Chapter 1: roadmap

1.1 What is the Internet?

1.2 Network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 Network core
 circuit switching, packet switching, network structure
1.4 Delay, loss and throughput in packet-switched
networks
1.5 Protocol layers, service models
1.6 Networks under attack: security
1.7 History

Introduction 1-1
The Network Core
 mesh of interconnected
routers
 the fundamental
question: how is data
transferred through net?
 circuit switching:
dedicated circuit per
call: telephone net
 packet-switching: data
sent thru net in
discrete “chunks”

Introduction 1-2
Network Core: Circuit Switching

End-end resources
reserved for “call”
 link bandwidth, switch
capacity
 dedicated resources:
no sharing
 circuit-like
(guaranteed)
performance
 call setup required

Introduction 1-3
Network Core: Circuit Switching
network resources  dividing link bandwidth
(e.g., bandwidth) into “pieces”
divided into “pieces”  frequency division
 pieces allocated to calls
 time division
 resource piece idle if
not used by owning call
(no sharing)

Introduction 1-4
Circuit Switching: FDM and TDM
Example:
FDM
4 users

frequency

time
TDM (GSM uses this)

frequency

time
TDMA: Time Division Multiplexing Access Introduction 1-5
Numerical example
 How long does it take to send a file of
640,000 bits from host A to host B over a
circuit-switched network?
 All links are 1.536 Mbps
 Each link uses TDM with 24 slots/sec
 500 msec to establish end-to-end circuit

Let’s work it out!

Introduction 1-6
 Network Core: Packet Switching
each end-end data stream
divided into packets
Bandwidth division into “pieces”
 user A, B packets share
Dedicated allocation
network resources Resource reservation
 each packet uses full link
bandwidth
 resources used as needed

D
B
Introduction 1-7
 Network Core: Packet Switching
resource contention:
 aggregate resource demand can exceed amount
available
 congestion: packets queue, wait for link use
 store and forward: packets move one hop at a time
 Node receives complete packet before forwarding

D
B
Introduction 1-8
Packet Switching: Statistical Multiplexing
10 Mb/s
A Ethernet statistical multiplexing C

1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets
waiting for output
link

D E

Sequence of A & B packets does not have fixed pattern,

shared on demand  statistical multiplexing.
TDM: each host gets same slot in revolving TDM frame.
Introduction 1-9
Packet switching versus circuit switching
Packet switching allows more users to use network!
 1 Mb/s link
N users
 each user:
 100 kb/s when “active”
 active 10% of time

 circuit-switching:
1 Mbps link
 10 users

 packet switching:
 with 35 users, Q: how did we know 0.0004?
prob. of > 10 active less
than .0004
Introduction 1-10
Packet switching versus circuit switching
Is packet switching a “slam dunk winner?”
 Great for bursty data
 resource sharing
 simpler, no call setup
 Excessive congestion: packet delay and loss
 protocols needed for reliable data transfer,
congestion control
 Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior?
 bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video apps
 QoS – Quality of Service
 still an unsolved problem (chapter 7)
Introduction 1-11
Packet-switching: store-and-forward
L
R R R

 Takes L/R seconds to Example:

transmit (push out)  L = 7.5 Kbits
packet of L bits on to  R = 1.5 Mbps
link with R bps
 delay = 15 ms
 Entire packet must
arrive at router before
it can be transmitted
on next link: store and
forward
 delay = 3L/R (assuming more on delay shortly …
zero propagation delay)
Introduction 1-12
Packet-switched networks: forwarding
 Goal: move packets from source to destination
 datagram network:
 destination address in packet determines next hop
 routes may change during session
 analogy: driving, asking directions

 virtual circuit network:

 each packet carries tag (virtual circuit ID), tag
determines next hop
 fixed path determined at call setup time, remains fixed
thru call
 Pro: routers can do resource reservation
 Con: routers maintain per-call state (complex, not scale)

Introduction 1-13
Network Taxonomy
Telecommunication
networks

Circuit-switched Packet-switched
networks networks

FDM Networks Datagram

TDM
with VCs Networks

• Internet is a datagram network packet-switched network

• Internet provides both connection-oriented (TCP) and
connectionless services (UDP) to application.

