utility requirements, temperature limitations, maintenance requirements, ffexibility with regard to complying with more stringent air pollution

regulations, etc.) Economic 1. Capital cost (equipment, installation, engineering, etc') 2. Operating cost (utilities, maintenance, etc.) 3. Expected equipment lifetime and salvage value shown that the following points should be emphasized:

In such cases, delivery guarantees should be obtained from the manufacturers and penalties identified. 12. The air pollution equipment should be offail-safe design with builtin indicators to show when performance is deteriorating. 13. A portion of the purchase price (10-15%) should be withheld until compliance is clearly demonstrated.

priortothepurchasecontrol has t"*1"ffi:triffiT;:ffi;:T:ii,;:l;'il:':Xi;**:t"H"l; equipment,.experience of

lfr" fo''o*irrg, 1. Lack of familiarity of process engineers with air pollution engineering 2. New and changing air pollution regulations 3. New suppliers with unproven equipment 4. Lack of industry standards in some key areas 5. Inaccurate interpretations by control agency field personnel 6. Compliance schedules that are too tight 7. Vague specifications 8. Weak guarantees for the new control equipment 9. Unreliable delivery schedules 10. Variability; unreliable process operation Proper selection of a particular system for a specific application can be extremely difficult and complicated. In view of the multitude of complex and often ambiguous pollution control regulations, it is in the best interest ofthe prospective user to work closely with regulatory officials as early in the process as possible. Finally, previous experience on a similar application cannot be overemphasized. REVIEW DESIGN PROCEDURE GENERALIZED Design reviews for air pollution control equipment are performed for a variety of reasons, including: 1. To anticipate compliance with applicable air pollution emission standards and regulations 2. To estimate performance of existing control equipment 3. To evaluate the feasibility of a proposed equipment design 4. To assess the effect on control equipment of process modification and the effect if any of the air pollution control equipment on the process operation A typical generalized design review approach is presented in Figure 1. The design review investigation is an activity performed early in the evaluation process. Other activities that must be accomplished before final compliance is achieved are presented in Figure 2. ALTERNATIVES COMPARINGCONTROTEQUIPMENT The final choice in equipment selection is usually dictated by that equipment capable of achieving compliance with regulatory codes at the lowest uniform annual cost (amortized capital investment plus operation and maintenance costs). 1. Control equipment should not be purchased without reviewing certified independent test data on its performance in a similar application. The manufacturer should be asked to provide performance information and design specifications' 2. In the event that sufficient performance data are unavailable, the equipment supplier can often provide a small pilot plant test unit for evaluation under existing conditions. 3. Participation of the local control authorities in the decision-making process is strongly recommended. 4. A detailed and precise set ofspecifications is essential. guarantee ftom the manufacturer A sttong perforrna,nce should be obtained to ensure that the control equipment will meet all applicable local, state, and federal codesat specific process conditions. 5. Process and economic fundamentals should be closely reviewed. The possibility for emission tradeoffs (offsets) and/or applying the "bubble eoncept" should be assessed.The bubble concept permits a plant to find the most efficient way to control its emissions as a whole, rather than having the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulate the emissions from individual sources. Reductions at a source where emissions can be lessened for the least cost can offset emissions of the same pollutant from another source in the plant. 6. A careful material balance study should be made before authorizing an emission test or purchasing control equipment. Equipment should not be purchased antil finn installation cost estimates have been added to the equipment cost. Escalating installation costs are the rule rather than the exception. Operation and maintenance costs should be given high priority on the list of equipment selection factors. Equipment should not be purchased until a solid commitment from the utility supplier(s) is obtained. Every effort should be made to ensure that the new system will utilize fuel, controllers; filters, motors, and so on that are compatible with those already available at the plant. The specification should include written assurance of prompt technical assistance from the equipment supplier. Ttris, together with a complete operating manual (with parts list and full schematics), is essential and is too often forgotten in the rush to get the equipment operating. Schedules, particularly for projects being completed under a court order or consentjudgment, can be critical.

7.

8. 9.

10.

11.

INTNODUCTION Table 1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Cyclone Collectors Aduantages 1. Low cost of construction 2. Relatively simple equipment with few maintenance problems 3. Relatively low operating pressure drop (for degree ofparticulate removal obtained) in the range of approximately 2 to 6 in. water column 4. Temperature and pressure limitations imposed only by the materials of construction used 5. Dry collection and disposal 6. Relatively small space requirements Disaduantages 1. Relatively low overall particulate collection efficiencies, especially on particulates below 10 pm in size 2. Inability to handle tacky materials

baghouses, and/or electrostatic precipitators. Ia this ssr circumstance gaseous pollutant removal rnsy hsve to focrr on activated carbon adsorption or a thermal oxidizer insted of a wet scrubber (absorption). If auxiliary fuel is unavailable on a continuous basis, it may not be possible to combust organic pollutant vapors in an incineration system. If ttp particulate-size distribution in the gas stream is relatively fine, cyclone collectors most probably would not be considered. If the pollutant vapors can be reused in the process, control efforts may be directed to adsorption systems. There are many more situations in which knowledge of the capabilities of the various control options, combined with common sense, will simplify the selection procedure. General advantages and disadvantages of some ofthe most popular types of air pollution control equipment for gases and particulates are presented in Tables 1 through 9.

