Von Thunen's functional region: Von thunen's functional regions are located around
the city area. His functional region is famous as'agricultural location theory'. His
functional region is situated on a universal plain. His agricultural location theory is also
popular still today.
-Grain farming -Weeds industry -Vegetable cultivation -Dairy.
o More about functional region: Ebeneezer Howard of Britain was one of the main
supporter of functional region. Patrik Geddes highlighted the interrelationship between
man, function and space. Functional regions rise by the interrelation and interaction
among the see three components. British geographer Dickinson identified functional
region of Leads city on the basis of news paper circulation.
• Regionalization: The main problems in regional analysis is that to find out the
specialty of the region and to identify their benefits. The regionalization process breaks
larger territories into useful units that geographers need in order to conduct their specific
research. One of the things that's really important to this process an understanding of
scale. Roads Marphey (1969) had described widely about regionalism and he called this
problem 'gestalt. According to him, "a pattern of factors which trends to operate as a
unit and which is more than the simple sum of its
parts." According to Marphey, "the concept of the region is primarily an intellectual
device, useful as a tool for the better understanding and analysis of human society”.
• 2. Landscape (cultural landscape) approach: An approach to geography that
emphasizes the relationships or interactions among social and physical phenomena in a
particular study area Interaction between man, environment and culture is running
continuously, for example, in agriculture, land and climate are physical components,
manpower and labour are human components and seeds, fertilizer and equipment’s are
cultural components. The number of cultural components in human activities increasing
day by day, such as new technologies are included man’s activities.
➢ Culture: E. B. Tylor (1871) defined culture as, “that complex whole which Includes
knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of society.”
There are two types of components of culture:
a. Material (instrument, factories, houses, furniture, etc.), and
b. Non-material (knowledge, experience, religion, etc.)
Modern geographers want to concentrate two cultural components separately to realize

the interaction among man, environment and culture. According to modern

geographers, non-material cultural components can be divided into two types:
a. Organizations (marriage, relativity, etc.), and b. Institutions (laws, rituals, etc.).
Types of culture: a. Macro culture (culture of all over the world), and
b. Micro culture (culture of a small area).
• Cultural Landscape: Physical landscape means the distribution of landform, river,

forests and other components of physical environment. Cultural landscape means the
cultural properties that represent the combined works of man and nature. There are
three contents of cultural landscape:
a. Human settlement, b. Land-division pattern, and c. Architectural style.
o Human Settlement: Settlement build up by dwelling units that situated together.
Rural settlements can be clustered or scattered in type.Rural settlements are changed
into urban settlement in response to the rhythm of cultural change. Settlements can be
permanent or
temporary.
o Land-division pattern: Land-division pattern always express cultural characteristics.
In ancient age, land was divided by natural obstructs.Nature obstructs were rivers, hills,
mountains, etc. Thus, region boundaries were determined by these obstructs.
o Architectural style: Geographers were thought that, land is the only factor for
building settlement. Not only the sources of raw materials but also style and
technologies depend on nature. But geographers in recent days believe that
architectural style depends on culture.
There are two main concepts on architectural style:
a. Folk (brought traditionally from ancient ages)
b. Professional (industries and manpower are engaged in this sector that caused a
professional approach)
Development of cultural landscape approach: According to Carl O. Sauer, cultural
landscape is “a complete and characteristic product of the complicated interplay
between a given human community embodying certain cultural preferences and
potentials, and a particular set of natural
circumstances.” Cultural landscape concept has developed from Ratzel’s (1844-1904)
culture spread concept, though it is fully differentiated from environmental determinism
concept. Otto Schluter (1972-1952) has popularized the landscape approach in Europe.
According to him, geography
can be called ‘landscape science. Landscape approach follows the morphological

processes like geomorphology (according to otto Schiuter). Vidal de la Blache's ife style'
concepts are quite similar to cultural landscape concep Other supporters of cultural
landscape approach after Carl Sauer are
Mark Jefferson, Robert Platt (1948), G. P. Marsh, D. W. Meinig and David Lowenthal.
• Cultural contact and divergence: Present geographers are concentrated with

cultural contact and cultural divergence. Man always moves from one space to another,
he collects cultural components both material and non-material. He also collects
knowledge after come in touch of other
cultural group. This process of collecting cultural components is called cultural contact.
All of our foods, clothes, house equipment’s are not originated in our country. They are
brought from other country as well as other culture. These cultural contacts happen
during colonialism,
religious missions, military reign, development of modern trade and commerce.
• The process of cultural diffusion: Cultural diffusion is the spread of cultural beliefs
and social activities from one group of people to another.
There are eight factors influence cultural diffusion.

