Chapter 1

Introduction

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Introduction 1-1
Chapter 1: introduction
our goal: overview:
 get “ feel” and  what’s the Internet?
terminology  what’s a protocol?
 more depth, detail
 network edge; hosts, access net,
physical media
later in course  network core: packet/circuit
 approach: switching, Internet structure
 use Internet as  performance: loss, delay, throughput
example  protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-2
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-3
What’s the Internet: “ nuts and bolts” view
PC  millions of connected mobile network
server computing devices:
 hosts = end systems global ISP
wireless
laptop  running network apps
smartphone
home
 communication links network
regional ISP
wireless
 fiber, copper, radio,
links satellite
wired
links  transmission rate:
bandwidth

 Packetswitches: forward
router packets (chunks of data) institutional
network
 routers and switches
Introduction 1-4
“ Fun” internet appliances

Web-enabled toaster +
weather forecaster

IP picture frame
http://www.ceiva.com/

Tweet-a-watt:
monitor energy use

Slingbox: watch,
control cable TV remotely
Internet
refrigerator Internet phones
Introduction 1-5
What’s the Internet: “ nuts and bolts” view
mobile network
 Internet: “ network of networks”
 Interconnected ISPs
global ISP
 protocols control sending,
receiving of msgs
 e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, Skype, 802.11 home
network
 Internet standards regional ISP
 RFC: Request for comments
 IETF: Internet Engineering Task
Force

institutional
network

Introduction 1-6
What’s the Internet: a service view
mobile network
 Infrastructure that provides
services to applications: global ISP
 Web, VoIP, email, games, e-
commerce, social nets, … home
 provides programming network
regional ISP
interface to apps
 hooks that allow sending
and receiving app programs
to “ connect” to Internet
 provides service options,
analogous to postal service
institutional
network

Introduction 1-7
What’s a protocol?
human protocols: network protocols:
 “ what’s the time?”  machines rather than
 “ I have a question” humans
 introductions  all communication activity
in Internet governed by
protocols
… specific msgs sent
… specific actions taken
when msgs received, or protocols define format, order
other events of msgs sent and received
among network entities,
and actions taken on msg
transmission, receipt

Introduction 1-8
What’s a protocol?
a human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi TCP connection
request
Hi TCP connection
response
Got the
time? Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross
2:00
<file>
time

Q: other human protocols?

Introduction 1-9
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-10
A closer look at network structure:
 network edge: mobile network
 hosts: clients and servers
 servers often in data centers global ISP

home
 access networks, physical network
regional ISP
media: wired, wireless
communication links

 network core:
 interconnected routers
 network of networks institutional
network

Introduction 1-11
Access networks and physical media
Q: How to connect end
systems to edge router?
 residential access nets
 institutional access
networks (school, company)
 mobile access networks
keep in mind:
 bandwidth (bits per second)
of access network?
 shared or dedicated?

Introduction 1-12
Access net: digital subscriber line (DSL)
central office telephone
network

DSL splitter
modem DSLAM

ISP
voice, data transmitted
at different frequencies over DSL access
dedicated line to central office multiplexer

 use existing telephone line to central office DSLAM

 data over DSL phone line goes to Internet
 voice over DSL phone line goes to telephone net
 < 2.5 Mbps upstream transmission rate (typically < 1 Mbps)
 < 24 Mbps downstream transmission rate (typically < 10 Mbps)
Introduction 1-13
Access net: cable network
cable headend

cable splitter
modem

C
O
V V V V V V N
I I I I I I D D T
D D D D D D A A R
E E E E E E T T O
O O O O O O A A L

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Channels

frequency division multiplexing: different channels transmitted

in different frequency bands
Introduction 1-14
Access net: cable network
cable headend

cable splitter cable modem

modem CMTS termination system

data, TV transmitted at different

frequencies over shared cable ISP
distribution network

 HFC: hybrid fiber coax

 asymmetric: up to 30Mbps downstream transmission rate, 2 Mbps
upstream transmission rate
 network of cable, fiber attaches homes to ISP router
 homes share access network to cable headend
 unlike DSL, which has dedicated access to central office
Introduction 1-15
 Access net: home network
wireless
devices

to/from headend or
central office
often combined
in single box

cable or DSL modem

wireless access router, firewall, NAT

point (54 Mbps)
wired Ethernet (100 Mbps)