INDUSTRIES EQUTPMENT SPECIFIC FOR sEtEcTtNG CONTROT In order to compare specific control equipment alternatives, knowledge of the particular application and site is essential. A preliminary screening, however, may be performed by reviewing the advantages and disadvantages of each type of air pollution control equipment. For example, if water or a waste treatment system is not available at the site, this may preclude use of a wet scrubber system and instead focus particulate removal on dry systems, such as cyclones, The basic types of emission control devices are mechanical collectors, wet scrubbers, baghouses, electrostatic precipitators, combustion systems and thermal oxidizers, condensers, absorbers, adsorbers, and biological degradation. All these have been used to some extent to control emissions from a variety of processes,with the selection procedure almost always dictated by experience.

Baseline data source(i.e.,boiler) Emission (i.e.,stoker-fired, sultur Sourcecharacteristics Vo coal,Vo ash, Btu heatinputs, etc.) codes(moststringent of Applicable pollution air state,or local) federal,

conditions pollution into control system ldentification operating of pressure particulate (i.e.f lowrate, temperature, gaseous contaminant loading, sizedistribution, gas particulate loading, stream composition, etc.)

Comparison: regulations
VS.

and compliancegaseous and/or particulate emissions?

Figure 1. Typical Generalized Desigrr Review Appmach.

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chapters in this manual provide detailed information the basic principles of operation of each of the control (2) a variety of industries affected by air pollution regulations, (3) the general process descriptions ofthe ies, (4) the specific emission standards (NSPS, MACT, etc.) applicable to each industry, and (5) control systems used in each industry. The regulations applicable to any industry may change as more advanced air pollution control technologies and new

regulations are developed. This is especially true for the wide range of industries and pollutants that are addressed with the MACT standards, whieh are discussed and listed in the next section on regulations. It was the intent that each of the sections in the manual would address MACT standards that are applicable to each industry. An excellent source of the status and detailed regulations associated with the latest MACT standards can be found on the U.S. EPA Technology Tbansfer Network (TTNWeb) on the Unified Air Toxics Website

Selectfrom possiblecontrolalternatives: platecolumns, (packed etc.) columns, systems Absorption Adsorbers systems(thermal,catalytic,etc.) Oombustion Condensers thereof Combinations

Absorption system design

Adsorption Combustion Condensation Combination systems system system system design design design design * { * (, (,

Selectfrom possiblecontrolalternatives: collectors Mechanical Wet scrubbers precipitators Electrostatic Fabricfilters thereof Combinations

Mechanical collector system design

tigure l. (Continued).

(9

Wet scrubber system design

(9

Electrostatic precipitator system design

Fabric filter system design

Combination systems design

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Selectfrom possiblecontrolalternatives: Separate-system mode combinations gaseous ol equipment - Various and particulate Single-system mode - Scrubbingsystems(gasesand particulate) particulate) systems(gasesand combustible - Combustion precipitators (gasesand particulate) - Wet electrostatic - Fabricfilter (wherea precoathas been addedfor adsorptionon the bags)

Various combinations Scrubbing of gaseous and system particulate design equipment systemsdesign I

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Fabric Combustion electrostatic filter/precoat system precipitator system design design design I

Evaluateoperationand maintenance requirements

Selectalternative controltechnology

(UATW). While website addresses tend to change with time, the fTNWeb is currently found at http://www.epa.gov/ttn. Other Websites found at this same location that are of particular relevance to this manual are the following: CATCIRBLC: Clean Air Technolory Center/RACTiBACT/ LAER Clearinghouse CHIEF: Clearinghouse for Inventories and Emission Factors

FUTURE DIRECTION AIR POTTUTION CONTROL OF E N GIN E E R IN G The future direction of regulations and air pollution control efforts is clearly towards significantly reducing the emissions to the environment of a broad range of compounds, including: 1. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and other ozone precursors (CO and NO")

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Milestones Milestones agency' of 1 Dateof submittal final controlplanto appropriate 2 Dateof awardof controldevicecontract. equipment. control of or construction installation emission of 3 Dateof initiation onsite is equipment control of or construction installation emission by whichonsite 4 Date comPleted. is 5 Dateby whichfinalcompliance achieved' Activities Designation investigation A-C Preliminary A.B Sourcetests,if necessary controlalternatives c - D Evaluate for {unds totalProgram D .E Commit planand control preliminary E.F Prepare for schedule agencY Compliance F.G Agencyreviewand approval plansandspecifications G-1 Finalize 1 -H Procurecontroldevicebids controldevicebids H .J Evaluate J-2 Awardcontroldevicecontract drawings assembly 2 -K Vendorprepares Designation K-L L-M M-N L-O O-P P-Q Q-3 3-N N-R R-4 4-5 drawings of Reviewand approval assembly drawings prepares fabrication Vendor device control Fabricate drawings Prepare engineering bids construction Procure bids construction Evaluate contract Awardconstruction Onsiteconstruction device Install control (system tie-in) construction Complete test source shakedown, Startup,