Introduction 1-14
 Internet structure: network of networks
 roughly hierarchical
 at center: “tier-1” ISPs (e.g., MCI, Sprint, AT&T, Cable
and Wireless), national/international coverage
 treat each other as equals

Tier-1 providers
also interconnect
Tier-1 at public Network
providers
Tier 1 ISP
NAP Access Points
interconnect (NAPs)
(peer)
privately
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP

Introduction 1-15
Tier-1 ISP: e.g., Sprint
POP: point-of-presence

to/from backbone

peering
… …
.
…
…

to/from customers

Introduction 1-16
 Internet structure: network of networks
 “Tier-2” ISPs: smaller (often regional) ISPs
 Connect to one or more tier-1 ISPs, possibly other tier-2 ISPs

Tier-2 ISPs
Tier-2 ISP pays Tier-2 ISP also peer
Tier-2 ISP privately with
tier-1 ISP for
connectivity to Tier 1 ISP each other,
rest of Internet NAP interconnect
 tier-2 ISP is at NAP
customer of
tier-1 provider Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Introduction 1-17
 Internet structure: network of networks
 “Tier-3” ISPs and local ISPs
 last hop (“access”) network (closest to end systems)

local
ISP Tier 3 local
local local
ISP ISP
ISP ISP
Local and tier- Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
3 ISPs are
customers of Tier 1 ISP
higher tier NAP
ISPs
connecting
them to rest
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP
of Internet
local
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
ISP
local local local
ISP ISP ISP Introduction 1-18
 Internet structure: network of networks
 a packet passes through many networks!

local
ISP Tier 3 local
local local
ISP ISP
ISP ISP
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Tier 1 ISP
NAP

Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP

local
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
ISP
local local local
ISP ISP ISP Introduction 1-19
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 Network core
 circuit switching, packet switching, network structure
1.4 Delay, loss and throughput in packet-switched
networks
1.5 Protocol layers, service models
1.6 Networks under attack: security
1.7 History

Introduction 1-20
 How do loss and delay occur?
packets queue in router buffers
 packet arrival rate to link exceeds output link capacity
 packets queue, wait for turn

packet being transmitted (delay)

B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers
Introduction 1-21
Four sources of packet delay
 1. nodal processing:  2. queueing
 check bit errors  time waiting at output
 determine output link link for transmission
 depends on congestion
level of router

transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

Introduction 1-22
Delay in packet-switched networks
3. Transmission delay: 4. Propagation delay:
 R=link bandwidth (bps)  d = length of physical link
 L=packet length (bits)  s = propagation speed in
 time to send bits into medium (~2-3x108 m/sec)
link = L/R  propagation delay = d/s

Note: s and R are very

transmission different quantities!
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing
Introduction 1-23
Nodal delay
d nodal  d proc  d queue  d trans  d prop

 dproc = processing delay

 typically a few microsecs or less
 dqueue = queuing delay
 depends on congestion
 dtrans = transmission delay
 = L/R, significant for low-speed links
 dprop = propagation delay
 a few microsecs to hundreds of msecs

Introduction 1-24
Queueing delay (revisited)

 R=link bandwidth (bps)

 L=packet length (bits)
 a=average packet
arrival rate

traffic intensity = La/R

 La/R ~ 0: average queueing delay small

 La/R -> 1: delays become large
 La/R > 1: more “work” arriving than can be
serviced, average delay infinite!
Introduction 1-25
“Real” Internet delays and routes

 What do “real” Internet delay & loss look like?

 Traceroute program: provides delay
measurement from source to router along end-end
Internet path towards destination. For all i:
 sends three packets that will reach router i on path
towards destination
 router i will return packets to sender
 sender times interval between transmission and reply.

3 probes 3 probes

3 probes

Introduction 1-26
“Real” Internet delays and routes
traceroute: gaia.cs.umass.edu to www.eurecom.fr
Three delay measurements from
gaia.cs.umass.edu to cs-gw.cs.umass.edu
1 cs-gw (128.119.240.254) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
2 border1-rt-fa5-1-0.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.145) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
3 cht-vbns.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.130) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms
4 jn1-at1-0-0-19.wor.vbns.net (204.147.132.129) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms
5 jn1-so7-0-0-0.wae.vbns.net (204.147.136.136) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms
6 abilene-vbns.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.11.9) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms
7 nycm-wash.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.8.46) 22 ms 22 ms 22 ms trans-oceanic
8 62.40.103.253 (62.40.103.253) 104 ms 109 ms 106 ms
9 de2-1.de1.de.geant.net (62.40.96.129) 109 ms 102 ms 104 ms link
10 de.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.96.50) 113 ms 121 ms 114 ms
11 renater-gw.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.103.54) 112 ms 114 ms 112 ms
12 nio-n2.cssi.renater.fr (193.51.206.13) 111 ms 114 ms 116 ms
13 nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.102) 123 ms 125 ms 124 ms
14 r3t2-nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.110) 126 ms 126 ms 124 ms
15 eurecom-valbonne.r3t2.ft.net (193.48.50.54) 135 ms 128 ms 133 ms
16 194.214.211.25 (194.214.211.25) 126 ms 128 ms 126 ms
17 * * *
18 * * * * means no response (probe lost, router not replying)
19 fantasia.eurecom.fr (193.55.113.142) 132 ms 128 ms 136 ms