Introduction 1-16
Enterprise access networks (Ethernet)

institutional link to
ISP (Internet)
institutional router

Ethernet institutional mail,

switch web servers

 typically used in companies, universities, etc

 10 Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps transmission rates
 today, end systems typically connect into Ethernet switch

Introduction 1-17
Wireless access networks
 shared wireless access network connects end system to router
 via base station aka “ access point”

wireless LANs: wide-area wireless access

 within building (100 ft)  provided by telco (cellular)
 802.11b/g (WiFi): 11, 54 operator, 10’s km
Mbps transmission rate  between 1 and 10 Mbps
 3G, 4G: LTE

to Internet

to Internet

Introduction 1-18
Host: sends packets of data
host sending function:
takes application message
breaks into smaller chunks, two packets,
known as packets, of length L L bits each
bits
transmits packet into access
network at transmission rate R 2 1
 link transmission rate, R: link transmission rate
aka link capacity, aka host
link bandwidth

packet time needed to L (bits)

transmission = transmit L-bit =
delay packet into link R (bits/sec)
1-19
Physical media
 bit: propagates between
transmitter/receiver pairs
 physical link: what lies twisted pair (TP)
between transmitter & receiver  two insulated copper wires
 guided media:  Category 5: 100 Mbps, 1
Gpbs Ethernet
 signals propagate in solid  Category 6: 10Gbps
media: copper, fiber, coax
 unguided media:
 signals propagate freely,
e.g., radio

Introduction 1-20
Physical media: coax, fiber
coaxial cable: fiber optic cable:
 two concentric copper  glass fiber carrying light
conductors pulses, each pulse a bit
 bidirectional  high-speed operation:
 broadband:  high-speed point-to-point
transmission (e.g., 10’s-100’s
 multiple channels on cable Gpbs transmission rate)
 HFC  low error rate:
 repeaters spaced far apart
 immune to electromagnetic noise

Introduction 1-21
Physical media: radio
 signal carried in radio link types:
electromagnetic spectrum  terrestrial microwave
 e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels
 no physical “ wire”  LAN (e.g., WiFi)
 bidirectional  11Mbps, 54 Mbps
 propagation environment  wide-area (e.g., cellular)
 3G cellular: ~ few Mbps
effects:  satellite
 reflection  Kbps to 45Mbps channel (or multiple
smaller channels)
 obstruction by objects  270 msec end-end delay
 interference  geosynchronous versus low altitude

Introduction 1-22
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-23
The network core
 mesh of interconnected
routers
 packet-switching: hosts
break application-layer
messages into packets
 forward packets from one
router to the next, across
links on path from source
to destination
 each packet transmitted at
full link capacity

Introduction 1-24
Packet-switching: store-and-forward

L bits
per packet

3 2 1
source destination
R bps R bps

 takes L/R seconds to transmit one-hop numerical

(push out) L-bit packet into example:
link at R bps
 L = 7.5 Mbits
 store and forward: entire
 R = 1.5 Mbps
packet must arrive at router
before it can be transmitted  one-hop transmission
on next link delay = 5 sec
 end-end delay = 2L/R (assuming
zero propagation delay) more on delay shortly …
Introduction 1-25
Packet Switching: queueing delay, loss

R = 100 Mb/s C
A
D
R = 1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets E
waiting for output link

queuing and loss:

 If arrival rate (in bits) to link exceeds transmission rate of link
for a period of time:
 packets will queue, wait to be transmitted on link
 packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) fills up

