Computer Networks

Lecture # 01-08

By: Sanjeev Patel

Asst. Professor, CSE& IT Department
JIIT, Noida Sector-128

Unit-1 1
Evaluation Schema

Test 1 : 20 (21 Hrs.)

Test 2 : 20 (11 Hrs.)
Test 3 : 35 (10 Hrs.)
Quiz/Test : 10
Attendance: 5
Assignments/Tutorial: 10

Unit-1 2
Book
 James F. Kurose, Keith W. Ross, “Computer Networking: A
Top-Down Approach Featuring the Internet”, 3rd Edition ,
Pearson Education 2009
 William Stallings, “Data and Computer Communications”,
Seventh Edition, PHI 2004.
 Andrew S. Tanenbaum,”Computer Networks” 4th Edition PHI
 B. A. Fourozan, “TCP/IP Protocol Suite”, 3rd Edition,
Singapore, McGrawHill, 2004
 B. A. Fourozan, “Data Communications and Networking”, 4th
Edition, Singapore, McGrawHill, 2004.

Unit-1 3
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 Basics of Network. What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History

Introduction 1-4
A Communications Model
• Source
– generates data to be transmitted

• Transmitter
– Converts data into transmittable signals

• Transmission System
– Carries data

• Receiver
– Converts received signal into data

• Destination
– Takes incoming data

Unit-1 5
Networks: Why?
 Potential of networking:
 move bits everywhere, cheaply, and with
desired performance characteristics
 Break the space barrier for information
 Network provides “connectivity”

Unit-1 6
What is “Connectivity” ?

 Direct or indirect access to every other

node in the network

 Connectivity is the magic needed to

communicate if you do not have a direct pt-
pt physical link.

Unit-1 7
Topologies: Indirect Connectivity

Star Ring

Tree
Unit-1 8
Network Topology:
 Bus topology
 Star topology
 Ring topology
 Tree topology
 Mesh topology (Fully Connected)
 Partially Connected Mesh Topology

Unit-1 1-9
Networks Classification

Unit-1 10
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view
 millions of connected router
workstation
computing devices: hosts
= end systems server
mobile
 running network apps local ISP
 communication links
 fiber, copper, radio,
satellite regional ISP
 transmission rate =
bandwidth
 routers: forward packets
(chunks of data)
company
network

Introduction 1-11
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view
 protocols control sending, router
workstation
receiving of msgs server
 e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, FTP, PPP mobile
 Internet: “network of local ISP
networks”
 loosely hierarchical
 public Internet versus regional ISP
private intranet
 Internet standards
 RFC: Request for comments
 IETF: Internet Engineering
Task Force company
network

Introduction 1-12
What’s the Internet: a service view
 communication
infrastructure enables
distributed applications:
 Web, email, games, e-
commerce, file sharing
 communication services
provided to apps:
 Connectionless unreliable
 connection-oriented reliable

Introduction 1-13
What’s a protocol?
human protocols: network protocols:
 “what’s the time?”  machines rather than
 “I have a question” humans
 introductions  all communication
activity in Internet
governed by protocols
… specific msgs sent
… specific actions protocols define format,
taken when msgs order of msgs sent and
received, or other received among network
events entities, and actions
taken on msg
transmission, receipt
Introduction 1-14
What’s a protocol?
a human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi
TCP connection
request
Hi
TCP connection
Got the response
time? Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross
2:00
<file>
time

Q: Other human protocols?

Introduction 1-15
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History

Introduction 1-16
A closer look at network structure:
 network edge:
applications and hosts
 network core:
 routers
 network of networks

 access networks, physical

media: communication
links

Introduction 1-17
 The network edge:
 end systems (hosts):
 run application programs
 e.g. Web, email
 at “edge of network”
 client/server model
 client host requests, receives
service from always-on server
 e.g. Web browser/server; email
client/server
 peer-peer model:
 minimal (or no) use of dedicated
servers
 e.g. Skype, BitTorrent, KaZaA

Introduction 1-18
Network edge: connection-oriented service

Goal: data transfer TCP service [RFC 793]

between end systems  reliable, in-order byte-
 handshaking: setup stream data transfer
(prepare for) data  loss: acknowledgements
transfer ahead of time and retransmissions
 Hello, hello back human  flow control:
protocol  sender won’t overwhelm
 set up “state” in two receiver
communicating hosts
 congestion control:
 TCP - Transmission
 senders “slow down sending
Control Protocol rate” when network
 Internet’s connection- congested
oriented service
Introduction 1-19
Network edge: connectionless service

