Assignment 01

Name MUHAMMAD SHAN RAMZAN

Roll No CE610220

Course Higher Education (8625)

Level B.ed(1.5 Years)

Semester: 2nd Autumn, 2021

Tutor Name Sir Naseer Ahmad
Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad
 Question No. #1

Evaluate the nature, need and scope of higher education. Give

references from your own context to support your views.

Answer

Higher Education

Higher education is tertiary education leading to award of an academic degree.

Higher education, also called post-secondary education, third-level or tertiary

education, is an optional final stage of formal learning that occurs after

completion of secondary education.

Need and Scope of Higher Education

Higher education improves an individual's quality of life. Studies show that,

compared to high school graduates, college graduates have longer life spans,

better access to health care, better dietary and health practices, greater

economic stability and security, more prestigious employment and greater job

satisfaction, less dependency on government assistance, greater knowledge of

government, greater community service and leadership, more volunteer work,

more self-confidence, and less criminal activity and incarceration. In addition,

college graduates supposedly have greater use of seatbelts, more continuing

education, greater Internet access, greater attendance at live performances,

greater participation in leisure and artistic activities, more book purchases, and
higher voting rates. Higher education, theoretically, will also enable individuals

to expand their knowledge and skills, express their thoughts clearly in speech

and in writing, grasp abstract concepts and theories, and increase their

understanding of the world and their community.

The Purpose of Higher Education

The Purpose of Higher Education is manifold:

a. Supporting and enhancing the process of economic and social development

b. To enable individuals to achieve excellence;

c. To strengthen the micro-management infra-structure of society, and to

train national Managers" of "Collective Leadership";

d. To create specialized expertise like in agriculture, medicine, nuclear,

space, chemical, and energy fields;

e. To inspire education at different levels;

f. To coordinate at the national level;

g. Human resource development.

The Need for Higher Education

Most young people face important questions as they approach at the stage of

higher education. Why continue your education beyond high school? What

options are available?

Different Purposes

Higher education serves many purposes, only some of which are

 emphasized in our culture. Because we as a society don’t acknowledge the full

span of reasons for pursuing education after high school, some young people

may think it’s not for them and, therefore, miss out on many of the potential

benefits that such an educational experience provides. Below, we’ll look at

some well-known and not-so-well-known purposes the various forms of

higher education may serve – from vocational schools and certificate

programs to Associate’s and Bachelor’s degree programs. It’s not just about

learning; it’s about the opportunity for further personal development as well.

a. Career Preparation

Some young people have a pretty solid idea of what type of career they would

like to have as an adult. For such people, post-secondary education will

primarily serve as a means for gaining the skills, training and knowledge

necessary to enter their desired profession. This is one of the most

acknowledged reasons for people to seek higher education. However, many

young people aren’t sure what they want to do – and that’s okay. Having goals

is great, but nothing says that we need to have our lives totally planned out by

the age of 17.

b. Broader Practical Benefits

Preparing oneself for a career isn’t the only practical benefit of a college

education. People who seek education beyond high school are likely to be

better off in terms of economic well-being, physical health and participation

 in political and community affairs. Regardless of what you study, devoting

time to educating yourself and training your brain beyond high school comes

with many potential benefits.

c. Personal Development

Not all skills are clearly connected to a career or statistics, but they can be

equally as important to a well-rounded, fulfilling life. The following benefits,

typically derived from a successful higher education experience, can prove to

be major enhancements to your life:

Better communication (written and verbal):

Many higher education programs feature advanced writing and speaking

assignments; this trains individuals to express themselves clearly and

communicate more effectively with others.

Critical thinking skills:

The ability to think and to think well to ask questions, to analyze and to

reflect, for example is crucial to all areas of life. The ability to identify and

solve problems comes in handy in one’s personal and social life as well as on

the job. Critical thinking skills can be cultivated in any number of higher

education programs.

Identification of skills:

Young people may find that they have skills they didn’t know they had
 as they are exposed to new things and new ideas in a higher education

environment.

Realization of passions:

Young people may be shocked to learn that they love physics in college, or

that they really want to pursue art. Putting yourself in an educational setting

where you can dabble with different disciplines can wake you up to passions

you never knew or realized were there.

Greater sense of discipline:

While programs vary, in many higher education settings, students are given

more responsibility than ever before. They must take initiative, manage their

time well and remain organized. These skills can transfer to all other areas of

life, from keeping one’s living space live able to being a reliable person to

excelling at one’s job.

d. Pursuing a Passion

This is perhaps the least-accepted reason, culturally, to pursue higher

education. Some hold that the time and financial investment of post-secondary

school should only be pursued with practical, concrete career goals in mind.

