Chapter III Power electronics

CHAPTER III
DC-DC CONVERTERS
I. Introduction
A DC-DC converter (also called chopper) is an electrical system (device) which converts
direct current (DC) sources from one voltage level to another. In other words, a DC-DC
converter takes as input a DC input voltage and outputs a different DC voltage. The
output DC voltage can be higher or lower than the DC input voltage. As the name
implies, a DC-DC converter only works with direct current (DC) sources and not with
alternative current (AC) sources. A DC-DC converter is also called a DC-DC power
converter or voltage regulator.

𝑣𝑖𝑛 (𝑡) Ripple

𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡)

𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡)

𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡)
𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡)
𝑖𝑖𝑛 (𝑡)

Control Circuit

Figure 1. DC-DC Conversion

There are several topologies of switching DC-DC converters, the most common are:

Step-down DC-DC converters: supplies an output DC voltage lower than the

original input voltage.
Step-up DC-DC converters: outputs a DC voltage higher than the original input
voltage.

II. Step-down DC-DC converter (Buck converter)

A buck DC-DC converter converts a DC voltage to another voltage of lower value, it
contains two switches (K and D) and a power supply. The switch K is periodically
controlled with a switching period T; closed for a period Ton=αT; and opened for the
rest of the period T (Toff=T-Ton).

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• When K is ON, Vin appears directly at the load terminals vout = Vin .

• When K is OFF, the input voltage Vin is disconnected from the output vout = 0 .

Load

Load
Load

Figure 2. DC-DC buck converter circuits according to switch K state.

The voltage waveforms of the buck converter are given by the following figure:

Figure 3. Input and output voltage waveforms of a buck converter.

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Where:
▪ Vin: input voltage
▪ Vout: output voltage
▪ ton: time interval when K is ON.
▪ toff: time interval when K is OFF.
▪ T: switching period T=ton+toff.
1
▪ f: switching frequency (𝑓 = 𝑇)

▪ α: duty cycle, ratio between the conduction time of the switch and the
𝑡𝑜𝑛
switching period (𝛼 = )
𝑇

II.1 Resistive load

Consider the following circuit:

Figure 4. Buck converter with resistive load.

With the following switch control signal:

K ON K OFF

Figure 5. Control signal of switch K.

➢ For 0  t   T (ton ) , The switch K is ON and the diode D is blocked:

Vin (t )
vout (t ) = Vin (t ) ⎯⎯
→ iout (t ) =
R

vD (t ) = −Vin

vK (t ) = 0

➢ For  T  t  T , The switch K is OFF and the diode D is ON:

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vout (t ) = 0 ⎯⎯
→ iout (t ) = 0

vD (t ) = 0

vK (t ) = Vin

Figure 6. Waveforms for buck converter with resistive load.

T T
1 1
▪ Mean value of the output voltage: Vout ,mean = 
T 0
vout (t )dt =
T V
0
in (t )dt = Vin

T T
1 1
▪ RMS value of the output voltage: Vout , RMS =  (t )dt = V (t )dt =  Vin
2 2
Vout in
T 0 T 0

Vin
▪ Mean value of the output current: I out ,mean =
R
 Vin
▪ RMS value of the output voltage: I out , RMS =
R

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Vout , RMS I out , RMS 

▪ Form factor of the output voltage and current: FF = = =
Vout ,mean I out ,mean 

1−
▪ Ripple factor of the output voltage and current:  = FF 2 − 1 =


Notes:

❖ The output voltage is always less than the input voltage and hence the name
step-down chopper is justified.
❖ The average value of the output voltage can be adjusted by function of the value
of the duty cycle α.
❖ The duty cycle can be adjusted by varying ton with T constant, or by varying T
with ton constant.

II.2 Resistive-inductive load

Consider the following circuit:

Figure 7. Buck converter with resistive-inductive load.

With the following control signal of switch K:

K ON K OFF

Figure 8. Control signal of switch K.

➢ For 0  t   T (ton ) , The switch K is ON and the diode D is blocked, so

vout (t ) = Vin (t ) .

➢ For  T  t  T , The switch K is OFF and the diode D is ON and takes over the
conduction of the load current (The energy stored by the inductor is dissipated
by the resistor).

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There are therefore two operation modes depending on whether the current is
interrupted or not: Discontinuous Conduction Mode (DCM) and Continuous
Conduction Mode (CCM).

II.2.1 Discontinuous Conduction Mode (DCM)

Load current is interrupted, i.e., it cancels out before the switch K becomes ON again
at t=T.

iout=0
Figure 9. Waveforms of buck converter with resistive-inductive load in DCM.

II.2.2 Continuos Conduction Mode (CCM)

Load current is uninterrupted, it never cancels out and varies between Imax and Imin.

Figure 10. Waveforms of buck converter with resistive-inductive load in CCM.