1. Area or Environment
2. Time
3. Item
4. Origin
5. Destination
6. Path
7. Stage
8. Trend
3.Ecological Approach: The great Greek philosopher Hippocrates, Aristotle told about
the ecological view. But the matter is that they don’t define it as ‘ecology’, because there
was no Greek synonym of the word. In 1869 Ernst Haeckel first used the term ‘ecology’.
The relation between man and

environment, and the contribution of man in the ecosystem is known as ecological
approach.
• Ecology: Ecology is the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of life and
the interactions between organisms and their Environment.Agriculture, fisheries,
forestry, medicine and urban development are among human activities that would fall
within Krebs (1972) explanation of his definition of ecology.
• Ecological factors: Ecological factors affect dynamic change in a population or
species in a given ecology or environment.bThese are usually divided into two groups:
abiotic and biotic.
o Abiotic factors: These are geological, geographical, hydrological and climatological
parameters. Example includes: water, air, soil,temperature, light, natural disasters.
o Biotic factors: Biotic factors can be described as any living component that affects
another organism or shapes the ecosystem. Example include animals, plants, fungi,
bacteria, and protists.
• Food chain: In an ecosystem, the connections between organisms are generally
related to food and their role in the food chain. There are three categories of organisms:
o Producers: Producers re those organisms that use photosynthesis to capture energy
from sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to create carbohydrates. Producers are mostly
green plants.
o Consumers: Consumers are animals of an ecological food chain that consumes
other organisms.
o Decomposers: Bacteria, mushrooms which degrade organic matter of all categories
(dead organisms), and restore minerals to the environment.
Man and Ecosystem: Man is a live component of the ecosystem. Man always tries to
adjust him with nature, he meet his needs from nature, try to collect his essential things
(food, clothes, house equipment’s, furniture, etc.) from nature. Man is not only a
consumer, he can enforce ecological
change, he can build ecosystem by construct a new forest and finally he can destroy
ecosystem. Three basic objects of man’s influences on ecosystem:
a. Build up settlement in every environment,
b. Population explosion, and

c. Huge technological development and their use against nature.
o Build up settlement in every environment: Ancient man is called ‘gypsy’, they
moved from one place to another, they had no permanent house. Now man need to
change ecosystem to build settlement, to extent agricultural land, to collect mining and
forest resources.
o Population explosion: Now-a-days population has increased so much, which is
called ‘population explosion’. Present situation of population growth directly change
natural components.
o Huge technological development and their use against nature: Technological
development has introduced large scale commercial farming and industrialization all
over the world. Mining activities became easier due to technological development. Man
enforces change the way of
river by building dam, which changes biotic environment of the river valley.
• Human ecosystem: Concepts and processes of ecosystem were taken in bio-
geography at first time. And the concept of human ecosystem has been using in
geography in 1910. "Human ecosystem" is study the way people interact with their
ecosystems. Human ecosystem is an interdisciplinary study of the relationship between
humans and their natural, social, and built environments.
• Contribution of different geographers to ecological approach: Use of ecological
approach in physical and cultural geography is a logical extension of scientific concept.
According to Barros, “we will be benefited by using the principles of ecosystem in
regional geography”. Fleure
(1937) said that, “there is no difference between human geography and human
ecology”. In Germany, Carl Troll (1939) used the word “landscape ecology” at first time.
He has written a book namely ‘Geoecology, where he includes the concepts of Botany.
Robert E. Park and Earnest Burgess,
professors of Chicago University have done ecological research on urban societies of
1920s and 1930s. Geographers of Chicago School have studied the characteristics by
using the principles of ecosystem. Concept of human ecosystem became more
popularize after 1960s. Stoddard (1965)
described the ecological approach as a geographic principle and method.
➢ Environment
Environment is the sum total of all surroundings of a living organism including natural
forces and other living things. The word Environment is derived from the French word

“Environ” which means “surrounding”. Our surrounding includes biotic factors like
human beings, plants,animals, microbes, etc and abiotic factors such as light, air, water,
soil, etc. All living things live in their environment.
• Components of natural Environment: There are four major components :
1. Lithosphere,
2. Hydrosphere,
3. Atmosphere,
4. Biosphere
o Lithosphere: Lithosphere is defined as the rock and crust surface that covers the
Earth. There are two types of lithosphere: Oceanic lithosphere and continental
lithosphere. Oceanic lithosphere is associate with oceanic crust, and is slightly denser
than continental lithosphere.
o Hydrosphere: The hydrosphere is the part of a planet that’s made of water. Oceans,
o Atmosphere: The deep blanket of gas surrounding the earth is known as
Atmosphere. Earth’s atmosphere is composed of about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and
one percent other gases.
o Biosphere: The biosphere is defined as the area of the planet where organisms live,
ecosystems.
• Types of Environment: Environment can be categorized into three types:
1. Natural Environment
2. Built Environment
3. Social Environment.
o Natural Environment: The term ‘natural environment’ refers to the non-human-made
surroundings and conditions in which all living and non- living thing exist on Earth. The
common concept of the natural environment encompasses two different components:
Ecological units
that operate as natural systems (such as soil, vegetation and so on). Universal natural
resources (such as air and water).