Figure 2. Compliance Activity and Schedule Chart'

2. Hazardows air pollutants, including carcinogenic organic emissions and heavy metals emissions 3. Acict rain precursors, including SO' and NO" In addition, the development of the PMro NAAQS and the more recently promulgated PMz b NAAQS will continue to place emphasis on quantifying and reducing particulate emissions in the less than 10 pm and less than 2'5 pm Table 2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Wet Scrubbers
Aduantages

Table 3. Advantages and Disadvantages Precipitators

of Electrostatic

Aduantages 1. Extremely high particulate (coarse and fine) collection efficiencies can be attained (at a relatively low expenditure ofenergy) 2. Dry collection and disPosal 3. Low pressure drop (typically less than 0.5-in. water column) 4. Designed for continous operation with minimum maintenance requirements 5. Relatively low operating costs 6. Capable ofoperation underhigh pressure (to 150 psi) orvacuum conditions 7. Capable of operation at high temperatures (to 1300'F) 8. Reiatively large gas flow rates can be effectively handled Disaduantages 1. High capital cost (in 2. Very sensitive to fluctuations in gas stream conditions particular, flow rates, temperatures, particulate and gas composition, and particular loatlings) 3. Certain particulates are difficult to collect due to extremely high or low resistivity characteristics 4. Relatively large space requirements required for installation 5. Explosion hazard when treating combustible gases and/or collecting combustible particulates 6. Special precautions required to safeguard personnel from the high voltage 7. Ozote is produced by the negatively charged electrode during gas ,. ffi;rllt:t} "ophisticaterl maintenance personnel required

1. No secondary dust sources 2. Relatively small space requirements 3. Ability to collect gases as well as particulates (especially "sticky"
ones) 4. Ability to handle high-temperature, high-humidity gas streams 5. Low capital cost (if wastewater treatment system is not required) (so 6. For some processes,the gas stream is already at high pressures pressure-drop considerations may not be significant) z. ibility to achieve high collection efficiencies on flne particulates (however, at the expense of pressure drop) Disaduantages 1. 2. 3. 4. May create water disposal problem Product is collected wet Corrosion problems are more severe than with dry systems Steam plume opacity and"/or droplet entrainment may be objectionable 5. Pressure drop and horsepower requirements may be high 6. Solids buildup at the wet-dry interface may be a problem ?. Relatively high maintenance costs

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Table 4. Advantages and Disadvantages Systems Aduantages 1. Extremely high collection efficiency on both coarse and fine (submicrometer) parbiculates 2. Relatively insensitive to gas stream fluctuation; efficiency and pressure drop are relatively unaffected by large changes in inlet dust loadings for continuously cleaned filters 3. Filter outlet air may be recirculated within the plant in many cases(for energy conservation) 4. Collected material is recovered dry for subsequent processing or disposal 5. No problems with liquid waste disposal, water pollution, or liquid freezing 6. Corrosion and rusting of components are usually not problems 7. There is no hazard of high voltage, simplifuing maintenance and repair and permitting collection of flammable dusts 8. Use of selected fibrous or granular filter aids (precoating) permits the high-efficiency collection of submicrometer smokes and gaseouscontaminants 9. Filter collectors are available in a large number ofconfigurations, resulting in a range ofdimensions and inlet and outlet flange Iocations to suit installation requirements 10. Relatively simple operation Disaduantages 1. Temperature much in excessof 550"F require special refractory mineral or metallic fabrics that are still in the developmental stage and can be very expensive 2. Certain dusts may require fabric treatments to reduce dust seeping or, in other cases,assist in the removal ofthe collected dust 3. Concentrations of some dusts in the collector (-50 gms) may represent a fire or explosion hazard ifa spark or flame is admitted by accident; fabrics can burn ifreadily oxidizable dust is being collected 4. Relatively high maintenance requirements (bag replacement, etc.) 5. Fabric life may be shortened at elevated temperatures and in the presence of acid or alkaline particulate or gas constituents 6. Hygroscopic materials, codensation of moisture, or tarry adhevise components may cause crusty caking or plugging ofthe fabric or require special additives 7. Replacement of fabric may require respiratory protection for maintenance personnel 8. Medium pressure-drop requirements, typically in the range of 4 to 10 in. water columrr of Fabric Filter Table 5. Advantages and Disadvantages (Packed and Plate Colurnns) Aduantages 1. Relatively low pressure drop 2. Standardization in fibreglass-reinforced plastic (FB.P)consti"uctb permits operation in highly corrosive atmospheres 3. Capable of achieving relatively high mase-transfer efficiencies 4. Increasing the height and/or type of packing or number of platet can improve mass transfer without purchasing a new piece of equipment 5. Relatively low capital cost 6. Relatively small space requirements 7. Ability to collect particulars as well as gases Disaduantages 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. May create water (or liquid) disposal problem Product collected wet Particulars deposition may cause pluggng ofthe bed or plates When FRP construction used, it is sensitive to temperature Relatively high maintenance costs ofAbeortr*ioo

