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CHEMISTRY
Chapter 3: Atoms and Molecules
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Atoms and Molecules

Laws of Chemical Combination
Law of Conservation of Mass
PRINCIPLE: The Law of Conservation of Mass states that mass can neither be created nor destroyed
in a chemical reaction.
Total Mass of the Reactant = Total Mass of the Product

DIAGRAM:

TECHNIQUE:
• Take a solution of calcium chloride in a flask labelled A and a solution of sodium sulphate in
a test tube labelledB.
• Tie a thread to the test tube and carefully lower it into the flask. Seal the flask with a cork to
make it airtight.
• Weigh the flask on a balance. It weighs around 300.23grams.
• Tilt and swirl the flask and allow the contents of the test tube to come in contact withthe
contents of theflask.

OBSERVATION:
• Calcium chloride reacts with sodium sulphate to form a white precipitate of calcium
sulphate and a solution of sodiumchloride.
• Weigh the flask again. There will be no change in the weight of the flask. It is found to
weigh 300.23 grams.

CONCLUSION:
• Scientists noticed that if chemical reactions were carried out in a closed container, there
was no change in themass.
• The total mass of the reactants was equal to the total mass of theproducts.

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Law of Constant Proportion

• According to the Law of Constant Proportion, in a chemical substance, elements are always
present in a definite proportion bymass.
• For example, water obtained from any source will have the same two elements, namely
hydrogen and oxygen present init.
• 2 grams of hydrogen and 16 grams of oxygen form a molecule of water. The proportion of
hydrogen and oxygen is 1 : 8 by mass. This proportion will always remain the same,
irrespective of the source of water.
• Similarly, carbon dioxide obtained from any source will contain the same two elements,
carbon and oxygen.
• 12 grams of carbon and 32 grams of oxygen form a molecule of carbon dioxide. Carbon
dioxide obtained from any source will always have the proportion of masses of carbon and
oxygen as 3 :8.
Dalton's Atomic Theory
Dalton’s theory is the basic theory about the nature of matter. According to his theory, all
matter, whether a solid, liquid or gas or an element, compound or mixture, is composed of
small particles calledatoms.

The Postulates of Dalton's Atomic Theory

 All matter is made up of very tiny particles calledatoms.
 Atoms are indivisible particles, which can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemicalreaction.
 The atoms of a given element are identical in mass and chemicalproperties.
 Atoms of different elements have different masses and chemicalproperties.
 Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole numbers to formcompounds.
 The relative number and types of atoms are constant in a givencompound.

The Atom: Its Size, Mass and Symbol

 An atom is very small in size and consists of subatomic particles protons, neutrons and electrons.
 About one million atoms stacked up one over the other would roughly equal the thickness

Atomic radius is measured in nanometers.

1
m = 1 nm
109
1 m = 109 nm

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Modern Day Symbols of Atoms of Different Elements

 Dalton was the first scientist to use symbols for elements. He used circles to represent elements.
 Berzelius suggested that the symbols of the elements can be made from one to two letters
of the name of the element.
 Now, we use names and symbols as stated by IUPAC i.e. the International Union of Pure
and Applied Chemistry.
 Many symbols are the first letter or the first two letters of the name of the element.
Name Symbol
Carbon C
Nitrogen N
Calcium Ca
Aluminium Al
 The symbols of some elements are formed from the first letter of the name and a letter
appearing later in the name.
Name Sym
bol
Chlorine Cl
Magnesium Mg

 The symbols for some elements were derived from their Latin, German or Greek names.

English name of Latin name of the Symbol

the element element
Sodium Natrium Na
Potassium Kalium K
Iron Ferrum Fe
Copper Cuprum Cu
Silver Argentum Ag
Gold Aurum Au
Mercury Hydrargyrum Hg
Lead Plumbum Pb
Tin Stannum Sn