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• For 0  t   T (ton ) , we have:

R
diout (t ) − t V
Vin (t ) = vout (t ) = L + Riout (t ) ⎯⎯
→ iout (t ) = in (t ) + i f (t ) = Ke L + in
dt R
Vin
By taking the initial condition t = 0 ⎯⎯
→ iout (0) = I min , we obtain K = I min −
R

Vin − RL t Vin
iout (t ) = ( I min − )e +
R R

Vin − RL T Vin
With: I max = iout ( T ) = ( I min − )e +
R R

• For  T  t  T , we have:
R
diout (t ) − ( t − T )
L + Riout (t ) = 0 ⎯⎯
→ iout (t ) = Ke L
dt

By taking the initial condition t = T ⎯⎯

→ iout (T ) = I max , we obtain K = I max
R
− ( t − T )
iout (t ) = I max e L

R
− (1− )T
With: I min = iout (T ) = I max e L

II.2.2.1 Linearization of output current in CCM

The output current iout(t) can be linearized as:

 1− 
• For 0  t   T (ton ) : iout (t ) = Vin   t + I min
 L 
 1− 
With: I max = iout ( T ) = Vin    T + I min
 L 
 − 
• For  T  t  T : iout (t ) = Vin   (t −  T ) + I max
 L 
  ( − 1) 
With: I min = iout (T ) = Vin   T + I max
 L 

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Figure 11. Waveforms of buck converter with resistive load in CCM.

I max + I min
• Mean value of output current: I out ,mean =
2
 1− 
• Ripple of output current: I out = I max − I min = Vin   T
 L 
• Maximal ripple of output current:
d iout 1 VT V
→  = ⎯⎯
= 0 ⎯⎯ → iout max = in = in
d 2 4 L 4 Lf

To reduce the current ripple, we need to

✓ decrease the switching period (increase the switching frequency)
✓ increase the inductance L.

II.3 Resistive load with low-pass LC filter

Consider the following circuit:

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Figure 12. Buck converter with LC filter.

With the following control signal of switch K:

K ON K OFF

Figure 13. Control signal of switch K.

II.3.1 Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM)

This assembly is used when the objective is to produce a purely DC output voltage.
➢ For 0  t   T (ton ) , The switch K is ON and the diode D is blocked, so

diL
vK (t ) = 0, vD (t ) = 0, vL = L = Vin − vout .
dt
➢ For  T  t  T , The switch K is OFF and the diode D is ON and takes over the
conduction of the load current, so
diL
vD (t ) = 0, vK (t ) = 0, vL = L = −vout
dt

If the LC filter is properly sized, the ripple of vout is negligible. We can then confuse it
Vout ,mean
with its mean value: vout = Vout ,mean = RI out ,mean  I out ,mean =
R
The mean volage at the terminals of the inductor is zero, so:
1 T
vL (t )dt =   (Vin − vout )dt +  (−vout )dt  = Vin − vout = 0   = out
1 T T v
VL ,mean = 
T 0 T  0 T  Vin

The expression of the inductor current iL (t ) taking the initial condition iL (0) = I min :

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  1− 
 Vin  L  t + I min For 0  t  T
  
iL (t ) = 
V  −  (t −  T ) + I For  T  t  T
 in  L  max

  1− 
 I max = iout ( T ) = Vin  L   T + I min
  
With: 
 I = i (T ) = V   ( − 1)  T + I
in  
 min out  L 
max

• Since, the mean current across the capacitor is zero, the inductor mean current
I max + I min Vout
equals the output mean current: I out ,mean = I L ,mean = =
2 R
 1− 
• The current ripple is given by: iL = I max − I min = Vin   T
 L 
• The maximum current is given by:
vout  1−  vout  1−   1  1−  
I max = + Vin   T = + vout   T = vout  +  T 
R  2L  R  2L   R  2L  
• The minimum current is given by:
vout  1−  vout  1−   1  1−  
I min = − Vin   T = − vout   T = vout  −  T 
R  2L  R  2L   R  2L  

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Figure 14. Waveforms of buck converter with LC filter in CCM.

The limit between the CCM and DCM modes is when I min = 0 , so

 1  1−    1  1−   (1 −  ) R
I min = vout  −    T  = vout  −    = 0  ( Lf ) min =
 R  2L    R  2 Lf   2

iL
The mean current in this case -when I min = 0 - is when I L ,mean = , thus
2

 iL
if I L ,mean   CCM
2

if i
I L ,mean  L  DCM
 2
Suppose the components of the Buck converter are ideal, so the power supplied by
the source must be equal to the power absorbed by the load resistor:

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vout I in,mean
Pin = Pout  Vin I in,mean = vout I out ,mean  = =
Vin I out ,mean

Therefore, the Buck converter is equivalent to a step-down DC transformer.

In the previous analysis, we considered the output voltage to be perfectly constant. In

practice, the output voltage cannot be maintained perfectly constant with finite
capacitance.

Figure 15. Output voltage ripple.

The capacitance C required in terms of the specified voltage ripple vout :

(1 −  )
C=
8L(vout / vout ) f 2

II.3.2 Discontinuous Conduction Mode (DCM)

In this case, the current is canceled during part of the periods. The only difference with
the operating mode CCM is that the inductance is fully discharged at the start of cycle.