Under Windows is “tracert” Introduction 1-27

Packet loss
 queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer has
finite capacity
 when packet arrives to full queue, packet is
dropped (aka lost)
 lost packet may be retransmitted by previous
node, by source end system, or not retransmitted
at all (UDP)
buffer
(waiting area) packet being transmitted
A

B
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost Introduction 1-28
 Throughput
 throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which
bits transferred between sender/receiver
 instantaneous: rate at given point in time
 average: rate over long(er) period of time

server,
server sendswith link
bits pipe capacity
that can carry link that
pipe capacity
can carry
file of
(fluid) F bits
into pipe fluid at rate
Rs bits/sec Rfluid at rate
c bits/sec
to send to client Rs bits/sec) Rc bits/sec)

Introduction 1-29
 Throughput (more)
 Rs < Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

 Rs > Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

bottleneck link
link on end-end path that constrains end-end throughput
Introduction 1-30
Throughput: Internet scenario

Rs
 per-connection
Rs Rs
end-end
throughput:
R
min(Rc,Rs,R/10)
 in practice: Rc or Rs Rc Rc

is often bottleneck Rc

10 connections (fairly) share

backbone bottleneck link R bits/sec
Introduction 1-31
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 Network core
 circuit switching, packet switching, network structure
1.4 Delay, loss and throughput in packet-switched
networks
1.5 Protocol layers, service models
1.6 Networks under attack: security
1.7 History

Introduction 1-32
Protocol “Layers”
Networks are complex!
 many “pieces”:
 hosts Question:
 routers Is there any hope of
 links of various organizing structure of
media network?
 applications
Or at least our discussion of
 protocols
networks?
 hardware,
software

Introduction 1-33
Organization of air travel

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

airplane routing

 a series of steps

Introduction 1-34
Layering of airline functionality

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain) ticket

baggage (check) baggage (claim baggage

gates (load) gates (unload) gate

runway (takeoff) runway (land) takeoff/landing

airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing

departure intermediate air-traffic arrival

airport control centers airport

Layers: each layer implements a service

 via its own internal-layer actions
 relying on services provided by layer below

Introduction 1-35
Why layering?
Dealing with complex systems:
 explicit structure allows identification,
relationship of complex system’s pieces
 layered reference model for discussion
 modularization eases maintenance, updating of
system
 change of implementation of layer’s service
transparent to rest of system
 e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t affect
rest of system
 layering considered harmful?
 Duplicate functions

Introduction 1-36
Internet protocol stack
 application: supporting network
applications application
 FTP, SMTP, STTP
 transport: host-host data transfer transport
 TCP, UDP

 network: routing of datagrams from network

source to destination
 IP, routing protocols link
 link: data transfer between
neighboring network elements physical
 PPP, Ethernet
 physical: bits “on the wire”

Introduction 1-37
ISO/OSI reference model
 presentation: allow applications to
interpret meaning of data, e.g., application
encryption, compression, machine-
presentation
specific conventions
 session: synchronization, session
checkpointing, recovery of data transport
exchange
network
 Internet stack “missing” these
layers! link
 these services, if needed, must physical
be implemented in application
 needed?

