DC CHOPPERS

INTRODUCTION
A chopper is a static device which is used to obtain a variable dc voltage from a
constant dc voltage source. A chopper is also known as dc-to-dc converter. The thyristor
converter offers greater efficiency, faster response, lower maintenance, smaller size and
smooth control. Choppers are widely used in trolley cars, battery operated vehicles,
traction motor control, control of large number of dc motors, etc….. They are also used in
regenerative braking of dc motors to return energy back to supply and also as dc voltage
regulators.

Choppers are of two types

• Step-down choppers
• Step-up choppers.

In step-down choppers, the output voltage will be less than the input voltage
whereas in step-up choppers output voltage will be more than the input voltage.

PRINCIPLE OF STEP-DOWN CHOPPER

C h o p p e r
i0
+

V R V 0

−
Fig. 2.1: Step-down Chopper with Resistive Load

Figure 2.1 shows a step-down chopper with resistive load. The thyristor in the
circuit acts as a switch. When thyristor is ON, supply voltage appears across the load and
when thyristor is OFF, the voltage across the load will be zero. The output voltage and
current waveforms are as shown in figure 2.2.

1
 v0
V

V d c

t
tO N tO F F

i0

V / R
Id c

t
T

Fig. 2.2: Step-down choppers — output voltage and current waveforms

Vdc = average value of output or load voltage

I dc = average value of output or load current
tON = time interval for which SCR conducts
tOFF = time interval for which SCR is OFF.
T = tON + tOFF = period of switching or chopping period
1
f = = frequency of chopper switching or chopping frequency.
T

Average output voltage

 tON 
Vdc = V   ... ( 2.1)
 tON + tOFF 

t 
Vdc = V  ON  = V .d ... ( 2.2 )
 T 

 tON 
but   = d = duty cycle ... ( 2.3)
 t 

Average output current,

V
I dc = dc ... ( 2.4 )
R

V  tON  V
I dc =  = d ... ( 2.5 )
R T  R

2
RMS value of output voltage
tON
1
VO = ∫ v dt
2
o
T 0

But during tON , vo = V

Therefore RMS output voltage

tON
1
VO = ∫V
2
dt
T 0

V2 t
VO = tON = ON .V ... ( 2.6 )
T T

VO = d .V ... ( 2.7 )

Output power PO = VO I O

VO
But IO =
R

VO2
Therefore output power PO =
R

dV 2
PO = ... ( 2.8 )
R

Effective input resistance of chopper

V
Ri = ... ( 2.9 )
I dc

R
Ri = ... ( 2.10 )
d
The output voltage can be varied by varying the duty cycle.

METHODS OF CONTROL
The output dc voltage can be varied by the following methods.
• Pulse width modulation control or constant frequency operation.
• Variable frequency control.

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

In pulse width modulation the pulse width ( tON ) of the output waveform is varied
keeping chopping frequency ‘f’ and hence chopping period ‘T’ constant. Therefore output
voltage is varied by varying the ON time, tON . Figure 2.3 shows the output voltage
waveforms for different ON times.

3
 V 0

tO N tO F F

t
T
V 0

t
tO N tO F F

Fig. 2.3: Pulse Width Modulation Control

VARIABLE FREQUENCY CONTROL

In this method of control, chopping frequency f is varied keeping either tON or
tOFF constant. This method is also known as frequency modulation.
Figure 2.4 shows the output voltage waveforms for a constant tON and variable
chopping period T.
In frequency modulation to obtain full output voltage, range frequency has to be
varied over a wide range. This method produces harmonics in the output and for large
tOFF load current may become discontinuous.

v0
V

tO N tO F F
t
T
v0

tO N tO F F

t
T

Fig. 2.4: Output Voltage Waveforms for Time Ratio Control

4
STEP-DOWN CHOPPER WITH R-L LOAD
Figure 2.5 shows a step-down chopper with R-L load and free wheeling diode.
When chopper is ON, the supply is connected across the load. Current flows from the
supply to the load. When chopper is OFF, the load current iO continues to flow in the
same direction through the free-wheeling diode due to the energy stored in the inductor L.
The load current can be continuous or discontinuous depending on the values of L and
duty cycle, d. For a continuous current operation the load current is assumed to vary
between two limits I min and I max .
Figure 2.6 shows the output current and output voltage waveforms for a
continuous current and discontinuous current operation.