However, pursuing our passions is an extremely important component of a

healthy, well-lived life. We can figure out ways to apply our passions as we

pursue them. “Education is not the filling of a pail, but the lighting of a fire.”

(William Butler Yeats) Education is not only a tool for making money – it can
 be good for our hearts and souls as well, and help us figure out how we want

to live. On top of the well-being that comes with pursuing a passion through

higher education, one gets the additional benefits mentioned above, making it

not only fulfilling, but very practical as well.

Question No. #2

Explain different modes applicable to the universities? Which

mode do you think is the most appropriate in Pakistani

Context and why?

Answer

Modes of Study

Our courses fit your lifestyle. Find out what all the different modes of study

are and what they mean: full time, part time, distance, and more.

Full time study

Full time means you spend the full amount of hours per week on your

programme of study. Almost all courses are available full time.

Part time study

Part time means you spend fewer hours per week on your programme of study.

Sometimes part time hours are during nights and/or weekends to accommodate

those who work full time. Many courses are available both full time and part

time, so you can get the same degree if you wish to study only part time hours.
Distance Learning

Distance learning is for students who perfer to study on their own at home. At

the beginning of the course, you receive self-paced, self-instructional learning

materials, either hard copies or via the internet. You meet their tutor and other

students occasionally for workshops and tutorials.

Classroom Based Learning

Classroom based programmes take place both on NUI Galway's campus and at

our outreach locations. Classroom based learning is part time and combines

time in the classroom with time spent alone studying and doing project work.

Blended Learning

Blended learning is an extension of distance learning. It's a combination of self-

instructional learning materials, traditional face-to-face lectures and workshops,

online discussions, self-assessment activities, assignments and formal

examinations.

Returning to Learning

Returning to learning is for students starting late on their education or who

have had an interruption in their education. You must be over 23 years of age

and you can apply to NUI Galway as a mature student.

Modes of the University

Uptill now we have been studying the need and importance of university

education. Now we will discuss in detail what the modes of university

education are, how the students select them and what are the factors that

influence their selection of appropriate mode. As you all know that universities

have been pressured and encouraged to explore new avenues for additional

income and to view students as more consumer-like in their choice of a course

and university. A heightened competition for prospective students has required

institutions to adopt more flexible modes of delivering education to meet

student demands. The modes of university education are as listed below: 1.

Face-to face 2. Distance 3. Online Open access and distance learning have

become a critical long term strategy of many universities to encourage higher

education participation. Online learning also increases the accessibility of

education due to its capacity to overcome the spatial and temporal limitations

of traditional teaching settings. Pedagogically, blended models of learning

combining face-to face and online experiences (e.g., lectures and tutorials

supported by podcasts, online discussion, materials, and activities) can lead to

teaching methods and resources that support both on campus and distance

delivery. Managing the integration of online and face-to-face delivery and

understanding student’s motivations and experiences of learning online will be

increasingly important as online delivery continues to evolve and expand into

open access, on-campus and distance modes of study. It is in the interests of

institutions offering different educational pathways through two or more modes

of study to understand the reasons why students choose particular study modes

at the outset and at different points throughout their degree.

Most applicable mode of university in Pakistani context

The quality of education in colleges and most of the universities has come

under much criticism. Undergraduate education rewards memorization and

prompts students to apply their minds only to the study of "expected questions"

that are sold or circulated by "experts," who speculate on the basis of questions

in examinations of the previous three to five years. Students tend to rely more

on examination-oriented textbooks and cheap "guides." The percentage of

"marks" required to pass at most university-held examinations is 35 percent,

requiring only 60 percent to be placed in the First Division. Since the paper-

setters and examiners are anonymously appointed by the university, there is a

lack of direct relevance to what is taught in the classroom, which accounts for

large-scale student absenteeism and lack of respect for teachers.

The education in the professional colleges is decidedly superior. Only the very

best students, often scoring more than 80 or 85 percent at the Higher Secondary

Examination (twelfth grade or HSCE), are able to gain admission. It is these

institutions that produce the doctors and engineers who migrate in droves to the

Western world and perform so remarkably well in a competitive environment.

Sometimes the percentage of professional graduates successfully moving to

better pastures overseas, causing the so-called brain drain, is as high as 80 or

90, which accounts for the charge that countries like Pakistan basically end up

training professionals for Western countries for a fraction of the cost and,

therefore, deserve to be compensated or reimbursed for their expenses on

professional education.