Introduction 1-38
 source
message M application
Encapsulation
segment Ht M transport
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame H l Hn H t M link
physical
H l Hn H t M link H l Hn H t M
physical

switch

destination Hn H t M network H n Ht M
M application
H l Hn H t M link H l Hn H t M
Ht M transport physical
H n Ht M network
H l Hn H t M link router
physical

Introduction 1-39
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 Network core
 circuit switching, packet switching, network structure
1.4 Delay, loss and throughput in packet-switched
networks
1.5 Protocol layers, service models
1.6 Networks under attack: security
1.7 History

Introduction 1-40
Network Security
 attacks on Internet infrastructure:
 infecting/attacking hosts: malware, spyware,
worms, unauthorized access (data stealing, user
accounts)
 denial of service: deny access to resources
(servers, link bandwidth)
 Internet not originally designed with
(much) security in mind
 original vision: “a group of mutually trusting
users attached to a transparent network” 
 Internet protocol designers playing “catch-up”
 Security considerations in all layers!
Introduction 1-41
What can bad guys do: malware?
 Spyware:  Worm:
 infection by downloading  infection by passively
web page with spyware receiving object that gets
 records keystrokes, web itself executed
sites visited, upload info  self- replicating: propagates
to collection site to other hosts, users
 Virus Sapphire Worm: aggregate scans/sec
in first 5 minutes of outbreak (CAIDA, UWisc data)
 infection by receiving
object (e.g., e-mail
attachment), actively
executing
 self-replicating:
propagate itself to
other hosts, users
Introduction 1-42
 Denial of service attacks
 attackers make resources (server, bandwidth)
unavailable to legitimate traffic by overwhelming
resource with bogus traffic

1. select target
2. break into hosts
around the network
(see malware)
target
3. send packets toward
target from
compromised hosts

Introduction 1-43
Sniff, modify, delete your packets
Packet sniffing:
 broadcast media (shared Ethernet, wireless)
 promiscuous network interface reads/records all packets
(e.g., including passwords!) passing by

A C

src:B dest:A payload

B
 Ethereal software used for end-of-chapter labs is a (free) packet-
sniffer
 more on modification, deletion later

Introduction 1-44
Masquerade as you
 IP spoofing: send packet with false source address

A C

src:B dest:A payload

Introduction 1-45
Masquerade as you
 IP spoofing: send packet with false source address
 record-and-playback: sniff sensitive info (e.g., password), and
use later
 password holder is that user from system point of view

C
A

src:B dest:A user: B; password: foo

Introduction 1-46
Masquerade as you
 IP spoofing: send packet with false source address
 record-and-playback: sniff sensitive info (e.g., password), and
use later
 password holder is that user from system point of view

later …..
C
A

src:B dest:A user: B; password: foo

Introduction 1-47
Network Security
 more throughout this course
 chapter 8: focus on security
 crypographic techniques

Introduction 1-48
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 Network core
 circuit switching, packet switching, network structure
1.4 Delay, loss and throughput in packet-switched
networks
1.5 Protocol layers, service models
1.6 Networks under attack: security
1.7 History

Introduction 1-49
Internet History
1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles
 1961: Kleinrock - queueing  1972:
theory shows  ARPAnet demonstrated
effectiveness of packet- publicly
switching  NCP (Network Control
 1964: Baran - packet- Protocol) first host-host
switching in military nets protocol
 1967: ARPAnet conceived
 first e-mail program
by Advanced Research  ARPAnet has 15 nodes
Projects Agency
 1969: first ARPAnet node
operational

Introduction 1-50
 Internet History
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary nets
 1970: ALOHAnet satellite Cerf and Kahn’s internetworking
network in Hawaii principles:
 1974: Cerf and Kahn -  minimalism, autonomy - no
architecture for internal changes required
interconnecting networks to interconnect networks
 best effort service model
 1976: Ethernet at Xerox
PARC  stateless routers
 decentralized control
 ate70’s: proprietary
architectures: DECnet, SNA, define today’s Internet
XNA architecture
 late 70’s: switching fixed
length packets (ATM
precursor)
 1979: ARPAnet has 200 nodes

Introduction 1-51
Internet History
1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks
 1983: deployment of  100,000 hosts
TCP/IP connected to
 1982: smtp e-mail confederation of
protocol defined networks
 1983: DNS defined
for name-to-IP-
address translation
 1985: ftp protocol
defined
 1988: TCP congestion
control
Introduction 1-52
Internet History

2007:
 ~500 million hosts
 Voice, Video over IP
 P2P applications: BitTorrent
(file sharing) Skype (VoIP),
PPLive (video)
 more applications: YouTube,
MySpace, gaming
 wireless, mobility

Introduction 1-53
Introduction: Summary
Covered a lot of material!
You now have:
 Internet overview
 context, overview,
 what’s a protocol?
“feel” of networking
 network edge, core, access  more depth, detail to
network follow!
 packet-switching versus
circuit-switching
 Internet structure
 performance: loss, delay,
throughput
 layering, service models
 security
 history
Introduction 1-54