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Modern Symbols of Elements

The modern symbols of elements are derived from their English or Latin names, which are
made up of either the first letter, the first and second letter or the first letter and a letter
appearing later in the name of the element.
Name of Symbol Latin Name of Symbol Latin Name
element Name element
Hydrogen H — Nickel Ni —
Oxygen O — Manganese Mn —
Boron B — Calcium Ca —
Carbon C — Chlorine Cl —
Fluorine F — Bromine Br —
Iodine I — Chromium Cr —
Nitrogen N — Cobalt Co —
Phosphorus P — Lead Pb Plumbum
Sulphur S — Mercury Hg Hydrargyrum
Barium Ba — Phosphorus P —
Iron Fe Ferrum Sodium Na Natrium
Gold Au Aurum Potassium K Kalium
Silver Ag Argentum Tin Sn Stannum
Tungsten W Wolfram Uranium U —

(German
name)
Lithium Li — Zinc Zn —

Significance of Symbol of an Element

The symbol of an element signifies
1. The name of theelement.
2. An atom of theelement.

For example-
The symbol N stands for,
1. The elementnitrogen.
2. An atom of the elementnitrogen.

Atomic Mass
 Earlier, hydrogen was taken as a standard for measuring the atomic masses of elements.
 Later, carbon-12 isotope was chosen as a standard for measuring the atomic masses of elements.
 Similarly, the relative atomic mass of the atom of an element is defined as the average mass of

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the
atom, as compared 1th the mass of one carbon-12 atom.
12
 The masses of all other atoms are determined relative to the mass of an atom of carbon–12
as the standard.
 Carbon–12 atom has been assigned an atomic mass of exactly 12 atomic mass units,
abbreviated as amu, i.e. 12 amu. Recently, the unit of atomic mass, amu was replaced by u,
meaning unified mass.
 Now, since carbon–12 atom has been assigned an atomic mass of 12 amu, therefore, the atomic
mass unit should be equal 1th (one twelfth) of the mass of a carbon–12 atom.
12

How do Atoms Exist?

 Atoms of a few elements such as noble gases like helium, neon, argon and krypton etc.
exist in the free state, that is as single atoms.
 But most elements, being chemically reactive, do not exist in the free state. They either
exist as molecules or ions.
 For example, an iodine crystal is a collection of many iodine molecules. These molecules
are so tiny that they are not visible to the naked eye. But, what is visible is the entire iodine
crystal.
 Similarly, in sodium chloride, the sodium ions and chloride ions being very tiny are not
visible. But, we see the compound sodium chloride as a white powder which is made up of
several sodium and chloride ions.
Molecule
 A molecule is a group of two or more atoms chemically bonded together. A molecule is the
smallest particle of an element or a compound which has properties of the element or the
compound and can exist in a free state.
 Molecules can be formed either by the combination of atoms of the same element or of
different elements.

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 Thus, there are two types of molecules — molecules of elements and molecules of compounds.

Molecules of Elements
 A molecule of an element contains two or more similar atoms combined together.
 They are classified as diatomic, triatomic, tetra-atomic and poly-atomic molecules,
depending on the number of atoms present in them.

Atomicity
Atomicity is the total number of atoms present in one molecule.
Table showing atomicity of some elements

Name Formula of Atomicity

molecule
Helium He 1 Monoatomi
c
Hydrogen H2 2 Diatomic
Nitrogen N2 2 Diatomic
Ozone O3 3 Triatomic
Phosphorou P4 4 Tetra-
s atomic
Sulphur S8 8 Poly-atomic

Molecules of Compounds
 A molecule of a compound contains two or more different types of atoms, chemically
combined together.
 The atoms of different elements join together in definite proportions to form the molecules
of compounds.

Molecular
Compound Combining Simplest
Formula
Elements ratio
Water H2O Hydrogen, oxygen 1:8
Ammonia NH3 Nitrogen, 14 : 3
hydrogen
Carbon
CO2 Carbon, oxygen 3:8
dioxide
Ions and Radicals
An atom or a group of atoms can exist independently with charge(s). These are formed by the loss or
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gain of electron(s). They are called radicals or more commonly ions.