C h o p p e r
i0
+
R

V V
F W D L
0

E
−
Fig. 2.5: Step Down Chopper with R-L Load

v0 O u t p u t
v o l t a g e
V
tO N tO F F
t
T
i0 O u t p u t
Im a x
c u r r e n t

C o n t i n u o u s
Im i n c u r r e n t
t
i0 O u t p u t
c u r r e n t
D i s c o n t i n u o u s
c u r r e n t
t

Fig. 2.6: Output Voltage and Load Current Waveforms (Continuous Current)

5
 When the current exceeds I max the chopper is turned-off and it is turned-on when
current reduces to I min .

EXPRESSIONS FOR LOAD CURRENT iO FOR CONTINUOUS CURRENT

OPERATION WHEN CHOPPER IS ON ( 0 ≤ t ≤ tON )

i0
+
R

V V 0
L

E
-
Fig. 2.5 (a)

Voltage equation for the circuit shown in figure 2.5(a) is

diO
V = iO R + L +E ... ( 2.11)
dt

Taking Laplace Transform

V E
= RI O ( S ) + L  S .IO ( S ) − iO ( 0− )  + ... ( 2.12 )
S S

At t = 0 , initial current iO ( 0 ) = I min

−

V −E I
IO ( S ) = + min ... ( 2.13)
 R R
LS  S +  S +
 L L

Taking Inverse Laplace Transform

V −E  − t 
 R R
− t
iO ( t ) = 1 − e  L
 + I min e  
L
... ( 2.14 )
R  

This expression is valid for 0 ≤ t ≤ tON . i.e., during the period chopper is ON.

At the instant the chopper is turned off, load current is

iO ( tON ) = I max

6
When Chopper is OFF ( 0 ≤ t ≤ tOFF )
i0

Fig. 2.5 (b)

Voltage equation for the circuit shown in figure 2.5(b) is

diO
0 = RiO + L +E ... ( 2.15 )
dt

Taking Laplace transform

E
0 = RI O ( S ) + L  SIO ( S ) − iO ( 0− )  +
S

Redefining time origin we have at t = 0 , initial current iO ( 0 ) = I max

−

I max E
IO ( S ) = −
Therefore R  R
S+ LS  S + 
L  L

Taking Inverse Laplace Transform

R
− t E − t
R
iO ( t ) = I max e L
− 1 − e L  ... ( 2.16 )
R 

The expression is valid for 0 ≤ t ≤ tOFF , i.e., during the period chopper is OFF. At
the instant the chopper is turned ON or at the end of the off period, the load current is

iO ( tOFF ) = I min

7
TO FIND I max AND I min

From equation (2.14),

At t = tON = dT , iO ( t ) = I max

V −E  −
dRT
 −
dRT

Therefore I max = 1 − e L
+ I
 min e L
... ( 2.17 )
R  

From equation (2.16),

At t = tOFF = T − tON , iO ( t ) = I min

t = tOFF = ( 1 − d ) T

( 1− d ) RT ( 1− d ) RT
− E − 
Therefore I min = I max e L
− 1 − e L
 ... ( 2.18 )
R  

Substituting for I min in equation (2.17) we get,

 −
dRT

V 1− e L − E
I max =  ... ( 2.19 )
R −
RT  R
 1 − e L 

Substituting for I max in equation (2.18) we get,

 dRT 
V  e L − 1 E
I min = − ... ( 2.20 )
R  RTL  R
 e − 1 

( I max − I min ) is known as the steady state ripple.

Therefore peak-to-peak ripple current

∆I = I max − I min

Average output voltage

Vdc = d .V ... ( 2.21)

Average output current

I max + I min
I dc( approx ) = ... ( 2.22 )
2

8
Assuming load current varies linearly from I min to I max instantaneous load current is
given by

iO = I min +
( ∆I ) .t for 0 ≤ t ≤ tON ( dT )
dT

I −I 
iO = I min +  max min  t ... ( 2.23)
 dT 

RMS value of load current

dT
1
I O( RMS ) = ∫ i dt
2
0
dT 0

( I max − I min ) t 
2
1
dT

I O( RMS ) =
dT ∫0  I min + dT  dt

 2  I max − I min  2 2 I min ( I max − I min ) t 

dT 2
1
I O( RMS ) =
dT ∫0  I min +  dT  t + dT
 dt
 

RMS value of output current

1
 2 (I −I ) 
2 2
I O( RMS ) =  I min + max min + Imin ( Imax − Imin )  ... ( 2.24 )
 3 

RMS chopper current

dT
1
= ∫ i dt
2
I CH 0
T 0

dT 2
1   I max − I min  
I CH =
T ∫
0
 I min + 
  dT
 t  dt
 

1
 2 ( I max − I min ) 2
2

I CH = d  I min + + Imin ( Imax − Imin ) 

 3 

I CH = d I O( RMS ) ... ( 2.25 )

Effective input resistance is

V
Ri =
IS

9
Where I S = Average source current

I S = dI dc

V
Therefore Ri = ... ( 2.26 )
dI dc

PRINCIPLE OF STEP-UP CHOPPER

I L D
+
+ −

L
C O V
V A O
D
C h o p p e r

Fig. 2.13: Step-up Chopper

Figure 2.13 shows a step-up chopper to obtain a load voltage VO higher than the
input voltage V. The values of L and C are chosen depending upon the requirement of
output voltage and current. When the chopper is ON, the inductor L is connected across
the supply. The inductor current ‘I’ rises and the inductor stores energy during the ON
time of the chopper, tON . When the chopper is off, the inductor current I is forced to flow
through the diode D and load for a period, tOFF . The current tends to decrease resulting in
reversing the polarity of induced EMF in L. Therefore voltage across load is given by

dI
VO = V + L i.e., VO > V ... ( 2.27 )
dt

If a large capacitor ‘C’ is connected across the load then the capacitor will provide
a continuous output voltage VO . Diode D prevents any current flow from capacitor to the
source. Step up choppers are used for regenerative braking of dc motors.

