yeurtts(sutehe

w
hb
end sy .
omm
Unk
ewtt

(Emh
Umgid
wtol Corn m
ceAV inoless
Calnn

Tod&
b to 4
inastme u
ht pidos YOu8s swic
o1 duo Com
mo

videe-
Host: sends packets of data
host sending function:
-L -L-
takes application message
breaks into smaller chunks, two packets,
known as packets, of length L bits L bits each

transmits packet into access

2 1
network at transmission rate R
link transmission rate, aka link host
Propyt
capacity, aka link bandwidth R: link transmission rate

packet time needed to L (bits)

transmission= transmit L-bit =
delay packet into link R (bits/sec)
The network core
mesh of interconnected routers ational or global 1SP

packet-switching: hosts break

application-layer messages intO
packets
network forwards packets from one localor
regional1SP
router to the next, across links on
path trom source to destination
ha
 938 km
Bharuch eHotels Gas stations A Rest stops Q More #A
alebal
YawalWildlife Paratwada
Sanctuary Bhanda
Surat
Dhule 17 hr 44 min ONagpur
830 km
Akola Wardha S
Yoc
eehcapt
rfoodr

Nashik
Aurangabad chandrapur

17hr40min

Nand

MumbaiO
Navi Mumbai
Pune
mnagar
Nananac
 Two key network-core functions

routing algorithm

Forwarding: local forwarding table

header value outpuflink
aka "switching 0100
0101
local action: move 0111
1001
arriving packets
from router's
input link to olo
appropriate router
output link

destination address in arrIving

packet s header
 Two key network-core functions

routing algorithm Routing:lga

Forwarding: localforwarding table
global action:
header value joutputlink determine source-
aka "switching" 01003 destination paths
0101
local action: move 0111
1001 taken by packets
arriving packets
from router's routing algorithms
input link to glop
appropriate router
output link

destination address inarriving

packets header
 Packet-switching: store-and-forward Why?
Joo
1o0L bits
per packet
Source 32 1
destination
Rbps R bps

packet transmission delay: takes L/R seconds to One-hop numerical example:

transmit (push out) L-bit packet into link at R bps L 100 bits Lo

storeandforward: entire packet must arrive at R 10 Kbps L.1

router before it can be transmitted on next link transmission delay

= 10 msec
 oBisSn
Packet-switching: queueing lag
R 100 Mb/s

R 1.5 Mb/s D
queue of packets
waiting for transmission
Over output link tbos hisi

Queueing occurswhen work arrives taster than it can be serviced:

Packet-switching: queueing
R 100 Mb/s
A

B
R 1.5 Mb/s

queue of packets
waiting for transmission
over output link

Packet queuing and loss: if arrival rate (in bps) tolink exceeds
transmission rate (bps) of Iink for some period of time
packets will queue, waiting to be transmitted on output link
packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) in router fills up
 +phn
stach C
Alternative to packet switching: circuit switching
end-end resources allocated to, So
reserved for "call" between source
and destination
i n diagram, each link has four circuits.
call gets 2nd circuit in top link and 1st
circuit in right link.
dedicated resources: no sharing
circuit-like (guaranteed) performance
circuit segment idle if not used by call (no
sharing)
commonly used in traditional telephone networks dest
Packet-switching: store-and-forward
utpkS. nla
L bits
per packet Cw -hou
source 2 1
destination
R bps Rbps

packet transmission delay: takes L/R seconds to

transmit (push out) L-bit packet into link at R bps errete Cchetk
Circuit switching implementation: FDM and TDM

Frequency Division Multiplexing 4 users OO

(FDM)
optical, electromagnetic frequencies
divided into (narrow) frequency bands A
(4kHz)
each call allocated its own band, can time
transmitat maxX rate of that narrow
band

TimeDivision Multiplexing (TDM) L2245

time divided into slots
each call allocated periodic slot(s), can
transmit at maximum rate of (wider time
frequencyband (only) during its time
slot(s)
 FDM vs. TDM

1.FDM majorly for analog signal transmission; TDM is a digital signal

transmission scheme.
2.In TDM, crosstalk chances negligible; guard bands in FDM.
3.TDMis a synchronized signal transmission(requires synchronization
pulse); FDM no such pulse required.
4.FDM Iow efficiency because more prone to interference; TDM is
highly efficient.
5.TDM leads to propagation delays; FDM does not cause a delay in
propagation.
Internet structure: a "network of networks
mobile network
hosts connect to Internet via access national or global ISP
InternetService Providers (ISPs)
access ISPs in turn must be
interconnected
so that any two hosts (anywhere! localor
regiona SP
cansend packetsto each other
home network Content
resulting network ofnetworks is provider
network
very complex datacenter
netvork

evolution driven by economicS, enterprise

network
national policiesS

Let'stake a stepwise approach todescribe current Internet structure

Internet structure: a "network of networks"
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to connect them together?
India >350ISPs
ess
US >7k ISPs

connecting each access ISP to

each other directly doesn't scale:
O(N) connections.
Internet structure: a "network of networks"
Option: connect each access ISP to one global transit ISP?
Customer and provider ISPs have economic agreement.
A access
Thet
access
access

global
ISP
Internet structure: a "'network of networks"
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors. who will
want to be connected
Internet exchange point
Adv of IXP
Avoid tromboning
XP effect
ISP A cost

IXPSPB ess

ISP C

peering link