Goal: data transfer App’s using TCP:

between end systems  HTTP (Web), FTP (file
 same as before! transfer), Telnet
 UDP - User Datagram (remote login), SMTP
Protocol [RFC 768]: (email)
 connectionless
 unreliable data App’s using UDP:
transfer  streaming media,
 no flow control teleconferencing, DNS,
 no congestion control Internet telephony

Introduction 1-20
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History

Introduction 1-21
The Network Core
 mesh of interconnected
routers
 the fundamental
question: how is data
transferred through net?
 circuit switching:
dedicated circuit per
call: telephone net
 packet-switching: data
sent thru net in
discrete “chunks”

Introduction 1-22
Network Core: Circuit Switching

End-end resources
reserved for “call”
 link bandwidth, switch
capacity
 dedicated resources:
no sharing
 circuit-like
(guaranteed)
performance
 call setup required

Introduction 1-23
Network Core: Circuit Switching
network resources  dividing link bandwidth
(e.g., bandwidth) into “pieces”
divided into “pieces”  frequency division
 pieces allocated to calls  time division
 resource piece idle if
not used by owning call
(no sharing)

Introduction 1-24
Circuit Switching: FDM and TDM
Example:
FDM
4 users

frequency

time
TDM

frequency

time
Introduction 1-25
Numerical example
 How long does it take to send a file of
640,000 bits from host A to host B over a
circuit-switched network?
 All links are 1.536 Mbps
 Each link uses TDM with 24 slots/sec
 500 msec to establish end-to-end circuit

Let’s work it out!

Introduction 1-26
Network Core: Packet Switching
each end-end data stream resource contention:
divided into packets  aggregate resource
 user A, B packets share demand can exceed
network resources amount available
 each packet uses full link  congestion: packets
bandwidth queue, wait for link use
 resources used as needed  store and forward:
packets move one hop
at a time
Bandwidth division into “pieces”  Node receives complete
Dedicated allocation packet before forwarding
Resource reservation

Introduction 1-27
Packet Switching: Statistical Multiplexing
100 Mb/s
A Ethernet statistical multiplexing C

1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets
waiting for output
link

D E

Sequence of A & B packets does not have fixed pattern,

shared on demand  statistical multiplexing.
TDM: each host gets same slot in revolving TDM frame.
Introduction 1-28
Packet-switching: store-and-forward
L
R R R

 Takes L/R seconds to Example:

transmit (push out)  L = 7.5 Mbits
packet of L bits on to  R = 1.5 Mbps
link or R bps
 delay = 15 sec
 Entire packet must
arrive at router before
it can be transmitted
on next link: store and
forward
 delay = 3L/R (assuming more on delay shortly …
zero propagation delay)
Introduction 1-29
Packet switching versus circuit switching
Packet switching allows more users to use network!
 1 Mb/s link
 each user:
 100 kb/s when “active”
 active 10% of time

N users
 circuit-switching:
1 Mbps link
 10 users

 packet switching:
 with 35 users,
Q: how did we get value 0.0004?
probability > 10 active
less than .0004
Introduction 1-30
 Packet switching versus circuit switching
Is packet switching a “slam dunk winner?”
 Great for bursty data
resource sharing
 simpler, no call setup
 Excessive congestion: packet delay and loss
 protocols needed for reliable data transfer,
congestion control
 Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior?
 bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video apps
 still an unsolved problem (chapter 7)

Q: human analogies of reserved resources (circuit

switching) versus on-demand allocation (packet-switching)? Introduction 1-31
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History

Introduction 1-32
Access networks and physical media
Q: How to connect end
systems to edge router?
 residential access nets
 institutional access
networks (school,
company)
 mobile access networks

Keep in mind:
 bandwidth (bits per
second) of access
network?
 shared or dedicated?
Introduction 1-33
Residential access: point to point access

 Dialup via modem

 up to 56Kbps direct access to
router (often less)
 Can’t surf and phone at same
time: can’t be “always on”
 ADSL: asymmetric digital subscriber line
 up to 1 Mbps upstream (today typically < 256 kbps)
 up to 8 Mbps downstream (today typically < 1 Mbps)
 FDM: 50 kHz - 1 MHz for downstream
4 kHz - 50 kHz for upstream
0 kHz - 4 kHz for ordinary telephone
Introduction 1-34
Residential access: cable modems

