Features of python Data types Indentation and comments Type conversion

Type() function Membership operator Explain in detail and simple words

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Features of Python
Python is a popular programming language known for its simplicity and readability. Here are
some key features:
1. Easy to Read and Write: Python has a clear and simple syntax,
making it easy to learn and understand.
2. Interpreted Language: Python code is executed line-by-line, which
makes debugging easier.
3. High-Level Language: Python abstracts away many complex details
of the computer, allowing you to focus on programming concepts.
4. Object-Oriented: Python supports object-oriented programming,
which helps organize code into reusable and logical pieces.
5. Dynamic Typing: You don't need to declare the data type of a variable
when you create it. Python figures it out at runtime.
6. Extensive Libraries: Python has a vast standard library and
numerous third-party modules available, enabling you to accomplish a
wide range of tasks.
7. Cross-Platform: Python can run on various operating systems,
including Windows, macOS, and Linux, without needing any changes.

Data Types
Python supports several built-in data types:
1. Numbers:
o int: Whole numbers, e.g., 10, -5
o float: Decimal numbers, e.g., 3.14, -0.001
o complex: Complex numbers, e.g., 1+2j
2. Strings: Sequences of characters, e.g., "Hello, World!"
3. Booleans: Represent truth values, e.g., True or False
4. Lists: Ordered, mutable collections of items, e.g., [1, 2, 3, 4]
5. Tuples: Ordered, immutable collections of items, e.g., (1, 2, 3, 4)
6. Dictionaries: Unordered collections of key-value pairs, e.g., {'name': 'Alice',
'age': 25}
7. Sets: Unordered collections of unique items, e.g., {1, 2, 3, 4}
8. NoneType: Represents the absence of a value, e.g., None
Indentation and Comments
Indentation
Python uses indentation to define the structure of the code. Blocks of code are defined by their
indentation level.
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if True:
print("This is inside the if block")
if False:
print("This won't be printed")
print("This is outside the if block")

Comments
Comments are used to explain the code and are ignored by the interpreter.
 Single-line comments: Start with #
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# This is a single-line comment
print("Hello, World!") # This is also a comment
 Multi-line comments: Enclosed in triple quotes (''' or """)
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"""
This is a multi-line comment
that spans multiple lines
"""
print("Hello, World!")

Type Conversion
Type conversion refers to converting one data type to another. Python provides several built-in
functions for this purpose:
 int(): Converts a value to an integer
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x = int(3.14) # x will be 3
 float(): Converts a value to a float
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y = float("3.14") # y will be 3.14
 str(): Converts a value to a string
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z = str(10) # z will be "10"
 list(): Converts a value to a list
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a = list("hello") # a will be ['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o']

The type() Function

The type() function is used to determine the data type of a value or variable.
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x = 10
print(type(x)) # Output: <class 'int'>

y = "Hello"
print(type(y)) # Output: <class 'str'>

z = [1, 2, 3]
print(type(z)) # Output: <class 'list'>

Membership Operator
Membership operators are used to test if a value is a member of a sequence (like a string, list, or
tuple).
 in: Returns True if the value is found in the sequence
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fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print("banana" in fruits) # Output: True
print("grape" in fruits) # Output: False
 not in: Returns True if the value is not found in the sequence
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vegetables = ["carrot", "potato", "cabbage"]
print("spinach" not in vegetables) # Output: True
print("potato" not in vegetables) # Output: False

If, if-else, if-elif-else loop While loop range() function Continue and break
statements String - basic operations, slicing & joining, string methods

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Control Flow in Python
If, If-Else, If-Elif-Else Statements
If Statement
An if statement evaluates a condition and executes the block of code if the condition is True.
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x = 10
if x > 5:
print("x is greater than 5")

If-Else Statement
An if-else statement provides an alternative block of code to execute when the condition is
False.
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x = 3
if x > 5:
print("x is greater than 5")
else:
print("x is not greater than 5")

If-Elif-Else Statement
An if-elif-else statement allows for multiple conditions to be checked in sequence. Once a
True condition is found, its block of code is executed, and the rest are ignored.
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x = 7
if x > 10:
print("x is greater than 10")
elif x > 5:
print("x is greater than 5 but less than or equal to 10")
else:
print("x is 5 or less")

While Loop
A while loop repeatedly executes a block of code as long as the given condition is True.
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count = 0
while count < 5:
print(count)
count += 1

range() Function
The range() function generates a sequence of numbers. It is commonly used with loops.
 range(stop): Generates numbers from 0 to stop-1.
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for i in range(5):
print(i) # Outputs 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
 range(start, stop): Generates numbers from start to stop-1.
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for i in range(1, 5):
print(i) # Outputs 1, 2, 3, 4
 range(start, stop, step): Generates numbers from start to stop-1, incrementing by step.
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for i in range(1, 10, 2):
print(i) # Outputs 1, 3, 5, 7, 9

Continue and Break Statements

Continue Statement
The continue statement skips the rest of the code inside the loop for the current iteration and
jumps to the next iteration.
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for i in range(5):
if i == 2:
continue
print(i) # Outputs 0, 1, 3, 4 (skips 2)

Break Statement
The break statement exits the loop entirely, regardless of the condition.
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for i in range(5):
if i == 2:
break
print(i) # Outputs 0, 1 (stops at 2)

Strings
Strings are sequences of characters enclosed in single, double, or triple quotes.