o Built Environment: The term built environment refers to the human-made
surrounding that provide the setting for human activity. The built environment
encompasses places created or modified by people including buildings, parks or green
spaces, and supporting infra structures,
such as water supply, or energy networks, transportation systems etc.
o Social Environment: The social environment refers to the immediate physical and
social setting in which people live or in which something happens or develops. It
includes the culture that the individual was educated or lives in, and the people and
institutions with whom they interact. The interaction may be in person or through
communication media, even anonymous or one-way and may not imply equality of
social status.
• Man’s interaction with Environment: Perhaps man-environment view is the broadest
realm from the context of ‘Views’. The actions, reactions,interactions and influences
over man built environment, and over environment by man, their causes and
consequences all these are the subject matter of man-environment view. Man and
environment are related to each other very intimately. This relationship started its
initiation from the beginning of human history. Environment has the greatest influences
on human life. In strict sense, it controls the economic activities of man.
The main three bases of the man-environment relationship:

o First base: It is not necessary to build up similar human society in a given
environment. For instance, the kind of Pre-Greek and Roman civilization that grown up
in the Mediterranean climate, was not available in the other Mediterranean climatic
region. The environmental determinism has no explanation about this.
o Second base: It is possible to grow up similar human society in different
environmental system. For example, we can see the similarities of the European and
the North American human societies. For historical purpose, the North American human
society has grown up by the influence
of the European. Therefore environmental determinism does not work in this case also.
o Third base: Man also has a great influence on his environment. From the beginning
of the human civilization man influenced his environment in many ways. Man makes his
environment that is necessary for their work and comfortable. Modern man has almost
all power to influence
his nature.

• Major concepts of Man-Environment relationship: There are many concepts for the
relationship of Man-Environment. Three major concepts are as follows –
2. Environmental possiblism
3. Neo-determinism.
o 1. Environmental determinism: Environmental determinism is the belief that human

growth development and activities are controlled by the physical environment. Greek-
Roman philosophers and scientists like Hepocrates, Aristotle Herodotas etc. Describe
the physical environment to identify different characteristics of man. Arabian Muslim
Geographers also depicted relationship between man’s life style,activities with
Environment. German Geographer Carl Ritere (1779-1859) set the environmental
determinism as a geographical theory in nineteenth century.
▪ Principle of environmental determinism: Natural environment especially climate
and landscape play a vital role to innovate man’s culture. Man is the inactive and
inanimate production of natural environment. Nature especially controls the activities of
man. In the same way, natural environment produce culture. Natural environment
controls human life, is said by three main geographers of 19th century. Ellen Churchill
Semple (1911) , Ellsworth Huntington (1907 & 1919), Edmond Demolins (1901 & 1903).
▪ Falling of environmental determinism: The extreme concept about the activities and
behavior of people controlling by nature reach at climax till 1925 AD. Geographer’s
gradually become alert against their concept. They said that such kinds of natural
environment does not create any human reaction. For example, though the same
characteristics of Mediterranea climate exist in the western coast of California of North
America, the middle Chili of South America, South Africa and South Australia civilization
does not expand like Greek and Roman civilization those region.
o 2. Environmental possibilism: Environmental possibilism is an opposing scientific
belief that argue that while the physical environment controls the human growth
development and activities, Man still has the ability to alter their environment to adjust to
their needs. Here, the role of natural environment is secondary. Man is not liable to
natural environment rather he can use the environment of his own choice.
▪ Supporters of environmental possibilism:
▪ Paul Lucien Febvre (1925): French historian Lucien Febvre in 1924 in his ‘A
Geographic Introduction to History’ said, “Nature does not drive man along particular