EXPRESSION FOR OUTPUT VOLTAGE

Assume the average inductor current to be I during ON and OFF time of Chopper.

When Chopper is ON
Voltage across inductor L = V

10
 Therefore energy stored in inductor = V .I .tON ... ( 2.28 ) ,

where tON = ON period of chopper.

When Chopper is OFF (energy is supplied by inductor to load)

Voltage across L = VO − V

Energy supplied by inductor L = ( VO − V ) ItOFF , where tOFF = OFF period of

Chopper.

Neglecting losses, energy stored in inductor L = energy supplied by inductor L

Therefore VItON = ( VO − V ) ItOFF

V [ tON + tOFF ]
VO =
tOFF

 T 
VO = V  
 T − tON 

Where T = Chopping period or period of switching.

T = tON + tOFF

 
 1 
VO = V  
t
 1 − ON 
 T 

 1 
Therefore VO = V   ... ( 2.29 )
1− d 

tON
Where d= = duty cyle
T

For variation of duty cycle ‘d’ in the range of 0 < d < 1 the output voltage VO will vary
in the range V < VO < ∞ .

PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
The thyristor requires a certain minimum time to turn ON and turn OFF. Hence
duty cycle d can be varied only between a minimum and a maximum value, limiting the
minimum and maximum value of the output voltage. Ripple in the load current depends
inversely on the chopping frequency, f. Therefore to reduce the load ripple current,
frequency should be as high as possible.

11
CLASSIFICATION OF CHOPPERS
Choppers are classified as follows
• Class A Chopper
• Class B Chopper
• Class C Chopper
• Class D Chopper
• Class E Chopper

CLASS A CHOPPER

i0 v0
+

C h o p p e r
L
O v0 V
V A
F W D D

− i0

Fig. 2.14: Class A Chopper and vO − iO Characteristic

Figure 2.14 shows a Class A Chopper circuit with inductive load and free-
wheeling diode. When chopper is ON, supply voltage V is connected across the load i.e.,
vO = V and current i0 flows as shown in figure. When chopper is OFF, v0 = 0 and the
load current iO continues to flow in the same direction through the free wheeling diode.
Therefore the average values of output voltage and current i.e., vO and iO are always
positive. Hence, Class A Chopper is a first quadrant chopper (or single quadrant chopper).
Figure 2.15 shows output voltage and current waveforms for a continuous load current.

12
 ig T h y r i s t o r
g a t e p u l s e

t
i0
O u t p u t c u r r e n t

C H O N
t
v0 F W D C o n d u c t s
O u t p u t v o l t a g e

t
tO N
T
Fig. 2.15: First quadrant Chopper - Output Voltage and Current Waveforms

Class A Chopper is a step-down chopper in which power always flows from

source to load. It is used to control the speed of dc motor. The output current equations
obtained in step down chopper with R-L load can be used to study the performance of
Class A Chopper.

CLASS B CHOPPER
D
i0 v0
+
R

V L v0

C h o p p e r
E − i0
−

Fig. 2.16: Class B Chopper

Fig. 2.16 shows a Class B Chopper circuit. When chopper is ON, vO = 0 and E
drives a current iO through L and R in a direction opposite to that shown in figure 2.16.
During the ON period of the chopper, the inductance L stores energy. When Chopper is
OFF, diode D conducts, vO = V and part of the energy stored in inductor L is returned to
the supply. Also the current iO continues to flow from the load to source. Hence the
average output voltage is positive and average output current is negative. Therefore Class

13
B Chopper operates in second quadrant. In this chopper, power flows from load to source.
Class B Chopper is used for regenerative braking of dc motor. Figure 2.17 shows the
output voltage and current waveforms of a Class B Chopper.
The output current equations can be obtained as follows. During the interval diode
‘D’ conducts (chopper is off) voltage equation is given by
i0
+
D
C o n d u Rc t i n g

V V 0
L

E
-
LdiO
V= + RiO + E
dt

For the initial condition i.e., iO ( t ) = I min at t = 0 .

The solution of the above equation is obtained along similar lines as in step-down
chopper with R-L load

V −E − t 
R R
− t
Therefore iO ( t ) =  1 − e L
+ I
 min e L
0 < t < tOFF
R  

At t = tOFF i( O ) ( t ) = I max

V −E − tOFF 
R R
− tOFF
I max = 1 − e
L
 + Imin e
L
R  

During the interval chopper is ON voltage equation is given by

i0
+
R

C h o p p e r V 0
O N L

E
-
LdiO
0= + RiO + E
dt

14
Redefining the time origin, at t = 0 iO ( t ) = I max .

The solution for the stated initial condition is

R
− t E − t 
R
iO ( t ) = I max e L
−  1 − e L
 0 < t < tON
R 

At t = tON iO ( t ) = I min

R
− tON E − tON 
R

Therefore I min = I max e L

− 1 − e L 
R 

ig
T h y r i s t o r
g a t e p u l s e

t
i0 tO F F tO N

T
t
O u t p u t c u r r e n t
Im a x

Im i n D
c o n d C u h c o t sp p e r
c o n d u c t s
v0 O u t p u t v o l t a g e

Fig. 2.17: Class B Chopper - Output Voltage and Current Waveforms

CLASS C CHOPPER
Class C Chopper is a combination of Class A and Class B Choppers. Figure 2.18
shows a Class C two quadrant Chopper circuit. For first quadrant operation, CH1 is ON
or D2 conducts and for second quadrant operation, CH 2 is ON or D1 conducts. When
CH1 is ON, the load current iO is positive. i.e., iO flows in the direction as shown in
figure 2.18.
The output voltage is equal to V ( vO = V ) and the load receives power from the
source.