Basic Operations
 Concatenation: Combining strings using +.
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str1 = "Hello"
str2 = "World"
result = str1 + " " + str2 # result is "Hello World"
 Repetition: Repeating strings using *.
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result = "Hello" * 3 # result is "HelloHelloHello"

Slicing and Joining

Slicing
Slicing allows you to extract a substring from a string.
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my_string = "Hello, World!"
print(my_string[0:5]) # Outputs "Hello"
print(my_string[:5]) # Outputs "Hello"
print(my_string[7:]) # Outputs "World!"
print(my_string[-6:-1]) # Outputs "World"

Joining
Joining combines a list of strings into a single string, with a specified separator.
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words = ["Hello", "World"]
joined_string = " ".join(words) # "Hello World"

String Methods
Python provides several built-in string methods. Here are a few commonly used ones:
 upper(): Converts all characters to uppercase.
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print("hello".upper()) # Outputs "HELLO"
 lower(): Converts all characters to lowercase.
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print("HELLO".lower()) # Outputs "hello"
 strip(): Removes leading and trailing whitespace.
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print(" hello ".strip()) # Outputs "hello"
 replace(old, new): Replaces occurrences of a substring with another substring.
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print("hello world".replace("world", "there")) # Outputs "hello there"
 split(delimiter): Splits the string into a list of substrings based on the specified delimiter.
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print("hello world".split()) # Outputs ['hello', 'world']
 find(substring): Returns the index of the first occurrence of the substring, or -1 if not
found.
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 print("hello".find("e")) # Outputs 1

Lists, Tuples Dictionaries, Sets Function definition & calling the function
Return statement and void function Parameters and arguments Lifetime of
variables Lambda function

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Data Structures in Python

Lists
Lists are ordered, mutable collections of items. They are defined using square brackets [].

Basic Operations
 Creating a List:
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my_list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
 Accessing Elements:
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print(my_list[0]) # Outputs: 1
 Modifying Elements:
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my_list[0] = 10
print(my_list) # Outputs: [10, 2, 3, 4, 5]
 Adding Elements:
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my_list.append(6)
print(my_list) # Outputs: [10, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
 Removing Elements:
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my_list.remove(2)
print(my_list) # Outputs: [10, 3, 4, 5, 6]

Tuples
Tuples are ordered, immutable collections of items. They are defined using parentheses ().

Basic Operations
 Creating a Tuple:
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my_tuple = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
 Accessing Elements:
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print(my_tuple[0]) # Outputs: 1
 Immutability:
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my_tuple[0] = 10 # This will raise an error

Dictionaries
Dictionaries are unordered collections of key-value pairs. They are defined using curly braces
{}.

Basic Operations
 Creating a Dictionary:
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my_dict = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25}
 Accessing Values:
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print(my_dict['name']) # Outputs: Alice
 Modifying Values:
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my_dict['age'] = 26
print(my_dict) # Outputs: {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 26}
 Adding Key-Value Pairs:
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my_dict['city'] = 'New York'
print(my_dict) # Outputs: {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 26, 'city': 'New
York'}
 Removing Key-Value Pairs:
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del my_dict['age']
print(my_dict) # Outputs: {'name': 'Alice', 'city': 'New York'}

Sets
Sets are unordered collections of unique items. They are defined using curly braces {}.

Basic Operations
 Creating a Set:
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my_set = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
 Adding Elements:
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my_set.add(6)
print(my_set) # Outputs: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
 Removing Elements:
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my_set.remove(2)
print(my_set) # Outputs: {1, 3, 4, 5, 6}
 Unique Elements:
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my_set = {1, 2, 2, 3, 4}
print(my_set) # Outputs: {1, 2, 3, 4}

Functions in Python
Functions are blocks of reusable code that perform a specific task. They help in organizing code
into logical sections and enable code reuse.

Function Definition & Calling the Function

Defining a Function
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def greet(name):
print(f"Hello, {name}!")

Calling a Function
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greet("Alice") # Outputs: Hello, Alice!

Return Statement and Void Function

Return Statement
Functions can return values using the return statement.
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def add(a, b):
return a + b

result = add(3, 4)
print(result) # Outputs: 7
Void Function
A function that does not return a value is known as a void function. It implicitly returns None.
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def greet(name):
print(f"Hello, {name}!")

result = greet("Alice")
print(result) # Outputs: Hello, Alice! followed by None

Parameters and Arguments

Parameters
Parameters are variables listed inside the parentheses in the function definition.
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def greet(name): # 'name' is a parameter
print(f"Hello, {name}!")