road, but it offers a number of opportunities from among which man is free to select”. It
is similar to the concept of Vidal de la Blache (1845-1918).
▪ Vidal de la Blache (1845-1918): Vidal de la Blache thinks that the job of the
geographers is to identify and examine the relationship between man and environment.
He said that environment represents a set of opportunity in front of man. Men choose
his necessary element from that. He also said, there is no necessities but everywhere
possibilities an man as master of these
possibilities is the judge of their use. Jean Brunhes (1920) and Albert Demangeon
(1872-1940) were supporters of Vidal de la Blache ideas.
o 3. Neo-Determinism: An Australian geographer, Griffith Taylor (1880-1963), given the
concept of Neo-determinism. As per Taylor: A human can change the environment
through various innovations and activities, but there is a limit to change by a human,
environment compels them to stop.
V. Anuchin (1843-1923) said that “Determinism is one of the most indispensable facts
of dialectical thought”. From this NeoDeterminism gets rise once again. Geographers
start to find out the necessity of environment in human life. They said that it like a
advisor in the way of human succession technology. This is why, this concept is known
as Neo-Determinism.
➢ Tools in Geography:
• Map: A map is a visual representation of an entire area or a part of an area, typically
represented on a flat surface. Maps depict the spatial organisation of the physical and
social world at any scale. A globe is the only true representation or model of the earth
surface. But globes are not as convenient as flat maps to store of use, and they cannot
depict much detail. Maps are much more versatile but are an abstraction of reality.
• Map projection: Projection is a fundamental component of map production. Map
Projection – attempts to portray the surface of the earth or a proportion of the earth on a
flat surface.
• Coordinate system: To conduct measurements of location or position measurement
on/in/around the earth requires knowledge and use of:
Coordinate system: i.e, (Blue Lake = [D,8]). The simple coordinate system, Defined by
grid square and divided by page number.
Types of coordinate System: A. Cartesian coordinate system B. Geographic
coordinate system
o Cartesian coordinate system: Denote the unique location of a point along a plane

through an x and y value. X and y is defined by the distance along the 2 axes.
o Geographic coordinate system: Geographic coordinate system is a derivation of the
spherical coordinate system. Uses latitude and longitude to define the locations of
points on the surface of a sphere or spheroid.
• Latitude and Longitude: Latitude and longitude are measures of angle from the
centre of the Earth.
• Types of Projections:
1. Cylindrical,
2. Conical and
3. Planer projection and more
• Distortions:
o Shape: preserved by conformal projections
o Area: preserved by equal-area projections.
o Distance: equidistant projections preserve distances between points.
o Direction: azimuthal projections represent distortions correctly with respect to centre.
Types of Map: There are two main types of maps- A. General reference maps B.
Special purpose or thematic maps
o General reference maps: These maps are simply to display one or more natural
and/or cultural features of an area or of the world as a whole. Common examples of
the natural features shown on maps are water features (coastlines, rivers, lakes,
and so on) and the shape and elevation of terrain. Cultural features include
transportation routes, populated areas, property ownership lines, political
boundaries, and names.
o Special purpose or thematic maps: These maps show a specific spatial
distribution or category of data. The phenomena is mapped may be physical
(climate, vegetation, soils, and so on) and/or cultural (e.g.,the distribution of
population, religions, diseases, or crime). Unlike in
reference maps, the features on thematic maps are limited to just those that
communicate the specific spatial distribution.
➢ Tools in Geography: Model

• Models in Geography: Model is a purposeful ‘simplification of reality’. According
to Skilling (1960), “A model can be a theory, or law or relation or hypothesis or an

equation or a role.” According to Brodbeck (1959), “Two theories whose laws have
the same form are isomorphic or structurally similar to each other. If the laws of one
theory have the same form as the laws of another theory, then one may be said to
be a model for the other.”
• Functions of models: Chorley and Haggett (1967) emphasize the many different
functions which a model may perform in scientific investigation.
They suggested, for example, that a model may act: As a psychological device
which enables complex interactions to be more easily visualized; As a normative
device which allows broad comparisons to be made; As an organizational device for
the collection and manipulation of data; As a direct explanatory device; As a
constructional device in the search for geographic theory or for the extension of
existing theory etc.
• Types of models: A model may have various functions and definitions, so it may
perform its function through a multiplicity of media. Chorley(1964) regards all
models as being analogues of some kind but suggests a classification of models
into those which translate into analogue natural circumstances.
1. Natural analogue system: a. Historical analogue, b. Spatial analogue,
2. Physical system:
a. Hardware model: i. Scale,

ii. Analogue,
b. Mathematical model: i. Deterministic,
ii. Stochastic,
c. Experimental design
1. System: a. Synthetic, b. Partial, c. Black box.
Procedural rules of models: The proposed function of the model should be clearly
specified. The function of a particular model should not change within a particular
research design without adequate safeguards. Over-identified or unidentified models
should be restructured so as to allow
identification-otherwise alternative theoretical interpretations should be fully considered.
Conclusions drawn regarding a theory from the manipulation of a model for that theory
should not be automatically accepted unless a. The model is identified with the theory,
or b. The domain of