15
 C 1 H D 1
i0 v0
+

V R

C 2 H D L v0
2

C h o p p e r
i0
E
−

Fig. 2.18: Class C Chopper

When CH 1 is turned OFF, energy stored in inductance L forces current to flow

through the diode D2 and the output voltage vO = 0 , but iO continues to flow in positive
direction. When CH 2 is triggered, the voltage E forces iO to flow in opposite direction
through L and CH 2 . The output voltage vO = 0 . On turning OFF CH 2 , the energy stored
in the inductance drives current through diode D1 and the supply; output voltage vO = V
the input current becomes negative and power flows from load to source.
Thus the average output voltage vO is positive but the average output current iO
can take both positive and negative values. Choppers CH1 and CH 2 should not be turned
ON simultaneously as it would result in short circuiting the supply. Class C Chopper can
be used both for dc motor control and regenerative braking of dc motor. Figure 2.19
shows the output voltage and current waveforms.

ig 1
G a t e p u l s e
o f 1C H

t
ig 2 G a t e p u l s e
o f 2C H
t
i0
O u t p u t c u r r e n t
t

D 1 C 1 H D 2 C 2 H D 1 C 1 H D 2 C 2 H
O N O N O N O N
V 0 O u t p u t v o l t a g e

Fig. 2.19: Class C Chopper - Output Voltage and Current Waveforms

16
CLASS D CHOPPER

v0
C 1 H D 2

R i0 L E
V
+ v0 − i0

D 1 C 2 H

Fig. 2.20: Class D Chopper

Figure 2.20 shows a class D two quadrant chopper circuit. When both CH1 and
CH 2 are triggered simultaneously, the output voltage vO = V and output current iO flows
through the load in the direction shown in figure 2.20. When CH1 and CH 2 are turned
OFF, the load current iO continues to flow in the same direction through load, D1 and D2 ,
due to the energy stored in the inductor L, but output voltage vO = −V . The average load
voltage vO is positive if chopper ON-time ( tON ) is more than their OFF-time ( tOFF ) and
average output voltage becomes negative if tON < tOFF . Hence the direction of load current
is always positive but load voltage can be positive or negative. Waveforms are shown in
figures 2.21 and 2.22.
ig 1
G a t e p u l s e
o f 1C H

t
ig 2 G a t e p u l s e
o f 2C H
t
i0
O u t p u t c u r r e n t

t
C 1H , C 2 DH 1 , D 2 C o n d u c t i n g
O N
v0
O u t p u t v o l t a g e
V
A v e v r0 a g e
t

Fig. 2.21: Output Voltage and Current Waveforms for tON > tOFF

17
 ig 1
G a t e p u l s e
o f 1C H

t
ig 2 G a t e p u l s e
o f 2C H
t
i0
O u t p u t c u r r e n

C 1H
C 2H
t
D 1 , D 2
v0
O u t p u t v o l t a g e
V

t
A v e v r0 a g e

Fig. 2.22: Output Voltage and Current Waveforms for tON < tOFF

CLASS E CHOPPER

C 1 H D C 3 H D
1 3

i0 R L E
V
+ −
v0
C 2 H D C 4 H D
2 4

Fig. 2.23: Class E Chopper

18
 v0
C 2H - 4D C C 1 H o n d - u C c 4 Ht s O N
D 1 - D 4 C C o 4 H n d u- 2c D t s C o n d u c t s

i0

C 3H - C D2 H2 - O D N3 C o n d u c t s
C 2H - 4D C C 4H o n d- u2 D c t s C o n d u c t s

Fig. 2.23(a): Four Quadrant Operation

Figure 2.23 shows a class E 4 quadrant chopper circuit. When CH1 and CH 4 are
triggered, output current iO flows in positive direction as shown in figure 2.23 through
CH1 and CH 4 , with output voltage vO = V . This gives the first quadrant operation. When
both CH1 and CH 4 are OFF, the energy stored in the inductor L drives iO through D3
and D2 in the same direction, but output voltage vO = −V . Therefore the chopper
operates in the fourth quadrant. For fourth quadrant operation the direction of battery
must be reversed. When CH 2 and CH 3 are triggered, the load current iO flows in
opposite direction and output voltage vO = −V .
Since both iO and vO are negative, the chopper operates in third quadrant. When
both CH 2 and CH 3 are OFF, the load current iO continues to flow in the same direction
through D1 and D4 and the output voltage vO = V . Therefore the chopper operates in
second quadrant as vO is positive but iO is negative. Figure 2.23(a) shows the devices
which are operative in different quadrants.