Table 6. Comparison

of Plate and Packed Columns Packed column

1. Lower pressure drop 2. Simpler and cheaper to construct 3. Preferable for liquids with high foaming tendencies Plate column 1. 2. 3. 4. Less susceptible to plugging Less weight Less of a problem with channeling Temperature surge will result in less damage

Table 7. Advantages and Disadvantages ofAdsorption Aduantages

Systems

1. Product recovery may be possible 2. Excellent control and response to process changes 3. No chemical disposal problem when pollutant (product) is
recovered and returned to process 4. Capability of systems to provide fully automatic, unattended operation 5. Capability to remove gaseous or vapour contaminants from process streams to extremely low levels Disaduantages 1 Product recovery may require an exotic, expensive distillation (or extraction) scheme 2. Adsorbent progressively deteriorates in capacity as the number of cycles increases 3. Adsorbent regeneration requires a stream or vacuum source 4. Relatively high capital cost 5. Prefiltering ofgas stream may be required to remove any particulate capable ofplugging the adsorbent bed 6. Cooling ofthe gas stream may be required to get to the usual range ofoperation (less than 120'F) 7. Relatively high steam requirements to desorb high-molecular-weight hydrocarbons

particle size range. Particle-size-specific emission factors have been developed for many sources, and size-specific emission standards have been developedin some states. These standards are addressing concerns related to the increased health effects of these smaller particles, sulfate and nitrate deposition ofthe particles, and visibility reduction and effects on scbnic vistas, all of which are generally associated with submicrometer particles. Although it is not possible to predict the future, it is possible to prepare for it and to influence it. It is highly recommended that maximum flexibility be designed into new air pollution control systems to allow for the increasingly stringent emissions standards for both particulate matter and gasesthat are on the horizon for both stationary point sources, area sources, and mobile sources. Further, it is everyone's

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Combustion

In this section various requirements that have an impact on sources of air pollution will be discussed. ASPECTS REGUTATORY Zoros provide the vision, scope, and authority for environmental protection and restoration. They are usually enacted by a legislative body and serve as a basis for administrative implementation. Regulations establish general requirements that must be met by a regulated community. These requirements generally apply at a national, state' or local level and are usually adopted by an administrative entity that has received an authorization from a law. These regulations generally interpret the enabling legislation and explain how the law is to be implemented. Policy is developed by an administrative entity to explain further how laws and regulations are to be implemented and to resolve issues and conflicts ofinterpretation. History of Requirements Although air pollution has been around for a long time, it has only been during the past 50 years that the governments ofthis country and many others have taken active roles in controlling it. In the United States, the first efforts at regulating air quality were principally at the individual community level in cities such as Cincinnati, Ohio, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and Los Angeles, California. State requirements for controlling air pollution on a statewide basis came later' At the federal level, the Clean Air Act defines the national policy for air pollution abatement and control in the United States. It establishes goals of protecting health and natural resources and delineates what is expected of federal, state, and local governments to achieve those goals. From its modest beginnings as an effort to determine the causes of illnesses and deaths that occurred in such places as Donora, Pennsylvania, or in New York City to the comprehensive document that exists today, the evolution of the Clean Air Act is an example of the country's efforts to protect people and the environment. The federal effort began with the first national air pollution control legislation, called the Air Pollution Control Act of 1955. This legislation was enacted after epidemiological studies began showing that the effects of air pollution had broader implications than previously believed and that injuries and even death were the result of high concentrations of air pollutants in the atmosphere. The Air Pollution Control Act provided the Public Health Service of the Department of Health, Education and Welfare with limited authority to conduct air pollution research and to provide technical assistance to state and local governments. Amendments to this legislation, enacted in 1960 and 1962, authorized special studies to evaluate the health effects of emissions from motor vehicles. The Clean Air Act of 1963 encouraged state, regional, and local programs to abate and control air pollution and enabled the U.S. Public Health Service to intervene in interstate problem areas. It also encouraged additional research for pollution resulting from motor vehicles and the development of air quality criteria to guide states in establishing ambient air quality standards and emission standards for stationary

Aduantages Sinplicity of oPeration Capability to provide steam generation or heat recovery in other forms Capability for high destruction effciency oforganic contaminants Disad,uantages 1. Relatively high operating costs (particularly associatedwith fuel requirements) 2. Potential for flashback and subsequent explosion hazard 3. Catalyst poisoning (in the case ofcatalltic incineration) 4. Incomplete combustion can create potentially worse pollution problems

Table 9. Advantages and Disadvantages Aduantoges

of Condensers

1. Pure product recovery (in the case of indirect-contact condensers) (i'e', 2. Water used as the coolant in an indirect contact condenser shell-and-tube heat exchanger) does not contact the contaminated gas stream and can be reused after cooling Disaduantages (at 1. Relatively low removal efficiency for gaseouscontaminants typical of pollution control application) concentrations 2. Coolant requirements may be extremely expensive

responsibility to provide a thorough review of existing and proposed new processesand to make every attempt to identify economical pollution prevention approaches, including process modifications and/or material substitutions that reduce or' in some cases, eliminate both the emissions to the environment and the overdependency on retrofitted or new end-of-pipe control systems. REFERENCES Industrial Air Pollution Control and A. J. Buonicore, 1. L. Theodore WestPaImBeach, Chap.6.,CRCPress, Equipm.ent Particulates, for F L, 1 9 7 6 . "Emissionstrading gives flexibility in 2. M. Weissand J. Palmisano, laws,"Power,55-58(March1985)' clean-air meeting Eng' 87(13),81-101 "Air pollution control,"Chem. 3. A. J. Buonicore, (June30, 1980).