Question No. #3

Critically examine the role of Higher Education Commission in

the development and growth of higher education in Pakistan.

Answer

Higher Education Commission

HEC is made responsible for formulating higher education policy and quality

assurance to meet the international standards as well as providing accrediting

academic degrees, development of new institutions, and uplift of existing

institutions in Pakistan.

Role of Higher Education Commission

The Universities in Pakistan are the major sources of higher education and its

growth showed remarkable expansion in the recent past. Realizing the crucial

role of higher education in quality research for sustained education and

economic development, the government of Pakistan dissolved the University

Grants Commission (UGC) and established Higher Education Commission

(HEC) in 2002 with the aim to strengthen higher education with special focus

on research in applied fields of science and technology within the country.

Higher Education Commission: Background

In 1974 the University Grant Commission (UGC) was established to improve

the quality of higher education and develop a central policy for all higher

education institutes. Moreover, the commission was also responsible for

assessing the financial requirements of the universities and providing them

funds for development. However, the commission could only relay funds from

the Government. In most cases the funds provided to universities were less than

their demands/needs (Jahangir, 2008).

In the year 2000 The Task Force on Higher Education and Society, funded by

the World Bank and UNESCO reported on the issues, problems and

opportunities for improving Higher Education in the developing countries of

the world. The report was based on research conducted by experts from thirteen

countries with the aim to study the possibilities of developing Higher Education

in the developing countries. Based on the findings of this report a task force

was formed in Pakistan to focus on issues related to Higher Education in

Pakistan.

The task force recommended that a central Higher Education body should also

be responsible for ensuring the quality of the education and education institutes,

not only in public sector institutes but also in the private sector. They
recommended that funding be provided to the universities in accordance with

their performance as is done in the U.K. by the Higher Education Funding

Councils (Pakistan Task Force Report, 2002). The name of the Higher

Education Commission was suggested for this central body. Conceptually,

HEC works differently than its predecessor (University Grants Commission).

Although HEC’s main areas of concern were similar to the ones looked after by

UGC, it functions differently in its operations (Higher Education Commission,

2008).

Important Role of Higher Education Commission

Higher Education plays a key role in a developing country’s journey of

development by producing skilled human resources. Due to this importance, the

Higher Education Commission (HEC) of Pakistan was established in 2002

because it was felt that the University Grants Commission (UGC) was not able

to transform Higher Education to meet the challenges of the 21st century. The

main role of HEC was to reform the Higher Education of Pakistan so that it can

meet the economic demands of the country. Since then many reforms have

been introduced by the HEC. The Higher Education Commission of Pakistan is

an independent, autonomous, and constitutionally established institution of

primary funding, overseeing, regulating, and accrediting the higher education

efforts in Pakistan. For a deeper understanding about the types of reforms that
are being implemented at the higher education level in Pakistan some examples

of such reforms are discussed below:

Introduction of the Semester System

Even thoughPakistan claimed independence from the British rule in 1947, the

semester system was introduced into Indian universities quite early in the 1960s

(See: Desai, 1970, Yadav, 1976, Yelikar, 1971) while Pakistan is still in the

process of implementing it. This view is similar to the report of teachers’

attitudes towards the semester system found by Akhtar (1980) in a research

study conducted in Indian universities. Overall, teachers were satisfied with the

introduction of the semester system and claimed that it provided more

flexibility to both students and teachers in managing their time.

Anti-plagiarism policy

One other change that was introduced after the semester system was suggested

by HEC was the introduction of an anti-plagiarism policy. The computer

software Turnitin was made available to the University Teachers for checking

the written work for plagiarism. Turnitin is used for detecting plagiarism in

students’ texts by providing access to billions of documents and by comparing

the documents submitted into it with other documents to check for similarities

in text (Trinidad and Fox, 2007).

Quality Enhancement Cells (QECs)

Emphasis on academic quality has increased worldwide in the last

couple of decades (Dill and Beerkens, 2010:1). Since their first meeting in 1990

till their meeting in 2009, The International Network of Quality Assurance

Agency in Higher Education (INQAAHE) has increased the number of their

member nations from 17 to 79. In the last few years, policy makers in Pakistan

have also realized the importance of improving the academic quality in higher

education.

Grading System

The new guidelines provided by HEC for the universities have flexibility in

some areas and the universities can choose different options provided by HEC.