 HFC: hybrid fiber coax

 asymmetric: up to 30Mbps downstream, 2
Mbps upstream
 network of cable and fiber attaches homes to
ISP router
 homes share access to router
 deployment: available via cable TV companies

Introduction 1-35
Residential access: cable modems

Diagram: http://www.cabledatacomnews.com/cmic/diagram.html Introduction 1-36

Cable Network Architecture: Overview

Typically 500 to 5,000 homes

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network (simplified)

Introduction 1-37
Cable Network Architecture: Overview

server(s)

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network

Introduction 1-38
Cable Network Architecture: Overview

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network (simplified)

Introduction 1-39
Cable Network Architecture: Overview

FDM:
C
O
V V V V V V N
I I I I I I D D T
D D D D D D A A R
E E E E E E T T O
O O O O O O A A L

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Channels

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network

Introduction 1-40
Company access: local area networks
 company/univ local area
network (LAN) connects
end system to edge router
 Ethernet:
 shared or dedicated link
connects end system
and router
 10 Mbs, 100Mbps,
Gigabit Ethernet
 LANs: chapter 5

Introduction 1-41
Wireless access networks
 shared wireless access
network connects end system
to router router
 via base station aka “access
point” base
 wireless LANs: station
 802.11b/g (WiFi): 11 or 54 Mbps

 wider-area wireless access

 provided by telco operator
 3G ~ 384 kbps
mobile
• Will it happen??
hosts
 GPRS in Europe/US

Introduction 1-42
Home networks
Typical home network components:
 ADSL or cable modem
 router/firewall/NAT
 Ethernet
 wireless access
point
wireless
to/from laptops
cable router/
cable
modem firewall
headend
wireless
access
Ethernet point

Introduction 1-43
Physical Media
Twisted Pair (TP)
 Bit: propagates between  two insulated copper
transmitter/rcvr pairs wires
 physical link: what lies  Category 3: traditional
between transmitter & phone wires, 10 Mbps
receiver Ethernet
 guided media:
 Category 5:
100Mbps Ethernet
 signals propagate in solid
media: copper, fiber, coax
 unguided media:
 signals propagate freely,
e.g., radio

Introduction 1-44
Physical Media: coax, fiber
Coaxial cable: Fiber optic cable:
 two concentric copper  glass fiber carrying light
conductors pulses, each pulse a bit
 bidirectional  high-speed operation:
 baseband:  high-speed point-to-point
 single channel on cable transmission (e.g., 10’s-
 legacy Ethernet 100’s Gps)
 broadband:  low error rate: repeaters
 multiple channels on spaced far apart ; immune
cable to electromagnetic noise
 HFC

Introduction 1-45
Physical media: radio
 signal carried in Radio link types:
electromagnetic  terrestrial microwave
spectrum  e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels

 no physical “wire”  LAN (e.g., Wifi)

 bidirectional  11Mbps, 54 Mbps

 propagation  wide-area (e.g., cellular)

environment effects:  e.g. 3G: hundreds of kbps

 reflection  satellite
 obstruction by objects  Kbps to 45Mbps channel (or
 interference multiple smaller channels)
 270 msec end-end delay
 geosynchronous versus low
altitude
Introduction 1-46
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History

Introduction 1-47
 Internet structure: network of networks
 roughly hierarchical
 at center: “tier-1” ISPs (e.g., MCI, Sprint, AT&T, Cable
and Wireless), national/international coverage
 treat each other as equals

Tier-1 providers
also interconnect
Tier-1 at public network
providers
Tier 1 ISP
NAP access points
interconnect (NAPs)
(peer)
privately
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP

Introduction 1-48
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History

Introduction 1-49
 How do loss and delay occur?
packets queue in router buffers
 packet arrival rate to link exceeds output link capacity
 packets queue, wait for turn

packet being transmitted (delay)

B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers
Introduction 1-50
Four sources of packet delay
 1. nodal processing:  2. queueing
 check bit errors  time waiting at output
 determine output link link for transmission
 depends on congestion
level of router

transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

Introduction 1-51
Delay in packet-switched networks
3. Transmission delay: 4. Propagation delay:
 R=link bandwidth (bps)  d = length of physical link
 L=packet length (bits)  s = propagation speed in
 time to send bits into medium (~2x108 m/sec)
link = L/R  propagation delay = d/s