OF REGUTATORYASPECTS AIR POLTUTION CONTROL IN THE UNITED STATES Jn. Lno H. SraNonn, Engineering, as a profession, is heavily influenced by its responsibility to society. This responsibility is directed towards the advancement and protection of public health and welfare and is guided by a host ofenvironmental regulations'

TNTRO{rUCTtoil sources. The Clean Air Act was amended in 1965 to authorize rrrnission standards for motor vehicles. ln 1967, the Clean Air Act was again amended and was renamed the Air Quality Act of 1962. The 1967 amendments provided the basic framework for many of our current efforts [o eontrol air pollution. Specifically, states were required to dcvelop and implement ambient air quality standards on a fixed time schedule after the Secretary of Health, Education. and Welfare issued air quality criteria and control technique information. Because of the slow process in developing ambient standards and the continuing deterioration of air quality across the country, the Clean Air Act of 1gZ0 was enacted. These amendments required the newly formed Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to adopt uniform national ambient air quality standards to protect health and welfare and required that these standards be attained and maintained acrois the country. Other aspects of the 1970 amendments included a significant federal enforcement authority; the development of state implementation plans to achieve the ambient air quality standards; more stringent motor vehicle emission standards; requirements for EPA to establish standards of performance for new and modified sources of air pollution; requirements for establishing national emission standards for hazardous air pollutants; and provisions for citizen suits. In 1977, the Clean Air Act was again amended to enable EPA to make some corrections in the country's efforts to achieve and maintain ambient standards. Additional time was allowed for achieving the National Ambient Air euality Standards in the dirtiest areas, and the concept ofprevention ofSignificant Deterioration was made part of the law. Additionally, EpA was given the flexibility to allow for some growth in dirty areas. The 1990 Amendments to the Clean Air Act are the most recent changes in effect. Since 19T2, the country had been unsuccessful in its efforts to achieve the ambient standards for many pollutants and EpA had been slow in identifying and requiring controls ofhazardous air pollutants. The 1990 Amendments to the Clean Air Act provided a listing of hazardous air pollutants (Title III) and required EPA to establish emission standards for certain industrial and commercial sources of these pollutants. Under the 1990 Amendments to the Clean Air Act, EpA was authorized to require states to develop an operating permits program (Title V), to develop a program for reducing emissions of sulfur dioxide from power plants (Title IV), and to establish more stringent control requirements in those areas that continue to have dirty air (Title I). The EPA was also authorized to control and reduce those substances that are considered stratospheric ozone-depleting substances (Title VI) and to reduce emissions from motor vehicles (Title II). The Clean Air Act (as amended in 1990) is composed of six subchapters, each of which establishes requirements for a portion ofthe nation's air pollution control effort. Subchapter I requires controls for stationary sources (including sources of toxic air pollutants as modified by Title III of the L990 amend_ ments to the Clean Air Act). Subchapter II establishes requirements for mobile sources. Subchapter III includes definitions and administrative provisions for development of regulations and for public involvement. In Subchapter fV, the acid rain provisions are prescribed. Subchapter V (referred to as Title V) covers the operating permits program, and Subchapter VI provides requirements for protection of stratospheric ozone and implements the Montreal Protocol, an internatiotrl ment to reduce emissions and ultimately elimin*te the uie t' chlorofluorocarbons and other ozone-depleting chemicals. PROCRAMS REQU|RING CONTROTS ON STATtONAny SOURCES There are several programs that require the installation and operation of controls on stationary sources of air pollution. These will be briefly described in this section. Before we discuss these programs, a brief discussion of several regulatory terms is provided. Definition of Terms l. Air Pollution. Air pollution is defined as the addition to the atmosphere of any material that may have a deleterious effect to life on our planet. It results from natural processesor from anthropogenic,or manmade, sources.The legal definition for air pollutant is "any air pollution agent or combination of such agents, including any physical, chemical, biological, radioactive (including source material, special nuclear material, and byproduct material) substance or matter which is emitted inio or otherwise enters the ambient air. Such term includes any precursors to the formation of any air pollutant,. .. "l 2. Ambient Ail. A legal definition for ambient air is that portion of the atmosphere, external to buildings, to which the general public has access.Ambient air generally refers to the air out ofdoors and beyond the fences that surround a facility. Ambient air is considered a public property, and as such, the public is charged with maintaining its quality. 3. Indoor Air. Indoor air is considered to be the air inside a building or within the boundaries of a factory. Indoor air is considered as a private property and is subject to different controls and regulations. 4. Primary and Secondary pollutants. These classifica_ tions indicate how the various pollutants are formed. primary pollutants are those that have the same form (state ani chemical composition) in the ambient atmosphere as when emitted from sources. Secondary pollutants are those that have changed in form after leaving the source due to oxidation or decay or reaction with other primary pollutants. Primary pollutants exist in the atmosphere in a solid, liquid, or gaseous form with a variety of physical and chemical characteristics. Chemical characteristics range from inert particles to the highly reactive and acidic gases. Some examples of primary pollutants are particulate matter, lead, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, and oxides of nitrogen. Sources of these primary poll,rt"rrts include combustion, chemical, and industrial proclsses and miscellaneous natural and human activities (volcanoes. farming, forest fires, etc.). Secondary pollutants, like primary pollutants, are either solid or gaseous in form. They enter the atmosphere as one of the primary pollutants but react in an atmospheric chemical process to become something else. Examples of secondary pollutants include ozone and acid rain. Ozone is generated in the atmosphere by the chemical reaction between volatile organic compounds and oxides ofnitrogen in the presence of