EFFECT OF SOURCE AND LOAD INDUCTANCE

In choppers, the source inductance should be as small as possible to limit the
transient voltage. Usually an input filter is used to overcome the problem of source
inductance. Also source inductance may cause commutation problem for the chopper.
The load ripple current is inversely proportional to load inductance and chopping
frequency. Therefore the peak load current depends on load inductance. To limit the load
ripple current, a smoothing inductor is connected in series with the load.

Problem 2.1 : For the first quadrant chopper shown in figure 2.24, express the following
variables as functions of V, R and duty cycle ‘d’ in case load is resistive.
• Average output voltage and current
• Output current at the instant of commutation
• Average and rms free wheeling diode current.
• RMS value of output voltage
• RMS and average thyristor currents.

19
 i0
+
C h o p p e r
L
O v0
V F W D A
D

−
Fig. 6.24.
Solution

 tON 
• Average output voltage, Vdc =   V = dV
 T 

Vdc dV
Average output current, I dc = =
R R

• The thyristor is commutated at the instant t = tON .

V
Therefore output current at the instant of commutation is , since V is the output
R
voltage at that instant.

• Free wheeling diode (FWD) will never conduct in a resistive load. Therefore
average and RMS free wheeling diode currents are zero.

• RMS value of output voltage

tON
1
= ∫ v dt
2
VO( RMS ) 0
T 0

But vO = V during tON

tON
1
= ∫V
2
VO( RMS ) dt
T 0

t 
VO( RMS ) = V 2  ON 
 T 

VO( RMS ) = dV

tON
Where duty cycle, d=
T

20
 • RMS value of thyristor current
= RMS value of load current

VO( RMS )
=
R

dV
=
R

Average value of thyristor current

= Average value of load current

dV
=
R

Problem 2.2 : A Chopper circuit is operating on TRC at a frequency of 2 kHz on a 460 V

supply. If the load voltage is 350 volts, calculate the conduction period of the thyristor in
each cycle.

Solution
V = 460 V, Vdc = 350 V, f = 2 kHz

1
Chopping period T=
f
1
T= = 0.5 m sec
2 ×10−3

t 
Output voltage Vdc =  ON V
 T 

Conduction period of thyristor

T × Vdc
tON =
V

0.5 × 10−3 × 350

tON =
460

tON = 0.38 msec

Problem 2.3 : Input to the step up chopper is 200 V. The output required is 600 V. If the
conducting time of thyristor is 200 µ ssec. Compute
• Chopping frequency,
• If the pulse width is halved for constant frequency of operation, find the new
output voltage.

21
Solution
V = 200 V, tON = 200 µ s , Vdc = 600V

 T 
Vdc = V  
 T − tON 

 T 
600 = 200  −6 
 T − 200 ×10 

Solving for T

T = 300 µ s

• Chopping frequency
1
f =
T

1
f = = 3.33KHz
300 × 10−6

• Pulse width is halved

200 ×10−6
Therefore tON = = 100 µ s
2

Frequency is constant

Therefore f = 3.33KHz

1
T= = 300 µ s
f

 T 
Therefore output voltage =V 
 T − tON 

 300 ×10−6 
= 200   = 300 Volts
−6 
 ( 300 − 100 ) 10 

Problem 2.4: A dc chopper has a resistive load of 20Ω and input voltage VS = 220V .
When chopper is ON, its voltage drop is 1.5 volts and chopping frequency is 10 kHz. If
the duty cycle is 80%, determine the average output voltage and the chopper on time.

22
Solution
VS = 220V , R = 20Ω , f = 10 kHz

tON
d= = 0.80
T

Vch = Voltage drop across chopper = 1.5 volts

Average output voltage

t 
Vdc =  ON  ( VS − Vch )
 T 

Vdc = 0.80 ( 220 − 1.5 ) = 174.8 Volts

Chopper ON time, tON = dT

1
Chopping period, T=
f
1
T= = 0.1×10−3 secs = 100 μsecs
10 ×10 3

Chopper ON time,
tON = dT

tON = 0.80 × 0.1× 10−3

tON = 0.08 ×10−3 = 80 μsecs

Problem 2.5: In a dc chopper, the average load current is 30 Amps, chopping frequency
is 250 Hz. Supply voltage is 110 volts. Calculate the ON and OFF periods of the chopper
if the load resistance is 2 ohms.

Solution
I dc = 30 Amps , f = 250 Hz, V = 110 V, R = 2Ω

1 1
Chopping period, T= = = 4 × 10−3 = 4 msecs
f 250

Vdc
I dc = and Vdc = dV
R

dV
Therefore I dc =
R

23
 I dc R 30 × 2
d= = = 0.545
V 110

−3
Chopper ON period, tON = dT = 0.545 × 4 ×10 = 2.18 msecs

Chopper OFF period, tOFF = T − tON

tOFF = 4 × 10−3 − 2.18 ×10−3

tOFF = 1.82 × 10−3 = 1.82 msec

Problem 2.6: A dc chopper in figure 2.25 has a resistive load of R = 10Ω and input
voltage of V = 200 V. When chopper is ON, its voltage drop is 2 V and the chopping
frequency is 1 kHz. If the duty cycle is 60%, determine
• Average output voltage
• RMS value of output voltage
• Effective input resistance of chopper
• Chopper efficiency.