Note: s and R are very

different quantities!
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing
Introduction 1-52
 Caravan analogy
100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth
 Cars “propagate” at  Time to “push” entire
100 km/hr caravan through toll
 Toll booth takes 12 sec to booth onto highway =
service a car (transmission 12*10 = 120 sec
time)  Time for last car to
 car~bit; caravan ~ packet propagate from 1st to 2nd
 Q: How long until caravan is toll both:
lined up before 2nd toll 100km/(100km/hr)= 1 hr
booth?  A: 62 minutes

Introduction 1-53
Caravan analogy (more)
100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth
 Yes! After 7 min, 1st car
 Cars now “propagate” at at 2nd booth and 3 cars
1000 km/hr still at 1st booth.
 Toll booth now takes 1  1st bit of packet can
min to service a car arrive at 2nd router
 Q: Will cars arrive to before packet is fully
2nd booth before all transmitted at 1st router!
cars serviced at 1st  See Ethernet applet at AWL
booth? Web site

Introduction 1-54
Nodal delay
d nodal  d proc  d queue  d trans  d prop

 dproc = processing delay

 typically a few microsecs or less
 dqueue = queuing delay
 depends on congestion
 dtrans = transmission delay
 = L/R, significant for low-speed links
 dprop = propagation delay
 a few microsecs to hundreds of msecs

Introduction 1-55
Queueing delay (revisited)

 R=link bandwidth (bps)

 L=packet length (bits)
 a=average packet
arrival rate

traffic intensity = La/R

 La/R ~ 0: average queueing delay small

 La/R -> 1: delays become large
 La/R > 1: more “work” arriving than can be
serviced, average delay infinite!
Introduction 1-56
“Real” Internet delays and routes

 What do “real” Internet delay & loss look like?

 Traceroute program: provides delay
measurement from source to router along end-end
Internet path towards destination. For all i:
 sends three packets that will reach router i on path
towards destination
 router i will return packets to sender
 sender times interval between transmission and reply.

3 probes 3 probes

3 probes

Introduction 1-57
“Real” Internet delays and routes
traceroute: gaia.cs.umass.edu to www.eurecom.fr
Three delay measurements from
gaia.cs.umass.edu to cs-gw.cs.umass.edu
1 cs-gw (128.119.240.254) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
2 border1-rt-fa5-1-0.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.145) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
3 cht-vbns.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.130) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms
4 jn1-at1-0-0-19.wor.vbns.net (204.147.132.129) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms
5 jn1-so7-0-0-0.wae.vbns.net (204.147.136.136) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms
6 abilene-vbns.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.11.9) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms
7 nycm-wash.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.8.46) 22 ms 22 ms 22 ms trans-oceanic
8 62.40.103.253 (62.40.103.253) 104 ms 109 ms 106 ms
9 de2-1.de1.de.geant.net (62.40.96.129) 109 ms 102 ms 104 ms link
10 de.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.96.50) 113 ms 121 ms 114 ms
11 renater-gw.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.103.54) 112 ms 114 ms 112 ms
12 nio-n2.cssi.renater.fr (193.51.206.13) 111 ms 114 ms 116 ms
13 nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.102) 123 ms 125 ms 124 ms
14 r3t2-nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.110) 126 ms 126 ms 124 ms
15 eurecom-valbonne.r3t2.ft.net (193.48.50.54) 135 ms 128 ms 133 ms
16 194.214.211.25 (194.214.211.25) 126 ms 128 ms 126 ms
17 * * *
18 * * * * means no response (probe lost, router not replying)
19 fantasia.eurecom.fr (193.55.113.142) 132 ms 128 ms 136 ms

Introduction 1-58
Packet loss
 queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer
has finite capacity
 when packet arrives to full queue, packet is
dropped (aka lost)
 lost packet may be retransmitted by
previous node, by source end system, or not
retransmitted at all

Introduction 1-59
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History

Introduction 1-60
Protocol “Layers”
Networks are complex!
 many “pieces”:
 hosts Question:
 routers Is there any hope of
 links of various organizing structure of
media network?
 applications
Or at least our discussion of
 protocols
networks?
 hardware,
software

Introduction 1-61
Organization of air travel

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

airplane routing

 a series of steps

Introduction 1-62
Layering of airline functionality

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain) ticket

baggage (check) baggage (claim baggage

gates (load) gates (unload) gate

runway (takeoff) runway (land) takeoff/landing

airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing

departure intermediate air-traffic arrival

airport control centers airport

Layers: each layer implements a service

 via its own internal-layer actions
 relying on services provided by layer below

Introduction 1-63
Why layering?
Dealing with complex systems:
 explicit structure allows identification,
relationship of complex system’s pieces
 layered reference model for discussion
 modularization eases maintenance, updating of
system
 change of implementation of layer’s service
transparent to rest of system
 e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t affect
rest of system

Unit-1 1-64
 Why Layering?
(FTP – File Transfer Protocol, NFS – Network File Transfer, HTTP – World Wide Web protocol)

Application Telnet FTP NFS HTTP

Transmission Coaxial Fiber Packet

Media cable optic radio

• No layering: each new application has to be re-

implemented for every network technology!