Types of Ions or Radicals

Ions are either positively charged or negatively charged.
Positively charged ions are called cations. Example: Sodium ion (Na+)

Negatively charged ions are called anions. Example: Chloride ion (Cl-)

 Sometimes, groups of atoms also give or accept electrons forming positive or negative
groups of ions. Such groups of atoms having a positive or negative charge are called
radicals

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Variable Valency
Sometimes, the same element may exhibit one valency in one compound and another valency
in some other compound. This property is called variable valency.
Example
Element Symbol Valencies exhibited
(variable valencies)
Copper Cu 1, 2 Cu+1, Cu+2

Silve Ag 1, 2 Ag+1, Ag+2

r
Gold Au 1, 3 Au+1, Au+3

Iron Fe 2, 3 Fe+2, Fe+3

Writing Chemical Formulae

Step 1 : Write the symbol of a basic radical (element with a positive valency) on the left hand
side and that of the acidic radical (element with a negative valency) on the right hand side.
Step 2 : Write the valency number/charge of each of the respective ions at the bottom of its symbol.
Step 3 : Interchange the valency number. Ignore the (+) and (-) sign.
Step 4 : Write the interchanged number.
Step 5 : Write the compound’s formula.
Step 6: Cross the reduced valencies. If 1 appears, ignore it. And if a group of atoms receives a
valency number more than 1, enclose it within brackets.

Formulae of Simple Compounds

Using the valency of ions, we can write the formulae of compounds.

Formula of Aluminum chloride

Formula of Carbon dioxide

Formula of Sodium phosphate

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Formula of Magnesium sulphate

Formula of Ammoniumbicarbonate

Formula of Ammoniumsulphate

As we know that, if a group of atoms receives a valency number more than 1, we enclose it within
brackets. Therefore, the molecular formula of ammonium sulphate is(NH4)2SO4.

Significance of Molecular Formula

The molecular formula of a compound has a quantitative significance. It represents the following:
(1) The name of the substance.

(2) Both, the molecule and the molecular mass of the compound.
(3) The respective numbers of different atoms present in one molecule of a compound.
(4) The ratios of the respective masses of the elements present in the
compound. Let us consider an example of carbon dioxide.
The formula CO2 means that
(1) It represents carbon dioxide.
(2) The molecular formula of carbon dioxide is CO2.
(3) Each molecule contains one carbon atom joined by chemical bonds with two oxygen atoms.

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The molecular mass of carbon dioxide is 44, given that the atomic mass of carbon is 12 and
that of oxygen is 16.

Molecular Mass and Mole Concept

Molecular Mass
 The molecular mass of a substance is the sum of all the atoms present in one molecule of
the substance. It is expressed in atomic mass unit (u).
How to determine molecular mass?
Example: Let us determine the molecular mass of water.
The molecular mass of water (H2O) is the sum of the masses of two hydrogen atoms and one
oxygen atom.
Therefore, the molecular mass of water (H2O) = 2 × (Atomic mass of hydrogen) + 1 × (Atomic
mass of oxygen).
We know that the atomic mass of hydrogen is 1 unit and that of oxygen is 16 units.
= 2 × (1) + 1 × (16)
= 2 + 16
= 18 u
Therefore, the molecular mass of water is18 u.

Formula Unit Mass

 The formula unit mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a
formula unit of a compound.
 We do not use term molecular mass for ionic compounds. Thus, we use term formula unit
for those substances whose constituent particles are ions.
How to determine formula unit mass?
The formula unit mass is calculated in the same manner as we calculate the molecular mass.
The only difference is that we use the term formula unit for those substances whose
constituent particles are ions.
Mole Concept
 We know that a dozen is a collection of 12 substances, a century is a collection of 100
substances and a gross is a collection of 144 substances.
 We use the terms dozen, century, gross etc. to express a certain quantity of a substance.
 Similarly, a mole is a word used to describe a collection of particles i.e. atoms, molecules or ions.
Definition of a Mole
1 mole of a substance is equal to its atomic mass or molecular mass expressed in grams.
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 The atomic mass expressed in grams is the gram atomic mass.

 The molecular mass expressed in grams is the gram molecular
mass. For example
 The atomic mass of sodium is 23 grams.
Therefore, 23 grams of sodium is equal to one mole of sodium atoms.
 Similarly, the molecular mass of oxygen (O2) = 2 × Atomic mass of oxygen
= 2 × 16 = 32 g
Avogadro experimentally found that one mole of any substance always contained 6.022 ×
1023 particles. This number is called the Avogadro’s number, denoted by N0.