For instance, two main grading systems for student evaluation as suggested by

HEC are relative grading (Norm-Referenced) system and absolute grading

(Criterion-Referenced) system (Higher Education Commission, n.d.-c:07). In

the former system students’ performances are evaluated in relation to other

students, while in the latter a set criterion is used to evaluate student

performances.

The development and growth of higher education in Pakistan

Higher Education of Pakistan the quality of students such as admission on

merit, control of student progress in the class etc., quality of curriculum, like

updated learning material, quality of infrastructure, well equipped laboratories,

classrooms, libraries etc., quality of management.

 Question No. #4

Critically discuss different function of universities. Elaborate

the nature and need of every function with the help of

examples from Pakistan context.

Answer

The main functions of higher education and universities are predominantly two-

fold. One is as educational establishments and the second as generators of

knowledge and technology. As educational establishments, their function is to

provide able, self-directed learners that are independent and confident, and will

go out into society and give to society through leadership or through civic

duties. As knowledge generators, they are research institutions there to provide

new knowledge, to change paradigms, to aid society in its development and in

meeting new challenges as they come along.

Professor Michael Arthur, Vice-Chancellor, University of Leeds: The main

function of the university, really, is to make a significant contribution to civil

society. Obviously, the education that we provide to our students, preparing

them for their contribution to society is a key function. We create new

knowledge. That is a key and important part of any research-led intensive

university. The link between the two is particularly important to us here at the

University of Leeds. We think they feed off each other, and of course,
interpreting all of that into things that are of use, and that have an impact on

society. Those, to me, would be the key functions of any university Leeds. We

think they feed off each other, and of course, interpreting all of that into things

that are of use, and that have an impact on society. Those, to me, would be the

key functions of any university.

Obviously, the education that we provide to our students, preparing them for

their contribution to society is a key function. We create new knowledge. That

is a key and important part of any research-led intensive university.

Higher education plays a very important role in developing skilled labor and

with such a proportion of young population Pakistan can progress if only

provide youth with educational facilities after that they will be able to compete

at international level but the most important role that education can play.

Role of universities in the development of Pakistan

It is commonly perceived that education is the most powerful weapon in

alleviating poverty, elevating economic growth, producing skilled human

resource, creating a healthy and enlightened social environment and making

self-sufficient nations. Poverty and education are paradoxically related to each

other: if one is improved, the other is decreased.

In a socially, economically, religiously and culturally diverse state like

Pakistan, higher education institutions and universities, imparting education

and conducting cutting edge research, are the central mechanisms that can raise
the declining social and economic infrastructure of the country. Since the

2000s, there has been rapid growth in these institutions and universities across

Pakistan as is evident from the sharp rise in their numbers from just 32 in 2001

to 160 at present.

Pakistan, despite rapid growth in the education sector during the past decade,

suffers from severe challenges in its educational development. These

challenges include lack of access to higher education for the majority of its

youth, results oriented standards of pedagogical techniques, brain drain of

qualified human resource and lack of adaptability to changing paradigms of

academic research. Out of a population of 190 million, only five percent of

them have access to university level education. It is worth mentioning that, by

the end of 2022, Pakistan needs 36 million new jobs if the economy grows up

to six percent annually. Therefore, it is the premier duty of all national

universities to produce graduates who fulfill the criteria of the national, social

and economic needs of the country. In this regard, the role of career counseling

and placement offices at the university level becomes very important.

In the 21st century, the paradigm of universities has shifted from traditional

aspects of teaching and learning towards building communities, economies and

patterns of leadership. Education, either basic or higher, plays a key role in the

development of human capital that subsequently brings about the establishment

of sound economies and harmonious communities. There is an immediate need

to initiate radical educational reforms so that these challenges can be addressed

proactively. The following is an exercise in this regard.

To begin with, the ministry of education, ministry of finance, planning

commission, standing committees on basic and technical education and the

higher education commission of Pakistan should assist these universities, both

public and private, in establishing on-campus university-community

partnership centers. These centers should work on the pattern of think tanks and

should devise mechanisms to address dominant social problems, prepare

modules and schemes for the outreach of educational facilities and bridging

linkages with communities for sharing of knowledge. Secondly, since Pakistan

is a traditional society with different demographical characteristics, whereby

more than 30 percent of the population lives below the poverty line, and more

than 600,000 young graduates are adding to unemployment every year, these

higher learning institutions and universities should develop terms of reference

(ToRs) to provide financial assistance to talented individuals who otherwise

cannot afford university education.