Unit-1 1-65
 Why Layering?
• Solution: introduce an intermediate layer that
provides a unique abstraction for various network
technologies

Application Telnet FTP NFS HTTP

Intermediate
layer

Transmission Coaxial Fiber Packet

Media cable optic radio

Unit-1 1-66
 Layering
 Layering:-A technique to organize a network system
into a succession of logically distinct entities, such that
the service provided by one entity is solely based on the
service provided by the previous (lower level) entity
 Advantages
 Modularity – protocols easier to manage and maintain
 Abstract functionality –lower layers can be changed
without affecting the upper layers
 Reuse – upper layers can reuse the functionality
provided by lower layers
 Disadvantages
 Information hiding – inefficient implementations

Unit-1 1-67
Standardized Protocol
Architectures
 Required for devices to communicate
 Vendors have more marketable products
 Customers can insist on standards based
equipment
 Two standards:
 OSI Reference model
• Never lived up to early promises
 TCP/IP protocol suite
• Most widely used

Unit-1 68
 OSI - The Model
 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) is a layered
model
 Developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO)
 A theoretical system delivered too late! and has Seven
layers
 Each layer performs a subset of the required
communication functions
 Each layer relies on the next lower layer to perform
more primitive functions
 Each layer provides services to the next higher layer
 Changes in one layer should not require changes in
other layers

Unit-1 69
ISO OSI Reference Model
• Seven layers
– Lower three layers are peer-to-peer
– Next four layers are end-to-end

Application Application
Presentation Presentation
Session Session
Transport Transport
Network Network Network
Datalink Datalink Datalink
Physical Physical Physical
Physical medium

Unit-1 1-70
OSI Layers (1)
 Physical
 Physical interface between devices
• Mechanical (joins 1 or more signal conductor, circuits)
• Electrical (Representation of bits and bit rate)
• Functional ( function performed by individual circuits )
• Procedural (sequence of events)
 Modulation and Demodulation
 Raw bit stream
 Modem: broadly used to refer to any module
that performs the function above

Unit-1 71
 OSI Layers(2)- Data Link layer
• Data Link Layer
– Means of activating, maintaining and deactivating

a reliable link
– Segmenting mechanism
– Framing (Header and Trailer)
– Error detection
– Data synchronization( b/w transmitter and receiver)
– Flow control
– Error Control
– Higher layers may assume error free transmission

Unit-1 72
 OSI Layers (4)
 Network Layer
 Transport of information
 Virtual circuit service (connection oriented)
 Packet switching or datagram service (connection less)
 Logical addressing (IP address)
 Routing
 Congestion control (flow of packet into the network)
 Both connection-less and connection-oriented

Unit-1 73
 OSI Layers(5)
 Transport
 Exchange of data between end systems
 Error free
 In sequence (segment)
 No losses
 No duplicates
 Quality of service( Throughput, transit delay, error rate)

Unit-1 74
 OSI Layers (6)
• Session
– Control of dialogues between applications/Dialogue
discipline
– Grouping
– Synchronization/check points
– Recovery
• Presentation
– Data formats
– Architecture specific (Big-endian or Little-endian)
– Provide conversion from one encoding schema to another
encoding schema
– Data compression
– Encryption
• Application
– Means for applications to access OSI environment
– E mail, web browsers,

Unit-1 75
 TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
• Developed by the US Defense Advanced
Research Project Agency (DARPA) for its packet
switched network Advanced Research Projects
Agency Network (ARPANET)
• Used by the global Internet
• No official model but a working one.
– Application layer
– Host to host or transport layer
– Internet layer
– Data link / Network access layer
– Physical layer
Unit-1 76
Physical Layer
 Similar to OSI model physical layer
 Physical interface between data
transmission device (e.g. computer) and
transmission medium or network
 Characteristics of transmission medium
 Signal levels
 Data rates