C h o p p e r
i0
+

V R v0

−
Fig. 2.25
Solution

V = 200 V, R = 10Ω , Chopper voltage drop, Vch = 2V , d = 0.60, f = 1 kHz.

• Average output voltage

Vdc = d ( V − Vch )

Vdc = 0.60 [ 200 − 2] = 118.8 Volts

• RMS value of output voltage

VO = d ( V − Vch )

VO = 0.6 ( 200 − 2 ) = 153.37 Volts

24
 • Effective input resistance of chopper is
V V
Ri = =
I S I dc

Vdc 118.8
I dc = = = 11.88 Amps
R 10

V V 200
Ri = = = = 16.83Ω
I S I dc 11.88

• Output power is
dT
1 v02
PO =
T ∫
0
R
dt

( V − Vch )
dT 2
1
PO =
T ∫
0
R
dt

d ( V − Vch )
2

PO =
R

0.6 [ 200 − 2]
2

PO = = 2352.24 watts
10
dT
1
• Input power, Pi =
T ∫ Vi dt
0
O

1
dT
V ( V − Vch )
PO =
T ∫
0
R
dt

dV ( V − Vch ) 0.6 × 200 [ 200 − 2]

PO = = = 2376 watts
R 10

• Chopper efficiency,
P
η = O × 100
Pi

2352.24
η= ×100 = 99%
2376

Problem 2.7: A chopper is supplying an inductive load with a free-wheeling diode. The
load inductance is 5 H and resistance is 10Ω . The input voltage to the chopper is 200

25
volts and the chopper is operating at a frequency of 1000 Hz. If the ON/OFF time ratio is
2:3. Calculate
• Maximum and minimum values of load current in one cycle of chopper operation.
• Average load current

Solution:
L = 5 H, R = 10 Ω , f = 1000 Hz, V = 200 V, tON : tOFF = 2 : 3

1 1
Chopping period, T= = = 1 msecs
f 1000

tON 2
=
tOFF 3

2
tON = tOFF
3

T = tON + tOFF

2
T = tOFF + tOFF
3

5
T = tOFF
3

3
tOFF = T
5

3
T = × 1×10−3 = 0.6 msec
5

tON = T − tOFF

tON = ( 1 − 0.6 ) ×10−3 = 0.4 msec

tON 0.4 ×10−3

Duty cycle, d= = = 0.4
T 1×10−3

• Refer equations (2.19) and (2.20) for expressions of I max and I min .
Maximum value of load current [equation (2.19)] is

 −
dRT

V 1 − e L − E
I max =
R −
RT  R
 1 − e 
L

26
 Since there is no voltage source in the load circuit, E = 0

 −
dRT

V 1 − e L 
Therefore I max =
R −
RT 
 1 − e L 

 
−3
0.4×10×1×10
−
200 1 − e 5

I max =
10  −
10×1×10 −3 
 1 − e 5 

1 − e −0.8×10 
−3

I max = 20  −2×10−3

 1 − e 

I max = 8.0047A

Minimum value of load current from equation (2.20) with E = 0 is

 dRT 
V  e L − 1
I min =
R  RTL 
 e − 1 

 0.4×10×1×10 
−3

200  e 5
− 1
I min =  = 7.995 A
10  10×1×510
−3

 e − 1 

• Average load current

I +I
I dc = max min
2

8.0047 + 7.995
I dc = ≈8 A
2

Problem 2.8 : A chopper feeding on RL load is shown in figure 2.26. With V = 200 V, R
= 5Ω , L = 5 mH, f = 1 kHz, d = 0.5 and E = 0 V. Calculate
• Maximum and minimum values of load current
• Average value of load current
• RMS load current
• Effective input resistance as seen by source
• RMS chopper current.

Solution
V = 200 V, R = 5 Ω , L = 5 mH, f = 1kHz, d = 0.5, E = 0

27
 1 1
Chopping period is T = = = 1× 10−3 secs
f 1× 10 3

C h o p p e r
i0
+
R

v0
F W D L

E
−
Fig.: 2.26

Refer equations (2.19) and (2.20) for expressions of I max and I min .

Maximum value of load current

 −
dRT

V 1− e L − E
I max = 
R −
RT  R
 1 − e L 

 
3
0.5×5×1×10
−
200 1 − e 5×10
−3

I max =  −0
5  −
5×1×10 −3
 1 − e 5×10−3 
 

1 − e −0.5 
I max = 40  −1 
= 24.9 A
 1− e 

Minimum value of load current is

 dRT 
V  e L − 1 E
I min = −
R  RTL  R
 e − 1 

 0.5×5×1×−10 
−3

200  e 5×10 − 1
3

I min =  −0
5  5×1×10−3
−3

 e 5×10 − 1 
 

 e0.5 − 1 
I min = 40  1  = 15.1 A
 e −1 

Average value of load current is

I +I
I dc = 1 2 for linear variation of currents
2

28
 24.9 + 15.1
Therefore I dc = = 20 A
2

Refer equations (2.24) and (2.25) for RMS load current and RMS chopper current.