Thirdly, to streamline and ensure effective utilisation of public funds allocated

for development of higher education in Pakistan by the concerned commissions

and universities, the concerned ministries and planning commissions should

primarily focus on building grass-root level education in primary schools,

especially in Balochistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Fourth, universities should

focus on creating an entrepreneurial culture among their graduates. They

should produce job creators rather than producing job seekers. This can be

attained through the establishment of effective business incubation centers,

encouraging partnerships between industry and academia and placing career

counseling offices that should work on intellectual and professional

development of the graduates during the course of their studies in order to

prepare them today for the challenges of tomorrow.

Fifth, education never means to earn; it means to spend. The best way to spend

is spending on education and research that later on addresses the social,

political, environmental and economic problems of Pakistan. Universities can

play a vital role in this regard through fostering reciprocal partnerships with

other educational organisations and community development centres to identify

real life problems. Community development participation should be made

mandatory for teachers and students at the university level. If the prestigious

Australian Endeavour Award can assign 35 percent of its total evaluation marks

towards the contribution of individual applicants towards community services

than why can students at our universities in Pakistan not be prepared on similar

lines? Moreover, since Pakistan has always been a victim of natural calamities

such as floods and earthquakes, it will be beneficial if various emergency

training programmes and courses related to disaster management are

incorporated in the curriculum.

 Last but not least, the role of university managers and leaders is very crucial in

steering our universities in the right direction. The Higher Education

Commission of Pakistan (HECP) can, for example, initiate university

leadership and administration programmes for capacity building of university

administrators in collaboration with top ranking educational schools around the

world. Popenici rightly said that “an institution is not a sum of disciplined

‘soldiers’ working on the assembly line designed to deliver skills for a set of

jobs (that may be gone when students graduate).

A university is responsible to develop the whole thinking person, to expand

horizons and instill the love for learning in individuals and build democratic

citizenship with engaged and informed citizens who have the power to make

democracy work. A university is also asked to cultivate imagination and

creativity, defend civilization and create new knowledge, act as a forum where

free and responsible minds can ‘question the unquestionable’ for the benefit of

our societies. Universities have the power to provide innovative solutions, but

when tools of a successful army are used in this institution, results are equal to

those imagined if we promote debate groups for soldiers when they are in the

line of fire.”

he development of societies and economies is interlinked with the growth of

education. It is the order of the day that quality of education at every stage be

improved to help lay a solid foundation for the advancement of studies in basic
sciences, engineering disciplines, agriculture extension, medical and some

other important areas that are needed for the economic growth and

reconstruction of Pakistan. As the report published by Credit Suisse in February

2013 indicates, “The rising trend of youth unemployment around the world

threatens not just current economic growth but also political stability and the

potential demographic dividend.” As a result, universities now have to re-think

and re-design their policies for the uplift of the socio-economic situation in

Pakistan. Without quality education that critically prepares a young mind to

face and provide solutions to varied types of problems, Pakistan or any other

developing state will only suffer socio-economically, politically and

strategically.

Question No. #5

Explain the higher education system in Japan. What are the

major implications of this system for higher education system

of Pakistan?

Answer

Higher Education in Japan

In Japan, higher education starts upon completion of a total of 12 years of

primary education (6 years in elementary school) and secondary education

(three years respectively in both lower and upper secondary schools). Japanese
higher education institutions include universities awarding bachelor's, master's,

doctor's.

Higher education in Japan is provided at universities junior colleges of

technology and special training schools and community colleges of these four

types of institutions, only universities and junior colleges are strictly considered

postsecondary education providers. The modern Japanese higher education

system has undergone numerous changes since the Meiji period and was

largely modeled after Western countries such as Germany, France, Britain, and

the United States with traditional Japanese pedagogical elements to create a

unique Japanese model to serve its national needs. The Japanese higher

education system differs from higher education in most other countries in many

significant ways. Key differences include the method of acceptance, which

relies almost entirely on one or two tests, as opposed to the usage of GPAs or

percentages or other methods of assessment and evaluation of prospective

applicants used in Western countries. As students only have one chance to take

this test each year, there is an enormous amount of pressure to do well on this

test, and the majority of senior high school education is dedicated to doing well

on this single test. Japanese students are faced with immense pressure to

succeed academically from their parents, teachers, peers, and society. This is

largely a result of a society that has long placed a great amount of importance

on higher education, and a system that places all of its weight upon a single
examination that has significant life-long consequences towards one's

socioeconomic status, promising marriage prospects, and a respectable white-

collar professional career path.