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is Acil rain, the common term for acid deposition, rhen the primary pollutants of sulfur dioxides and in the atmosphere to Fd oittog"tt react with moisture and return to the earth as rain, Lmrri" .ttd ttit"i. acids . fog, dty particles, or gases. in Criteria Pollutants. Criteria pollutant is a legal term classifies those substances, or common A,. Uoit.a States that have L pollutants, in the atmosphere for which health criteria been established.and for which National Ambient Air Quality S t andard sh a vebeenpr om ul g a te d .C ri te ri a p o l l u ta n ts a re ridely distributed across the country and are substances for rhichfederal,state,andlocalemissionlimitationshavebeen enacted and are the pollutants forwhich state Implementation Plans have been develoPed. Criteria pollutants are emitted to the atmosphere by mmerous u.rd din"ttu stationary and mobile sources' The e f r e ct so fva ryi ngc onc ent r at i o n s o fth e s e p o l l u ta n ts i n th e atmosphere trav" b"en evaluated. The results ofthese studies h"re L"en described in documents referred to as "criteria documents.,'ThestudiesshowthatvarJnngquantitiesofthese pottot*rrt" have identifiable impacts on public health and welfare. The criteria pollutants are particulate matter, carbon monoxide, lead, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide' Carbon monoxide, Iead, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide are primary pollutants. Ozone is a secondary pollutant' and particulate matter can be either a primary or secondary pottotttt. All except carbon monoxide represent a class or iamlly of pollutants with a similar composition' Particulate matter consists of solid particles or liquid in droplets such as bits of dust, smoke, soot, and mists ranging b.tw"e.r 0.1 and 100 pm in diameter' The particles with a sir" diameteroflessthan2'5pmareofthegreatestconcerndueto their impact on the respiratory system' Particulate matter of inert and nontoxic substances, acid mists' *ty "orrrirt or toxic compounds' Even though the particles heavy metals, theniselves may be inert and nontoxic, molecules of the more toxic gaseous iolutants may become attached and enter the body via the respiratory system. Primary particulate matter irrchrdes solid, liquid, or gaseous material at the pressure and temperature in tle stack that would be expected to become a particulate at ambient temperature and pressure' Secondary particulate matter is formed from gaseous matter that has converted to particulate matter through atmospheric chemical reactions. gas Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless is a product of incomplete combustion' Because of its and strong tmnity for the oxygen bonding sites of the hemoglobin in blo"od,its effects are apparent and measurable' At lower concentrations, effects include headaches and drowsiness' Death can occur with exposures to high concentrations' Lead is a term used for any lead-containing particle in the atmosphere. Lead particles range in size of from 0'1 to 100 pm iniiameter; however, most lead particles are around 1pm in diameter. The pollutant lead may exist in elemental form but consists mostly of complex lead salts and lead oxide' Once entering the body, lead concentrates in the bones and soft tissues. Accumulations of lead poisons the blood-forming, nervous, and renal systems in the body' It is particularly damaging to children. Lead is also considered a hazardous air pollutant.