RMS load current from equation (2.24) is

1
 2 (I −I ) 
2 2
I O( RMS ) =  I min + max min + Imin ( Imax − Imin ) 
 3 

1
 ( 24.9 − 15.1) 2
2

I O( RMS ) = 15.1 +
2
+ 15.1( 24.9 − 15.1) 
 3 

1
 96.04 2
I O( RMS ) =  228.01 + + 147.98 = 20.2 A
 3 

RMS chopper current from equation is (2.25) is

I ch = d I O( RMS ) = 0.5 × 20.2 = 14.28 A

Effective input resistance is

V
Ri =
IS

I S = Average source current

I S = dI dc

I S = 0.5 × 20 = 10 A

Therefore effective input resistance is

V 200
Ri = = = 20Ω
IS 10

Problem 2.9: A 200 V dc motor fed by a chopper, runs at 1000 rpm with a duty ratio of
0.8. What must be the ON time of the chopper if the motor has to run at 800 rpm. The
chopper operates at 100 Hz.

Solution
Speed of motor N1 = 1000 rpm
Duty ratio d1 = 0.8 , f = 100 Hz

29
We know that back EMF of motor Eb is given by
φ ZNP
Eb =
60 A

Where N = speed in rpm

φ = flux/pole in wbs
Z = Number of Armature conductors
P = Number of poles
A = Number of parallel paths

Therefore Eb α φ N
Eb α N if flux φ is constant

C h o p p e r
Ia
+
R a

V V d c +
M E b
−
−
Fig. 2.27

Eb = Vdc − I a Ra

where I a = Armature current

Ra = Armature Resistance

Since Ra is not given, I a Ra drop is neglected.

Therefore Eb1 = Vdc1 = 200 volts

Vdc1 = d1V

Vdc1
Supply, V=
d1

200
V=
0.8

V = 250 Volts

30
 Eb1 α N1

200 α 1000 ... ( 2.30 )

Now speed changes hence ‘d’ also changes.

Given N 2 = 800 rpm Eb2 = ?

Eb 2 α N 2

Eb2 α 800 ... ( 2.31)

Dividing equation (2.30) by equation (2.31) we get

200 1000
=
Eb2 800

800 × 200
Eb2 = = 160 V
1000

But Eb2 = Vdc2 = d 2V

Vdc2 160
d2 = = = 0.64
V 250

Chopping frequency f = 100 Hz

1 1
T= = = 0.01 sec
f 100

T = 10 msecs

tON
= d2
T

ON time of chopper
tON = d 2T

tON = 0.64 ×10 × 10−3

tON = 6.4 msecs

31
IMPULSE COMMUTATED CHOPPER
Impulse commutated choppers are widely used in high power circuits where load
fluctuation is not large. This chopper is also known as parallel capacitor turn-off chopper
or voltage commutated chopper or classical chopper.
Fig. 2.28 shows an impulse commutated chopper with two thyristors T1 and T2.
We shall assume that the load current remains constant at a value IL during the
commutation process.

L S
T 1 iT 1

+ a + IL +
b _ C T 2
iC F W D
L
O
V S A vO
D

L D
_ 1 _
Fig. 2.28

To start the circuit, capacitor ‘C’ is initially charged with polarity (with plate ‘a’
positive) as shown in the fig. 2.28 by triggering the thyristor T2. Capacitor ‘C’ gets
charged through ‘VS’, ‘C’, T2 and load. As the charging current decays to zero thyristor T2
will be turned-off. With capacitor charged with plate ‘a’ positive the circuit is ready for
operation. For convenience the chopper operation is divided into five modes.

MODE – 1
Thyristor T1 is fired at t = 0. The supply voltage comes across the load. Load
current IL flows through T1 and load. At the same time capacitor discharges through T1,
D1, L1, and ‘C’ and the capacitor reverses its voltage. This reverse voltage on capacitor is
held constant by diode D1. Fig. 2.29 shows the equivalent circuit of Mode 1.

L S
T 1

+ + IL
V C _ C iC
L
V O
S
A
D
L D 1
_
Fig. 2.29

32
Capacitor Discharge Current

C
iC ( t ) = V sin ω t
L

C
iC ( t ) = I P sin ω t ; where I P = V
L

1
Where ω=
LC

& Capacitor Voltage

VC ( t ) = V cos ω t

MODE – 2
Thyristor T2 is now fired to commutate thyristor T1. When T2 is ON capacitor
voltage reverse biases T1 and turns it off. Now the capacitor discharges through the load
from –VS to 0 and the discharge time is known as circuit turn-off time.

Circuit turn-off time is given by

VC × C
tC =
IL
Where IL is load current.