Unit-1 77
 Network Access/Data Link layer(1)
 Data Link Control(Logical Link Control) Sub Layer
 Means of activating, maintaining and deactivating

a reliable link
 Framing (Header)
 Error detection and control

 Media Access Control (MAC) sub layer

 Allocation of channel
 Physical addressing (MAC address)
 Higher layers do not need to know about underlying
technology
 Virtual point-point links between pair of stations

Unit-1 78
 IP Layer
• Exchange of data between end system and network
• Destination address provision
• Systems may be attached to different networks
• Datagram
• Routing functions across multiple networks
• Implemented in end systems and routers
• Invoking services like priority
• Connection less service
• Fragmentation
• Routing and IP addresses
• ARP and RARP
Unit-1 79
 Transport Layer (TCP/UDP)
• Connection-less and connection oriented service
• Reliable delivery of data
• Segments
• Congestion control
• Ordering of delivery(Reassembling)
 Architecture specific (Big-endian or Little-endian)
• Addressing (Port no. or SAP)
• UDP (TFTP, NFS, DNS)
• TCP (SMTP, HTTP, FTP)
• Error Control

Unit-1 80
Application Layer
 Support for user applications
 File transfer
 User applications
 Reliable data transfer for UDP users
 Network management
 E.g. http, SMTP, FTP, etc.

Unit-1 81
Internet protocol stack
 application: supporting network
applications
application
 FTP, SMTP, HTTP
 transport: process-process data
transport
transfer
 TCP, UDP
 network: routing of datagrams from
network
source to destination
 IP, routing protocols
link
 link: data transfer between
neighboring network elements
physical
 PPP, Ethernet
 physical: bits “on the wire”

Introduction 1-82
 message M
source
application
Encapsulation
segment Ht M transport
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
link
physical

switch

destination Hn H t M network
M application
H l Hn H t M link Hn H t M
Ht M transport physical
H n Ht M network
H l Hn H t M link router
physical

Introduction 1-83
Protocol Hierarchies (2)
 Example information flow supporting virtual
communication in layer 5.

Unit-1 84
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History

Introduction 1-85
Internet History
1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles
 1961: Kleinrock - queueing  1972:
theory shows  ARPAnet public demonstration
effectiveness of packet-  NCP (Network Control Protocol)
switching
first host-host protocol
 1964: Baran - packet-
 first e-mail program
switching in military nets
 ARPAnet has 15 nodes
 1967: ARPAnet conceived
by Advanced Research
Projects Agency
 1969: first ARPAnet node
operational

Introduction 1-86
 Internet History
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary nets
 1970: ALOHAnet satellite Cerf and Kahn’s internetworking
network in Hawaii principles:
 1974: Cerf and Kahn -  minimalism, autonomy - no
architecture for internal changes required
interconnecting networks to interconnect networks
 best effort service model
 1976: Ethernet at Xerox
PARC  stateless routers
 decentralized control
 ate70’s: proprietary
architectures: DECnet, SNA, define today’s Internet
XNA architecture
 late 70’s: switching fixed
length packets (ATM
precursor)
 1979: ARPAnet has 200 nodes

Introduction 1-87
Internet History
1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks
 1983: deployment of  new national networks:
TCP/IP Csnet, BITnet,
 1982: smtp e-mail NSFnet, Minitel
protocol defined  100,000 hosts
 1983: DNS defined connected to
for name-to-IP- confederation of
address translation networks
 1985: ftp protocol
defined
 1988: TCP congestion
control
Introduction 1-88
Internet History
1990, 2000’s: commercialization, the Web, new apps
 Early 1990’s: ARPAnet Late 1990’s – 2000’s:
decommissioned  more killer apps: instant
 1991: NSF lifts restrictions on messaging, P2P file sharing
commercial use of NSFnet  network security to
(decommissioned, 1995)
forefront
 early 1990s: Web
 est. 50 million host, 100
 hypertext [Bush 1945,
million+ users
Nelson 1960’s]  backbone links running at
 HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee
Gbps
 1994: Mosaic, later Netscape
 late 1990’s:
commercialization of the Web

Introduction 1-89
Introduction: Summary
Covered a “ton” of material! You now have:
 Internet overview  context, overview,
 what’s a protocol? “feel” of networking
 network edge, core, access  more depth, detail to
network follow!
 packet-switching versus
circuit-switching
 Internet/ISP structure
 performance: loss, delay
 layering and service
models
 history

Introduction 1-90
THANK YOU

Unit-1 1-91