Ozone is a secondary pollutant formed in chemical reactions ofhydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides inthe presenceofsunlight' Ozone is a faintly bluish gas with a distinctive sharp odor' It is a powerful oxidizing agent that breaks down quickly' Ozone irritates the respiratory system, causing coughing, choking, and shortness of breath. Prolonged exposure results in a gradual deterioration of lung tissue. Nitrogen dioxide represents a large complicated "family'' of oxides of nitrogen, including nitric oxide, nitrogen oxide, nitrous oxide, and nitrogen dioxide. Nitrogen oxide is a colorless and odorless gas and is a common product of combustion. It, Iike some of other oxides of nitrogen, is easily oxidized to nitrogen dioxide, which is a red-brown gas with a pungent odor. Nitrogen dioxide is quite reactive and easily combines with water vapor or steam to produce nitrous acid dropletsandmist'Nitrogendioxidecontributestobronchitis, pne-umonia, and generally lowered infection resistance' It is very toxic at high concentrations. Sulfur dioxide also represents a complicated "family" of oxides of sulfur, including sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide' It is a product of fuel combustion and some manufacturing Sulfur dioxide is a colorless, nonflammable, pro""rri.. nonexplosive gas that has a detectable odor and taste at higher concentratio.,r. solfut dioxide easily oxidizes to sulfur trioxide and combines with water to form sulfurous acid and sulfuric acid mists and droplets. In the body sulfur dioxide appears to increase resistance of the airways and increases the load on the operations ofthe heart and lungs. 6. Hazardous Air Pollutants. The term hazardous air pollutants refers to those air pollutants whose presence in ihe atmosphere is known to result in a variety of adverse health effects, including cancer' reproductive effects, birth defects, and respiratory illness or a variety of adverse environmental effects. Other terms o{ten used interchangeably with hazardous air pollutants include toxic air pollutants, air toxics, noncriteria pollutants, and regulated substances' T}re Clean Air Act, in Section 112(b), and the Federal regulations in 40 CFR Part 61 identify substances that are considered hazardous air pollutants. The Environmental Protection Agency and state and local air pollution control agencies may .Jd ott u. substances to this list for their jurisdictions. These pollutants are all primary pollutants and may be present in ihe atmosphere as either particulate matter or gases' Some are pesticides, herbicides, or fungicides, and many are also volatile organic hydrocarbons. ?. Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS)s. Evidence is strong that the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere that surrounds the earth and shields it from damaging ultraviolet radiation is being destroyed by the release to the atmosphere of These chemicals include chlorofluozone-d.epletingsubstances. orocarbons (used in refrigerators, air conditioners, and foam blowers and as cleaning solvents), halons (used in fire extinguishers), carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform' These Ihemicals are listed in Section 602 of the Clean Air Act' ODS are generally very stable in the troposphere and only degrade undir intense ultraviolet light in the stratosphere' When they break down, they release chlorine or bromine atoms, which then deplete ozotle,allowing greater ultraviolet (uv) radiation to reach the earth's surface. Increases in IJV radiation exposure can lead to skin cancer' cataracts, immune deficiencies, and crop damage.

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tNTeoDUCTlgill 8. Greenhouse Gases. Combustion of fossil fuels and other human activities have increased the concentrations of carbon dioxide and other *greenhouse gases',in the atmosphere. Like the glass in a greenhouse, these gases allow radiation from the sun to penetrate the atmosphere to warm the earth,s surface and then trap the infrared radiation reflected from the surface. In addition to carbon dioxide, greenhouse gases include methane, chlorofluorocarbons, and nitrous oxide. 9. Indoor Air Contaminants. For the most part, air contaminants that are considered indoor air contaminants are the same as those listed for the ambient air, except the sources differ somewhat and the gasesexist in the indoor environment in higher concentrations. The concentrations of contaminants in the indoor environment are greater than for outside air, as the volume of air available for mixing and diluting the air contaminants in the outdoor environment is significantly gteater than is available in the indoor environment. Other indoor contaminants include: vapors from commercial and industrial cleaning solutions; pesticides; formaldehyde and other hydrocarbon gases from carpets, furniture, insulation, paints, and office structures; radon; asbestos; and second_ hand tobacco smoke. Biological contaminants such as viruses, bacteria, mold, mildew, pollen, and animal dander also are considered indoor air contaminants. 1O.National Ambient Air euality Standardsa. National ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) are defined as those levels of air quality that are judged, by the Environmental Protection Agency, as necessary to protect the public health (primary standards), including the health of sensitive populations such as asthmatics, children, and the elderly, and to protect the public welfare (secondary standards), including protection against decreasedvisibility and damage to animals, crops, vegetation, and buildings. National ambient air quality standards for the United States can be found in the Flderal Regulations at 40 CFR Part 50. 11. Emission Limitation. Emission limitations are require_ ments established to limit the quantity, rate, or concentration of emissions of air pollutants to the atmosphere. 12. Reasonably Available Control Technology (RACT). Reasonably available control technolory refers to those devices, systems, process modifications, or other apparatus or techniques that are considered as reasonably available taking into account social, economic, and environmental impactsl When discussing RACT, this usually refers to controls on existing sources of air pollutants. 13. Best Available Control Technology (BACT). Any major source subject to the requirements for prevention of significant deterioration, in attainment areas, must conduct an analysis to ensure the application of Best Available control Technolory. BACT is an emissions limitation based on the maximum degree of reduction for each pollutant subject to regulation under the Clean Air Act which would be emitted in significant amounts as defined by EpA regulations from any proposed major stationary source or major modification. BACT is to be determined on a case-by-case basis and is to be achievable through application of production processes or available methods, systems and techniques, including tt