Another major difference is graduate school, as very few non-science

undergraduate students go to graduate school in Japan. This is because graduate

schools for non-science students are generally considered useful only to those

who want to work in academia. This has changed a little since the turn of the

21st century. The law has changed to require those who want to become

lawyers to attend a graduate school the Japanese government have designated a

law school. Previously, lawyers only had to pass the bar exam, which

undergraduate students could take.

Major universities have also opened business schools, though few Japanese

students attend these because most Japanese corporations still don't regard

graduate students as much more qualified than undergraduate students. For this

reason, they are mostly attended by foreign students from neighboring East

Asian countries, particularly South Korea, Taiwan, and China. Unlike higher

education in some other countries, public universities are generally regarded as

more prestigious than private universities, especially the National Seven

Universities (University of Tokyo, Kyoto University, Tohoku University,

Kyushu University, Hokkaido University, Osaka University, and Nagoya

University).
As the Japanese economy is largely scientific and technological based, the labor

market demands people who have achieved some form of higher education,

particularly related to science and engineering in order to gain a competitive

edge when searching for employment. According to the Ministry of Education,

Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), the percentage of Japanese

going on to any higher education institution in the eighteen-year-old cohort was

80.6 percent, with 52.6 percent of students going on to a university, 4.7 percent

to a junior college, 0.9 percent to a college of technology and the remaining

22.4 percent attending a correspondence school, the University of the Air or a

specialized training college.

The modern Japanese higher education system was adapted from a number of

methods and ideas inspired from Western education systems that were

integrated with their traditional Shinto, Buddhist, and Confucianist pedagogical

philosophies. Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, many major reforms

were introduced in the field of higher education across Japan, which

contributed to individual work of students as well as the nation's overall

originality, creativity, individuality, identity, and internationalization of higher

education. Plunging itself through an active process of Westernization during

the Meiji Restoration in 1868, Japan sought to revitalize its entire education

system, especially at the higher education level to transmit Western knowledge

for modern industrialization. Many Japanese students were sent abroad to

Europe to study as were a number of foreign scholars from Western countries

were introduced to Japan as well. During the 1880s, Japan sought to search for

a higher education system prototype to model in order to suit its national needs.

In 1881, the government decided to convert its institutional model, influenced

from a variety of Western countries such as Great Britain, the United States and

France, to a strictly German model as the Prussian-oriented model of higher

education greatly interested the Meiji government at the time.

Germany served as the largest inspiration for the modern Japanese higher

education system, as German universities were regarded as one of the most

innovative in all of Europe in addition to 19th-century Germany being close to

Japan in its goals for industrialization. Furthermore, the Meiji government

greatly admired the German government bureaucracy, largely dominated by

law school graduates, and it sought to absorb the German prototype into the

unique Japanese model. Inspired by the American, British, and French models

on top of a predominantly-German prototype, its modern higher education

system became a catalyzing impetus that propelled Japan's development as a

major world power during the late 19th and the early 20th centuries.

At the higher education level, Japan sought to incorporate a number of higher

education ideas to suit its national needs. Many books, manuscripts, and

documents from the West were translated and foreign professors were common

during the Meiji era to disseminate Western knowledge in the arts and sciences
as well as Western pedagogical teaching methods. For a modern university

model, Japan incorporated many Prussian elements found in that of Germany as

the German Empire at the time was similar to Japan in terms of goals for

colonial expansion and national development. The German model continued to

inspire the Japanese higher education system until the end of World War I.

During the American occupation of World War II, Japan incorporated higher

education ideas developed in the United States to modernize its higher

education for the contemporary era. The contemporary Japanese higher

education system now boasts elements incorporated from the United States on

top of its European origins. The expansion and development of modern higher

education in Japan has contributed to its economic growth after World War II

which continued on until the late 1980s.

Major implications of this system for higher education system of Pakistan

Pakistan's higher education system has many institutional drawbacks includes a

lack of quality management, institutional structure, and knowledge gaps

between cross-culture educations systems to improve the efficiency of the

current higher education system in Pakistan. The problems associated with the

education system of Pakistan are lack of adequate budget, lack of policy

implementation, defective examination system, poor physical facilities, lack of

teacher quality, lack of implementation of education policies, directionless

education, low enrollment, high scale dropouts, political.

The major structural issues in higher education system of Pakistan are leading

to poor governance of the educational institutions and questionable quality of

education. However, at one end, the growth of such institutions provides more

variety to students; there are some universities with questionable status.

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