Since tC depends on load current, it must be designed for the worst case condition
which occur at the maximum value of load current and minimum value of capacitor
voltage.
Then the capacitor recharges back to the supply voltage (with plate ‘a’ positive).
This time is called the recharging time and is given by

VS × C
td =
IL

The total time required for the capacitor to discharge and recharge is called the
commutation time and it is given by

tr = tC + td

At the end of Mode-2 capacitor has recharged to ‘VS’ and the free wheeling diode
starts conducting. The equivalent circuit for Mode-2 is shown in fig. 2.30.

33
 IL
+ L S _ IL
V C C L
V + T O
S 2 A
D
_

Fig. 2.30.

MODE – 3
Free wheeling diode FWD starts conducting and the load current decays. The
energy stored in source inductance LS is transferred to capacitor. Instantaneous current is
i ( t ) = I L cos ω t Hence capacitor charges to a voltage higher than supply voltage. T2
naturally turns-off.

The instantaneous capacitor voltage is

LS
VC ( t ) = VS + I L sin ωS t
C

1
Where ωS =
LS C

Fig. 2.31 shows the equivalent circuit of Mode – 3.

IL
+ L S + IL
V S _ C T 2 L
V O
S A
F W DD
_

Fig. 2.31
MODE – 4
Since the capacitor has been overcharged i.e. its voltage is above supply voltage it
starts discharging in reverse direction. Hence capacitor current becomes negative. The
capacitor discharges through LS, VS, FWD, D1 and L. When this current reduces to zero
D1 will stop conducting and the capacitor voltage will be same as the supply voltage fig.
2.32 shows in equivalent circuit of Mode – 4.

34
 L S

+ + IL
V C _ C L
D 1 O
V S A
L D
_ F W D

Fig. 2.32

MODE – 5
In mode 5 both thyristors are off and the load current flows through the free
wheeling diode (FWD). This mode will end once thyristor T1 is fired. The equivalent
circuit for mode 5 is shown in fig. 2.33

IL
L
F W DO
A
D

Fig. 2.33

Fig. 2.34 shows the current and voltage waveforms for a voltage commutated
chopper.

35
 ic C a p a c i t o r C u r r e n t
IL
0 t
Ip
iT 1
Ip
IL C u r r e n 1t t h r o u g h T
t
0
vT 1
Vc V o l t a g 1e a c r o s s T
t
0
vo
V s+ V c
Vs O u t p u t V o l t a g e
t
vc

Vc
t
C a p a c i t o r V o l t a g e
- Vc
tc
td
Fig. 2.34

Though voltage commutated chopper is a simple circuit it has the following

disadvantages.
• A starting circuit is required and the starting circuit should be such that it triggers
thyristor T2 first.
• Load voltage jumps to twice the supply voltage when the commutation is initiated.
• The discharging and charging time of commutation capacitor are dependent on the
load current and this limits high frequency operation, especially at low load
current.
• Chopper cannot be tested without connecting load.
• Thyristor T1 has to carry load current as well as resonant current resulting in
increasing its peak current rating.

36
Jone’s Chopper

+
T 1 C
T −
2

D
V L 2

L 1

+
R
v0
F W D
L
−
Fig. 2.35: Jone’s Chopper

Figure 2.35 shows a Jone’s Chopper circuit for an inductive load with free
wheeling diode. Jone’s Chopper is an example of class D commutation. Two thyristors
are used, T1 is the main thyristor and T2 is the auxiliary thyristor. Commutating circuit
for T1 consists of thyristor T2, capacitor C, diode D and autotransformer (L1 and L2).
Initially thyristor T2 is turned ON and capacitor C is charged to a voltage V with a
polarity as shown in figure 2.35. As C charges, the charging current through thyristor T2
decays exponentially and when current falls below holding current level, thyristor T 2
turns OFF by itself. When thyristor T1 is triggered, load current flows through thyristor
T1, L2 and load. The capacitor discharges through thyristor T1, L1 and diode D. Due to
resonant action of the auto transformer inductance L2 and capacitance C, the voltage
across the capacitor reverses after some time.
It is to be noted that the load current in L1 induces a voltage in L2 due to
autotransformer action. Due to this voltage in L2 in the reverse direction, the capacitor
charges to a voltage greater than the supply voltage. (The capacitor now tries to discharge
in opposite direction but it is blocked by diode D and hence capacitor maintains the
reverse voltage across it). When thyristor T1 is to be commutated, thyristor T2 is turned
ON resulting in connecting capacitor C directly across thyristor T1. Capacitor voltage
reverse biases thyristor T1 and turns it off. The capacitor again begins to charge through
thyristor T2 and the load for the next cycle of operation.
The various waveforms are shown in figure 2.36

37
 Ig G a t e p 2 u l s e o f GT a t e p 1 u l s e o f T G a t e p 2 u l s e o f T

V C

+ V C a p a c i t o r V o l t a g e

R e s o n a n t a c t i o n

−V
A u t o t r a n s f o r m e r a c t i o n
tC

C a p a c i t o r
d i s c h a r g e c u r r e n t
C u r r e1 n t o f T
IL

V o l t a g e1 a c r o s s T
IL

tC

38