fuel cleaning or treatment, or innovative fuel em*nU*ia techniques. In no event shall application of ue*t *vn*ld& control technology result in emissions of any poltutant that would exceedthe emissions allowed by any applicable etand*xd under 40 CFR Parts 60 (Standards of pe*ormance for lk* Stationary Sources) and 61 (National Emission Standards fsr Hazardous Air Pollutants).5 14. Lowest Achievable Emission Bate (LAER). LAER refers to the level ofcontrol required ofa major source subject to the new source review requirements for nonattainment areas. This requirement applies only to those criteria pollutants for which the area is desigrrated as nonattainment. The terrn means "for any source, the more stringent rate of emissions based on the following: r The most stringent emissions limitation that is contained in the implementation plan of any state for such class or category of stationary source, unless the owner or operator ofthe proposed stationary source demonstrates that such limitations are not achievable; or o The most stringent emissions limitation that is achieved in practice by such class or category ofstationary sources. This limitation, when applied to a modification, means the lowest achievable emissions rate for the new or modified emissions units within a stationary source. In no event shall the application of the term permit a proposed new or modified stationary source to emit any pollutant in excess of the amount allowable under an applicable new source standard of performance."6 15. Maximum Achievable Control Technology (MACT). EPA's MACT standards are emissions limits for sources of one or more of the toxic air pollutants listed in Section 112(al) of the Clean Air Act. These limitations are based on the best demonstrated control technology or practiees by similar sources or facilities. Such standards rely on a performance_ based approach that is reasonable and effective in reducing toxic air emissions. For existing sources, MACT is defined as a stringency equivalent to the average of the best-performing \27o of the sources in the category. For new sources, MACT is defined as the best-controlled system. Air PollutionControl Programs The following paragraphs describe some of the principal air pollution control programs and activities in existence in the United States.

1. National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) a. National Ambient Air euality Standards are levels of air quality concentrations determined by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) as necessary to protect public health and public welfare. The U.S. national ambient air quality standards are summarized in Table 1. b. State Implementation plans (SIps). A State Implementa_ tion Plan is a description of a state's strategies, efforts, and activities to achieve and maintain national ambi_ ent air quality standards. Similar plans are required for Indian country. These plans include the establishment

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INTRODUCTION
Air Pollution Control Engineering Wayne T. Dauis, Anthony J. Buonicore, and Louis Theodore RegulatoryAspects of Air Pollution Control in the United States Leo H. Stander, Jr. equipment is essential. The equipment must be designed to comply with regulatory emission limitations on a continual basis, with interruptions subject to severe penalty depending on the circumstances. The requirement for design performance on a continual basis places very heavy emphasis on operation and maintenance practices and,equipment reliability. In fact, it is not unusual that favorable operation and maintenance requirements associated with a particular piece of equipment can strongly influence its selection, despite the fact that its capital cost may be higher. The rapidly escalating costs of energ:y, labor, and materials can make operation and maintenance considerations even more important than original cost. FACTORS CONTROT tN EQU|PMENT SELECTTON There are a number offactors to be consideredprior to selecting a particular air pollution control system and associated hardware.r In general, these can be grouped into three categories: environmental, engineering, and economic. Environmental 1. Equipment location 2. Available space 3. Ambient conditions 4. Availability of adequate utilities (i.e., power, water, etc.) and ancillary system facilities (i.e., waste treatment and disposal,etc.) 5. Maximum allowable emission standards such as New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) and Maximum Achievable Control Technology (MACT) standards (air pollution control regulations) 6. Aesthetic considerations (i.e., visible steam or water vapor plume, impact on scenic vistas, odor, etc.) 7. Contribution of the air pollution control system to wastewater and solid waste 8. Contribution ofthe air pollution control system to plant noise levels Engineering 1. Contaminant characteristics (i.e., physical and chemical properties, concentration, particulate shape and size distribution-in the case of particulates, chemical reactivity, corrosivity, abrasiveness, toxicity, etc.) 2. Gas stream characteristics (i.e., volume flow rate, temperature, pressure, humidity, composition, viscosity, density, reactivity, combustibility, corrosivity, toxicity, etc.) 3. Design and performance characteristics of the particular control system (i.e., size and weight, fractional efficiency curves-in the case of particulates, mass transfer and/or contaminant destruction capability-in the case ofgases or vapors, pressure drop, reliability and dependability, turndown capability, power requirements,

AIR POI.TUTION CONTROL ENCINEERINC Weyxn T. Dal'rs,ANrsoNyJ. BuoNrconn,aNo Loun Tnoooonn INTRODUCTION In the past three decades that have transpired since the passage of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1gZ0 in the United States and the first publication of the Air Pollution Engineering Manual (early 1960s), the engineering profession has been heavily influenced by its responsibility to society. This responsibility has been directed towards the protection of public health and welfare and is guided by a host of environmental regulations. The extent to which the engineering and environmental professions respond to this challenge depends largely on the limits imposed by three principal considerations: 1. Legal limitations imposed for the protection of public health and welfare 2. Social limitations imposed by the community in which the pollution source is or will be located 3. Economic limitations imposed by marketplace constraints Careful evaluation within the framework of all three limitations is now essential and often integral to corporate strategic planning processes. The control strategy for environmental impact assessment often focuses on five alternatives whose purpose would be the reduction and"/orelimination of pollutant emissions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Elimination of the operation entirely or in part Modification of the operation Relocation ofthe operation Application of appropriate control technology Combinations thereof

In view of the relatively high costs often associated with pollution control systems, engineering professionals today are directing considerable effort towards pollution prevention by process modification to eliminate as much of the pollution problem as possible at the source. This includes evaluation of alternative manufacturing and production techniques, substitution of raw materials, and improved process control methods. Unfortunately, if there is no alternative, the application of pollution control equipment must be considered. Considering the relatively high costs, proper selection of this

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