Arguments
Arguments are the actual values passed to the function when calling it.
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greet("Alice") # "Alice" is an argument

Lifetime of Variables
The lifetime of a variable is the period during which the variable exists in memory. In Python:
 Local Variables: Defined inside a function, they exist only within the
function's scope.
 Global Variables: Defined outside any function, they exist for the
duration of the program.
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def my_function():
local_var = 10 # Local variable
print(local_var)

global_var = 20 # Global variable

my_function()
print(global_var)

Lambda Function
Lambda functions are small, anonymous functions defined using the lambda keyword. They can
have any number of arguments but only one expression.
Syntax
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lambda arguments: expression

Example
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add = lambda x, y: x + y
print(add(3, 4)) # Outputs: 7
Lambda functions are often used for short, simple functions that are not going to be reused, such
as in higher-order functions like map(), filter(), and sorted().
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# Using lambda with sorted()
my_list = [(1, 'one'), (2, 'two'), (3, 'three')]
sorted_list = sorted(my_list, key=lambda x: x[1])
print(sorted_list) # Outputs: [(1, 'one'), (3, 'three'), (2, 'two')]
In summary, understanding data structures like lists, tuples, dictionaries, and sets, as well as
functions in Python, is fundamental for efficient programming. Functions help organize code and
enable reuse, while lambda functions provide a concise way to define small functions. The
concept of variable scope and lifetime is crucial for managing data and avoiding errors in code.
4o

Oops - classes, objects Self parameter Methods of class __init__ method

(constructor) __del__ method(destructor) Private variables & methods
Inheritance & its types Regular Expression operation

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Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) in Python

Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm that uses objects and classes
to structure software.

Classes and Objects

Class
A class is a blueprint for creating objects. It defines a set of attributes and methods that the
created objects will have.
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class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

def greet(self):
print(f"Hello, my name is {self.name} and I am {self.age} years old.")
Object
An object is an instance of a class. When you create an object, you instantiate the class.
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person1 = Person("Alice", 30)
person1.greet() # Outputs: Hello, my name is Alice and I am 30 years old.

The self Parameter

The self parameter is a reference to the current instance of the class. It is used to access
variables and methods within the class.
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class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

def greet(self):
print(f"Hello, my name is {self.name} and I am {self.age} years old.")

Methods of a Class
Methods are functions defined inside a class that describe the behaviors of the objects.
Example
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class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

def greet(self):
print(f"Hello, my name is {self.name} and I am {self.age} years old.")

__init__ Method (Constructor)

The __init__ method is a special method called when an object is instantiated. It initializes the
object's attributes.
Example
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class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age
__del__ Method (Destructor)
The __del__ method is a special method called when an object is destroyed. It is used for
cleanup activities.
Example
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class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

def __del__(self):
print(f"Person object with name {self.name} is being deleted")

Private Variables and Methods

Private variables and methods are intended to be accessed only within the class. They are defined
by prefixing the variable or method name with double underscores __.

Example
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class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.__name = name # Private variable
self.__age = age # Private variable

def __greet(self): # Private method

print(f"Hello, my name is {self.__name} and I am {self.__age} years
old.")

def public_method(self):
self.__greet()

Inheritance
Inheritance allows a class to inherit attributes and methods from another class.
Example
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class Animal:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name

def speak(self):
raise NotImplementedError("Subclasses must implement this method")

class Dog(Animal):
def speak(self):
return f"{self.name} says Woof!"
class Cat(Animal):
def speak(self):
return f"{self.name} says Meow!"

Types of Inheritance
1. Single Inheritance: A class inherits from one superclass.
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class Dog(Animal):
...
2. Multiple Inheritance: A class inherits from more than one superclass.
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class FlyingFish(Fish, Bird):
...
3. Multilevel Inheritance: A class inherits from a class, which in turn inherits from another
class.
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class Puppy(Dog):
...
4. Hierarchical Inheritance: Multiple classes inherit from one superclass.
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class Cat(Animal):
...

class Dog(Animal):
...
5. Hybrid Inheritance: A combination of two or more types of inheritance.

Regular Expression Operations

Regular expressions (regex) are sequences of characters that define search patterns. Python
provides the re module to work with regular expressions.

Common Operations
 Matching: re.match() checks for a match at the beginning of the string.
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import re
result = re.match(r'hello', 'hello world')
if result:
print("Match found")
else:
print("No match")
 Searching: re.search() searches the string for a match.
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import re
 result = re.search(r'world', 'hello world')
if result:
print("Match found")
else:
print("No match")
 Find All: re.findall() returns a list of all matches.
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import re
result = re.findall(r'o', 'hello world')
print(result) # Outputs: ['o', 'o']
 Substitution: re.sub() replaces matches with a string.
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import re
result = re.sub(r'world', 'Python', 'hello world')
print(result) # Outputs: hello Python

Special Sequences and Characters

 .: Any character except newline
 ^: Start of string
 $: End of string
 \d: Digit
 \D: Non-digit
 \w: Word character (alphanumeric + underscore)
 \W: Non-word character
 \s: Whitespace
 \S: Non-whitespace

Example
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import re

pattern = r"\d+" # Matches one or more digits

text = "There are 123 apples and 456 oranges."

matches = re.findall(pattern, text)

print(matches) # Outputs: ['123', '456']