Introduction 1-26
 Two key network-core functions
routing: determines source- forwarding: move packets
destination route taken by from router’s input to
packets appropriate router output
 routing algorithms

routing algorithm

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3 1
0101 2
0111 2 3 2
1001 1
1 1
01

dest address in arriving

packet’s header
Network Layer 4-27
Alternative core: circuit switching
end-end resources allocated to,
reserved for “ call” between
source & dest:
 In diagram, each link has four
circuits.
 call gets 2nd circuit in top link
and 1st circuit in right link.
 dedicated resources: no sharing
 circuit-like (guaranteed)
performance
 circuit segment idle if not used by
call (no sharing)
 Commonly used in traditional
telephone networks

Introduction 1-28
Circuit switching: FDM versus TDM
Example:
FDM
4 users

frequency

time
TDM

frequency

time
Introduction 1-29
Packet switching versus circuit switching
packet switching allows more users to use network!

example:
 1 Mb/s link
N

…..
 each user:
users
• 100 kb/s when “ active”
• active 10% of time 1 Mbps link

 circuit-switching:
 10 users
 packet switching: Q: how did we get value 0.0004?
 with 35 users, probability >
10 active at same time is less Q: what happens if > 35 users ?
than .0004 *

* Check out the online interactive exercises for more examples Introduction 1-30
Packet switching versus circuit switching
is packet switching a “ slam dunk winner?”
 great for bursty data
 resource sharing
 simpler, no call setup
 excessive congestion possible: packet delay and loss
 protocols needed for reliable data transfer, congestion
control
 Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior?
 bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video apps
 still an unsolved problem (chapter 7)

Q: human analogies of reserved resources (circuit switching)

versus on-demand allocation (packet-switching)?
Introduction 1-31
Internet structure: network of networks
 End systems connect to Internet via access ISPs (Internet
Service Providers)
 Residential, company and university ISPs
 Access ISPs in turn must be interconnected.
 So that any two hosts can send packets to each other
 Resulting network of networks is very complex
 Evolution was driven by economics and national policies
 Let’s take a stepwise approach to describe current Internet
structure
Internet structure: network of networks
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to connect them
together?

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…

…
access access
net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of networks
Option: connect each access ISP to every other access ISP?

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access
net
… … net

access
access net
net

connecting each access ISP

…

…
to each other directly doesn’t

…
access access
…

net
scale: O(N2) connections. net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
…

… net
access access …
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of networks
Option: connect each access ISP to a global transit ISP? Customer
and provider ISPs have economic agreement.

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…

…
global
access
net ISP access
net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors ….

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
ISP A
…

…
access access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors ….
which must be interconnected
Internet exchange point
access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…

…
access IXP access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
peering link
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of networks
… and regional networks may arise to connect access nets to ISPS

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…

…
access IXP access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net regional net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of networks
… and content provider networks (e.g., Google, Microsoft, Akamai )
may run their own network, to bring services, content close to end users

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…

…
Content provider network
access IXP access
net ISP B net

access
ISP B
net
access
net

access
net regional net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net
 Internet structure: network of networks

Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Google

IX IX IX
P P P
Regional ISP Regional ISP

access access access access access access access access

ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP

 at center: small # of well-connected large networks

 “ tier-1” commercial ISPs (e.g., Level 3, Sprint, AT&T, NTT), national &
international coverage
 content provider network (e.g, Google): private network that connects it
data centers to Internet, often bypassing tier-1, regional ISPs Introduction 1-40
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-41
How do loss and delay occur?
packets queue in router buffers
 packet arrival rate to link (temporarily) exceeds output link
capacity
 packets queue, wait for turn
packet being transmitted (delay)

B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers

Introduction 1-42
Four sources of packet delay
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dproc: nodal processing dqueue: queueing delay

 check bit errors  time waiting at output link
 determine output link for transmission
 typically < msec  depends on congestion
level of router
Introduction 1-43
Four sources of packet delay
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dtrans: transmission delay: dprop: propagation delay:

 L: packet length (bits)  d: length of physical link
 R: link bandwidth (bps)  s: propagation speed in medium
 dtrans = L/R (~2x108 m/sec)
dtrans and dprop  dprop = d/s
very different
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on trans vs. prop delay Introduction 1-44
Caravan analogy
100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth

 cars “ propagate” at  time to “ push” entire

100 km/hr caravan through toll
 toll booth takes 12 sec to booth onto highway =
service car (bit transmission 12*10 = 120 sec
time)  time for last car to
 car~bit; caravan ~ packet propagate from 1st to
 Q: How long until caravan is 2nd toll both:
lined up before 2nd toll 100km/(100km/hr)= 1
booth? hr
 A: 62 minutes
Introduction 1-45
Caravan analogy (more)
100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth

 suppose cars now “ propagate” at 1000 km/hr

 and suppose toll booth now takes one min to service a car
 Q: Will cars arrive to 2nd booth before all cars serviced at first
booth?
 A: Yes! after 7 min, 1st car arrives at second booth; three
cars still at 1st booth.

Introduction 1-46
Packet loss
 queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer has finite
capacity
 packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka lost)
 lost packet may be retransmitted by previous node, by
source end system, or not at all

buffer
(waiting area) packet being transmitted
A

B
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on queuing and loss Introduction 1-47
Throughput
 throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which bits
transferred between sender/receiver
 instantaneous: rate at given point in time
 average: rate over longer period of time

server,
server withbits
sends linkpipe
capacity
that can carry linkpipe
capacity
that can carry
file of into
(fluid) F bits
pipe fluid at rate
Rs bits/sec fluid at rate
Rc bits/sec
to send to client
Rs bits/sec) Rc bits/sec)

Introduction 1-48
Throughput (more)
 Rs < Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

 Rs > Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

bottleneck
link
link on end-end path that constrains end-end throughput
Introduction 1-49
Throughput: Internet scenario

 per-connection end-
end throughput: Rs
min(Rc,Rs,R/10) Rs Rs
 in practice: Rc or Rs
is often bottleneck R

Rc Rc

Rc

10 connections (fairly) share

backbone bottleneck link R bits/sec
Introduction 1-50
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-51
Protocol “ layers”
Networks are complex,
with many “pieces”:
 hosts Question:
 routers is there any hope of
 links of various organizing structure of
media network?
 applications
…. or at least our discussion
 protocols of networks?
 hardware,
software

Introduction 1-52
Organization of air travel
ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

airplane routing

 a series of steps

Introduction 1-53
Layering of airline functionality

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain) ticket

baggage (check) baggage (claim baggage

gates (load) gates (unload) gate

runway (takeoff) runway (land) takeoff/landing

airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing

departure intermediate air-traffic arrival

airport control centers airport

layers: each layer implements a service

 via its own internal-layer actions
 relying on services provided by layer below

Introduction 1-54
Why layering?
dealing with complex systems:
 explicit structure allows identification,
relationship of complex system’s pieces
 layered reference model for discussion
 modularization eases maintenance, updating of
system
 change of implementation of layer’s service transparent
to rest of system
 e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t affect rest of
system
 layering considered harmful?

Introduction 1-55
Internet protocol stack
 application: supporting network
applications
 FTP, SMTP, HTTP application
 transport: process-process data
transfer transport
 TCP, UDP
 network: routing of datagrams from network
source to destination
 IP, routing protocols link
 link: data transfer between
neighboring network elements physical
 Ethernet, 802.111 (WiFi), PPP
 physical: bits “ on the wire”

Introduction 1-56
ISO/OSI reference model
 presentation: allow applications
to interpret meaning of data, application
e.g., encryption, compression,
machine-specific conventions presentation
 session: synchronization, session
checkpointing, recovery of data transport
exchange
network
 Internet stack “ missing” these
layers! link
 these services, if needed, must be physical
implemented in application
 needed?

Introduction 1-57
 message M
source
application
Encapsulation
segment Ht M transport
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
link
physical

switch

destination Hn Ht M network
M application
Hl Hn Ht M link Hn Ht M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical

Introduction 1-58
Introduction: summary
covered a “ton” of material! you now have:
 Internet overview  context, overview, “ feel”
 what’s a protocol? of networking
 network edge, core, access  more depth, detail to
network follow!
 packet-switching versus
circuit-switching
 Internet structure
 performance: loss, delay,
throughput
 layering, service models
 security
 history

Introduction 1-59