The mean volage at the terminals of the inductor is zero, so the voltage output can be
calculated as follows:


1 T T
=  vL (t )dt =   (Vin − vout )dt +  (−vout )dt  =  (Vin − vout ) − ( −  ) vout = 0
1 T
VL,mean
T 0 T  0 T 


 vout = Vin
 +

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Figure 16. Waveforms of buck converter with LC filter in DCM.

III. Step-up DC-DC converter (Boost converter)

A boost converter, or parallel chopper, is a DC-DC converter which converts a DC
voltage into another DC voltage of higher value.

Consider the following circuit:

Figure 17. Boost converter with capacitive filter.

With the following control signal of switch K:

K ON K OFF

Figure 18. Control signal of switch K.

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The operation of a Boost converter can be divided in two different phases depending
on the state of switch K:

• A phase of energy accumulation: when the switch K is closed (passing

state), this leads to an increase in the current in the inductor therefore the
storage of an amount of energy. Diode D is then blocked and the load is then
disconnected from the power supply.
• A phase of energy release: when the switch K is open, the inductance is then
in series with the generator and its voltage adds to that of the generator (booster
effect). The current passing through the inductance then passes through diode
D, capacitor C and the charge R. This results in a transfer of the energy
accumulated in the inductance towards the capacity.

Figure 19. Boost converter equivalent circuits according to switch K.

III.1 Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM)

In CCM the inductor current iL (t ) does not cancel out.

➢ For 0  t   T (ton ) , The switch K is ON and the diode D is blocked, so

diL
vK (t ) = 0, vD (t ) = −vout , vL = L = Vin .
dt
➢ For  T  t  T , The switch K is OFF and the diode D is ON, so

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diL
vK (t ) = vout , vD (t ) = 0, vL = L = Vin − vout
dt

If the LC filter is properly sized, the ripple of vout is negligible. We can then confuse it
Vout ,mean
with its mean value: vout = Vout ,mean = RI out ,mean  I out ,mean =
R
The mean volage at the terminals of the inductor is zero, so:
1 T
vL (t )dt =   (Vin )dt +  (Vin − vout )dt  = Vin − (1 −  )vout = 0  out =
1 T T v 1
VL ,mean = 
T 0 T  0 T  Vin 1 − 

The expression of the inductor current iL (t ) taking the initial condition iL (0) = I min :

 Vin
 t + I min For 0  t  T
iL (t ) =  L
Vin − vout (t −  T ) + I For T  t  T
 L max

 V 
 I max = iout ( T ) =  in   T + I min
  L 
With: 
 I = i (T ) =  (Vin − vout )(1 −  )  T + I
 min out   max
 L 

I max + I min
• The mean current of the inductor is given by: I L ,mean =
2
• The output mean current can be calculated as follows; we have:

2
vout v2 v  1  vin 1
Pin = Pout  Vin I L ,mean = vout I out ,mean =  I out ,mean = out = out   =
R Vin R R  1 −   R (1 −  )2

V 
• The inductor current ripple is given by: iL = I max − I min =  in   T
 L 
• The maximum current is given by:
iL Vin 1 V   1 T 
I max = I L,mean + = +  in  T = Vin  + 
2 R (1 −  )  2 L 
2
 R(1 −  )
2
2L 

• The minimum current is given by:

iL Vin 1 V   1 T 
I min = I L,mean − = −  in  T = Vin  − 
2 R (1 −  )  2 L 
2
 R(1 −  )
2
2L 

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Figure 20. Waveforms of boost converter with capacitive filter in CCM.

The limit between the CCM and DCM modes is when I min = 0 , so

 1 T   (1 −  )2 R
I min = Vin  −  = 0  ( Lf )min =
 R(1 −  )
2
2L  2

iL
The mean current in this case -when I min = 0 - is when I L ,mean = , thus
2

 iL
if I L ,mean   CCM
2

if i
I L ,mean  L  DCM
 2
Suppose the components of the Boost converter are ideal, so the power supplied by
the source must be equal to the power absorbed by the load resistor:

vout I in,mean 1
Pin = Pout  Vin I in,mean = vout I out ,mean  = =
Vin I out ,mean 1 − 

Therefore, the Boost converter is equivalent to a step-up DC transformer.

In the previous analysis, we considered the output voltage to be perfectly constant. In

practice, the output voltage cannot be maintained perfectly constant with finite
capacitance.

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Figure 21. Representation of output voltage ripple.

The capacitance C required in terms of the specified voltage ripple vout :


C=
R(vout / vout ) f

III.2 Discontinuous Conduction Mode (DCM)

In this case, the current is canceled during part of the periods. The only difference with
the operating mode CCM is that the inductance is fully discharged at the start of cycle.

The mean volage at the terminals of the inductor is zero, so the voltage output can be
calculated as follows:


1 T T  +
=  vL (t )dt =   (Vin )dt +  (Vin − vout )dt  = Vin + ( −  )(Vin − vout ) = 0  vout =
1 T
VL,mean V
T 0 
T 0 T 
  in

Figure 22. Waveforms of boost converter with capacitive filter in DCM.

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