1 mole (of anything) = 6.022 × 1023 in number

For Example
How many molecules will be present in 2 grams of hydrogen
gas (H2)?
1 mole of hydrogen molecules = molecular mass of hydrogen
= 2 grams
We know that 1 mole of hydrogen molecules contains 6.022 ×
1023 hydrogen molecules.
2 grams of hydrogen gas will also contain 6.022 × 1023
hydrogen molecules.

Important Formulae
Number of moles = n
Given mass = m
Molar mass = M
Given number of particles = N
Avogadro number of particles = N0

(3) To find mass

Mass (m) = Molar mass(M) × Number of moles (n)

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(4) To find the number of atoms when Avogadro number is given in the question

(5) The number of particles (atoms) = Number of moles of particles × Avogadro number
N = n × N0

Important Questions
 Multiple Choice Questions:
1. Which of the following correctly represents 360g of water?
(i) 2 moles of water
(ii) 20 moles of water
(iii) 6.022 × 1023 molecules of water
(iv) 1.2044 × 1025 molecules of water
(a) (i)
(b) (i) and (iv)
(c) (ii) and (iii)
(d) (ii) and (iv)
2. Which of the following statements is not true about an atom?
(a) Atoms are not able to exist independently.
(b) Atoms are the basic units from which molecules and ions are
formed.
(c) Atoms are always neutral in nature.
(d) Atoms aggregate in large numbers to form the matter that we can see, feel or touch.
3. 1 u or 1 amu means
(a) 1/12th mass of C-12 atoms
(b) Mass of C-12 atom
(c) Mass of O-16 atom
(d) Mass of Hydrogen molecule
4. Which of the following contains maximum number of molecules?
(a) 19 CO2
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(b) 1g N2
(c) 1g H2
(d) 1g CH4
5. A sample of NH3 molecule irrespective of source contains 82.35% Nitrogen and 17.65% of
Hydrogen by mass. This data supports:
(a) Law of Conservation of Mass
(b) Las of Multiple Proportions
(c) Law of Definite Proportions
(d) Avogadro’s Law
6. An element X is divalent and another element Y is tetravalent. The compound formed by
these two elements will be:
(a) XY
(b) XY2
(c) X2Y
(d) XY4
7. The molecular formula of potassium nitrate is ________.
(a) KNO3
(b) KNO
(c) KNO2
(d) KON
8. 3.42 g of sucrose are dissolved in 18 g of water in a beaker. The numbers of oxygen atoms in
the solution are:
(a) 6.68 × 1023
(b) 6.09 × 1022
(c) 6.022 × 1023
(d) 6.022 × 1021
9. Molecular mass is defined as the:
(a) Mass of one molecule of any substance compared with the mass of one atom of C – 12
(b) Mass of one atom compared with the mass of one atom of hydrogen
(c) Mass of one atom compared with the mass of one molecule
(d) None of the above

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10. A change in the physical state can be brought about

(a) only when energy is given to the system
(b) only when energy is taken out from the system
(c) When energy is either given to, or taken out from the system
(d) Without any energy change
11. The atomic mass of sodium is 23. The number of moles in 46g of sodium is ________.
(a) 4
(b) 2
(c) 0
(d) ½
12. Which of the following represents a correct chemical formula?
(a) CaCl
(b) BiPO4
(c) NaSO4
(d) NaS
13. What is the formula mass unit of ZnO?
(a) 18 u
(b) 81 u
(c) 88 u
(d) 188 u
14. How many atoms of oxygen are present in 300 grams of CaCO3?
(a) 54.207 × 1023
(b) 6.207 × 1023
(c) 12.207 × 1023
(d) 22.2 × 1023
15. Which of the following represents the correct relation between Avogadro’s number (No),
number of particles (N) and moles (n)?
(a) n = N / No
(b) n = No / N
(c) n = N No
(d) all are correct
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 Very Short Question:

1. Define law of conservation of mass.
2. Explain law of constant proportion.
3. Who coined the term atom?
4. Define atom.
5. Define molecule.
6. Define atomicity.
7. What is atomic mass unit?
8. How do atoms exist?
9. Give the atomicity of phosphorous and nitrogen.
10. What is an ion?
 Short Questions:
1. Give the unit to measure size of atom and give size of hydrogen atom.
2. What is IUPAC, give its one function?
3. Give the Latin name for sodium, potassium, gold and mercury.
4. What is the ratio by mass of combining elements in H2O, CO2 and NH3?
5. Define valency and give the valency for the following elements:
6. What is polyatomic ton? Give one example.
7. Write down the formula for:
Copper nitrate, calcium sulphate and aluminium hydroxide.
8. What is formula unit mass? How is it different from molecular mass?
 Long Questions:
1. (a) How do atoms exist?
(b) What is atomicity?
(c) What are polyatomic ions?
2. Calculate
(a) the mass of one atom of oxygen
(b) the mass of one molecule of oxygen
(c) the mass of one mole of oxygen gas
(d) the mass of one ion of oxygen

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(e) the number of atoms in 1 mole of oxygen molecule

3. What is meant by atomic mass, gram atomic mass of an element? Why is the mass have
different expressions i.e., ‘u’ and ‘g’?
 Assertion Reason Questions:
1. For two statements are given- one labelled Assertion (A) and the other labelled Reason (R).
Select the correct answer to these questions from the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) as given
below:
a. Both Assertion and Reason are correct, and reason is the correct explanation for
assertion.
b. Both Assertion and Reason are correct, and Reason is not the correct explanation for
Assertion.
c. Assertion is true but Reason is false.
d. Both Assertion and Reason are false.
Assertion: Atom is the smallest unit of molecule
Reason: Atom is not seen by our naked eyes.
2. For two statements are given- one labelled Assertion (A) and the other labelled Reason (R).
Select the correct answer to these questions from the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) as given
below:
a. Both Assertion and Reason are correct, and reason is the correct explanation for
assertion.
b. Both Assertion and Reason are correct, and Reason is not the correct explanation for
Assertion.
c. Assertion is true but Reason is false.
d. Both Assertion and Reason are false.
Assertion: Atom is the smallest unit of molecule
Reason: Atoms are combined with each other forming molecule.
Case Study Question:
1. Read the passage and answer any four questions:
The simplest compounds, which are made up of two different elements are called binary
compounds. While writing the chemical formulae for compounds, the constituent
elements and their valencies are written. Then crossover the valencies of the combining
atoms. For the ionic compound, the symbol of cation written first followed by the symbol
of the anion. Then their charges are criss-crossed to get the formula. The positive and
negative charges must balance each other and the overall structure must be neutral. The

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molecular mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a
molecule of the substance.
i. Which of the following statement correctly justifies that crystallisation technique
considered better than simple evaporation to purify solid?
a. Solid decompose or get charred on heating to dryness.
b. Impurities may remain dissolved in the solution even after filtration.
c. Both (a) and (b)
d. Impurities are easily removed in solution.
ii. In magnesium chloride, chloride ions for each magnesium ion.
a. one
b. two
c. three
d. four
iii. The molecular mass of HNO3 is
a. 63u
b. 7u
c. 54u
d. 45u
iv. The formula unit mass of CaCl2 is
a. 111u
b. 342u
c. 213u
d. 122u
v. The formula unit mass of a substance is:
a. the sum of the atomic masses of all atoms.
b. the sum of the atomic mass of only one atom
c. both (a) and (b)
d. none of these
2. Atoms are too small, or they are smaller than anything that we can imagine or compare
with. Our entire world is made up of atom. Dalton was the first scientist to use the
symbols for elements in a very specific sense. When he used a symbol for an element he
also meant a definite quantity of that element, that is, one atom of that element. In the
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beginning, the names of elements were derived from the name of the place where they
were found for the first time. For example, the name copper was taken from Cyprus.
Many of the symbols are the first one or two letters of the element's name in English.
The first letter of a symbol is always written as a capital letter (uppercase) and the
second letter as a small letter (lowercase)
i. 1m is equal to nm
a. 1010
b. 109
c. 108
d. 106
ii. is the symbol of
a. sulphur
b. iron
c. silver
d. mercury
iii. Who suggested the symbol of elements are made from one or two-letter of the
atom?
a. Proust
b. Berzelius
c. Boyle
d. Robert
iv. Law of constant proportion is given by
a. Proust
b. Lavoisier
c. Dalton
d. Berzelius
v. Full form of IUPAC
a. International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
b. International Unity of Pure and Applied Chemistry
c. Indian Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
d. none of these

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