the model and the nature of the model-theory relationship can be fully specified. The
multiplicity of functions, types, and definitions, given to the concept of a model should
be fully appreciated in any research design.
• Problems of model use: The model-concept presents considerable methodological
difficulty. In most of the social sciences and in many areas of natural sciences, the
required general theory does not exist. In geography, theory is weakly developed. The
use of models in geography involve a
priori analysis. The most serious problem is identification.There are three kinds of
problem situation in identification:
o Over-identified models: We may postulate a model and then find that the model has
more than one possible theoretical interpretation.
o Unidentified models: We may postulate a model and find that the model gives
excellent results, but that it is impossible to find any firm theoretical interpretation.
o Identified models: A postulates model may give rise to one and only one theory.
➢ Tools in Geography: GIS
• Geographic Information System (GIS): GIS is concerned with the description,
explanation, and prediction of patterns and processes at geographic scale. Geographic
information systems are computer-based spatial information systems for compiling,
storing, manipulating, managing processing and analysing geographic data, modelling
spatially variable phenomena and disseminating primary or derived geospatial
information.
• Components of GIS: GIS consists of 6 components:
Network: internet, communication, sharing
Hardware: user’s device People
Software: web browser, ArcGIS, Google Earth
Database: structure and organisation of data
Procedures: maintain quality, function
People: users, developers, etc
Functions of GIS: Four main functions of a GIS:
Integration of spatial data
Management of spatial data

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Manipulation and analysis of spatial data
Production and display of spatial data
• Spatial dimension of data: Spatial data translates into simple objects: Points, Lines,
Areas, Grids.
• Spatial data model (conceptualisation):
Static vs time variant phenomena
Discrete
Continuous fields
Methods to reduce geographic phenomena - vector and raster.
• Data model: Representation of the real world through raster and vector model

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Introduction to Geography and Environment

Article · August 2022

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The earth refers to the atmosphere ,hydrosphere,lithosphere and biosphere.

“To describe/write in terms of the place,localization and distribution.”

A description of these earth bound phenomena is Geography.

The word geography explained by ‘Where do the people live?

Introduction to Geography and Environment 1

Nature of Geography: Geography as a Dynamic Discipline

3. The quantitative revolution

Introduction to Geography and Environment 2

B. Geography as a spatial science

Introduction to Geography and Environment 3

• Geography as an Spatial Science: Geography is described as a spatial science

One of the most important development of spatial science is Remote sensing-the

• Geography as an Environmental Science: Environmental science is the study of

❖ Scope and Subject Matters of Geography; Relation of Geography With Other

Introduction to Geography and Environment 4

According to Rager Minshull,

According to Lukermann "the geographer's purpose is to understand man's experience

Relation of Geography with other disciplines: Geography is an interdisciplinary

4 sub-division linked to human sciences such

Introduction to Geography and Environment 5

➢ Relation with Natural Sciences or Environmental Sciences:

• Astronomy and Geography (Cartography): Astronomy basically deals with the

• Physics and Geography (Climatology): As geography is the study of variable

• Botany and Geography (Plant Geography): The systematic branch of botany

Relation with Human Sciences:

Introduction to Geography and Environment 6

• Sociology and Geography (Social Geography): Sociology is mainly concerned with

• Anthropology and Geography (Anthropogeography): Anthropology attempts to

Introduction to Geography and Environment 7

Physical Geography: Definition, Scope, Major Branches. Sphere of Earth System

According to Richard Brayant, 1986,

➢ Major Branches of Physical Geography:

Introduction to Geography and Environment 8

• Mathematical Geography: Mathematical geography studies the form, size, and

Introduction to Geography and Environment 9

❖ Human Geography: Definition, Scope & Major Branches

Introduction to Geography and Environment 10

• Population Geography: Population geography is the study of the ways in which

Introduction to Geography and Environment 11

Introduction to Geography and Environment 12

➢ Two objects of location:

2. Dispersion of distribution, and

Introduction to Geography and Environment 13

Introduction to Geography and Environment 14

Introduction to Geography and Environment 15

❖ Major Approaches to the Study of Geography

Introduction to Geography and Environment 16

• 1. Regional Approach: Regional approach took very important role in geographical

1. Subjective view, and

Introduction to Geography and Environment 17

• Herbertson's general (objective) region:

o Formal region: Formal region is based on the physical and socio-economic

Introduction to Geography and Environment 18

Modern geographers want to concentrate two cultural components separately to realize

Introduction to Geography and Environment 19