Notes On X-Rays

Notes on X-rays
What are X-rays?
X-rays are the invisible, highly penetrating, electromagnetic radiations of wavelength in the
range of 10−11 m to 10−9 m.
Who discovered them?
X-rays were accidently discovered by Wilhelm Rontgen in 1895 while he was working with
discharge tube. He noticed that a plate coated with barium platinocyanide was affected by some
kind of invisible radiation, though it was shielded for visible and UV light. After a series of
observations he came to the conclusion that a new kind of highly penetrating radiation was
produced by the discharge tube. He named them as X-rays.
How are they produced?
X-rays are produced when fast moving electrons are strongly retarded by a target of high atomic
number, such as platinum, tungsten or molybdenum.
The basic requirement for the production of X-rays are:
(i) A source of electrons,
(ii) Effective means of accelerating the electrons and
(iii) A target of suitable material of high atomic weight.
Production of X-rays - Modern Coolidge tube

The modern type of X-ray tube
designed by Coolidge is shown in
Fig1. It consists of a highly
evacuated hard glass bulb containing
a cathode and an anode target. The
-5
pressure inside the tube is 10 mm
of mercury. The cathode is a
tungsten filament F and is heated by
passing a current through it from a low tension battery. The electrons are emitted by the process
of thermionic emission from the cathode. The filament is surrounded by a molybdenum cylinder
G kept at a negative potential to the filament. Hence, the electrons emitted from the filament are
collimated into a fine pencil of electron beam.
The target T consists of a copper block in which a piece of tungsten or molybdenum is fixed.
The anode should have the following characteristics:
(i) High atomic weight - to produce hard X-rays
(ii) High melting point - so that it is not melted due to the bombardment of fast moving
electrons, which cause lot of heat generation.
(iii) High thermal conductivity - to carry away the heat generated.
o
The face of the copper anode is sloped at about 45 to the electron beam. Being good conductor
of heat, copper helps to conduct the heat efficiently to the water cooling system. A high potential
of about 20 kV is applied between filament F and the target T. Due to this high potential
difference, the electrons emitted from the filament are accelerated. When these accelerated
electrons strike the target, they give up their kinetic energy and thereby produce X-rays.
Control of intensity and quality of X-rays (v.imp.)
In the modern Coolidge tube, the intensity and quality of X-rays can be controlled independently.
a) Control of Intensity:
Intensity is a measure of the number of X-ray photons emitted per second by the target. It
depends on the number of electrons striking the target per second, which ultimately depends on
the heating current flowing through the filament. Therefore, the intensity of X-rays can be
controlled by adjusting the value of filament current (I𝑓 ) with a rheostat.
b) Control of Quality:
The quality refers to the penetrating power of X-rays, which depends upon its energy.
X-rays having high energy are called hard X-rays; and they have a greater penetrating power.
The X-rays with low energy are called soft X-rays, which have less penetrating power.
1
The energy of X-rays (hν) depends on the kinetic energy(2 me v 2 ) of incident electron,
which depends on the accelerating potential (V). Therefore, energy of X-rays,

1
h𝜈 = me v 2 = eV
2
Hence, the quality of X-rays can be controlled directly by varying the value of
accelerating potential (V) between cathode and anode.
Calculation of frequency and wavelength of X-rays.
When whole of the kinetic energy of an incident electron is converted into the energy of X-ray, a
X-ray photon with maximum frequency is produced. Therefore, maximum energy of X-ray,
1
h𝜈max = 2 me v 2 ---------------- (1)
Now if ‘V’ is the accelerating potential for the electron, its kinetic energy,
1
me v 2 = eV ---------------- (2)
2
From equations (1) and (2), we have,
h𝜈max = eV ---------------- (3)
This gives maximum frequency,

eV
𝜈max = ---------------- (4)
h
At maximum frequency, wavelength in minimum, i.e. c = 𝜈max 𝜆min

Therefore from equation (3),
c
h𝜆 = eV
min
hc
or 𝜆min = eV ---------------- (5)
Equations (4) and (5) give the values of maximum frequency and minimum wavelength of X-
rays in terms of the accelerating potential V.
Properties of X-rays.
(i) X-rays are electromagnetic waves of very short wave length. They travel in straight lines with
the velocity of light. They are invisible to eyes.
(ii) They undergo reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and polarization.
(iii) They are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields. This indicates that X-rays do not
have charged particles.
(iv)They ionize the gas through which they pass.
(v) They affect photographic plates.
(vi) X-rays can penetrate through the substances which are opaque to ordinary light e.g. wood,
flesh, thick paper, thin sheets of metals.
(vii) When X-rays fall on certain light metals, they liberate photo electrons (Photo electric
effect), and when fall on heavy metals, produce secondary X-rays
(viii) X-rays have destructive effect on living tissue. When the human body is exposed to X-
rays, it causes redness of the skin, sores and serious injuries to the tissues and glands. They
destroy the white corpuscles of the blood.
(ix) X-rays do not pass through heavy metals such as lead and bones. If such objects are placed
in their path, they cast their shadow.
Diffraction of X-rays: Laue Experiment

Von Laue, in 1913, suggested that a crystal can act as a three dimensional grating for an X-ray
beam. The experimental arrangement used to produce diffraction in X-rays by Laue is shown in
Fig (a). X-rays from the X-ray tube is collimated into a fine beam by two slits S 1 and S2. The
beam is now allowed to pass through a zinc Sulphide (ZnS) crystal. The emergent rays are made
to fall on a photographic plate P. The diffraction pattern so obtained consists of a central spot at
O and a series of spots arranged in a definite pattern about O as shown in Fig 2.
The central spot is due

to the direct beam,
whereas the regularly
arranged spots are due
to the diffraction pattern
from the atoms of the
various crystal planes. 2:
These spots are known
as Laue spots. The Laue experiment has established following two important facts:
(i) X-rays are electro-magnetic waves of extremely short wave length.
(ii) The atoms in a crystal are arranged in a regular three dimensional lattice.
Bragg's law for X-ray diffraction

W.L. Bragg and W.H. Bragg studied the diffraction of X-rays in detail and used a crystal of rock
salt to diffract X-rays and succeeded in measuring the wavelength of X-rays.
Consider monochromatic X-rays of wave length λ incident on a crystal at a glancing angle θ. The
incident rays AB and DE after reflection from the lattice planes Y and Z travel along BC and EF
respectively as shown in Fig below.
Let the crystal lattice spacing between the planes be d.
BP and BQ are perpendiculars drawn from B on DE and
EF respectively. Therefore, the path
difference between the two waves ABC and
DEF is equal to PE + EQ.
In the ∆PBE, sin θ = PE/BE
or PE = BE sin θ = d sin θ
In the ∆QBE, sin θ = EQ/BE
or EQ = BE sin θ = d sin θ
Thus,
Path
difference, PE + EQ = d sin θ + d sin θ = 2d sin θ
If this path difference 2d sin θ is equal to integral multiple of wavelength of X-ray i.e. nλ, then
constructive interference will occur between the reflected beams and they will reinforce with
each other. Therefore the intensity of the reflected beam will be maximum. i.e.
2d sin θ = nλ where, n = 1, 2, 3…..etc.
This is known as Bragg's law.
Applications of X-rays
X-rays have a number of applications. Some of them are listed below:
Medical applications
(i) X-rays are being widely used for detecting fractures, tumors, the presence of foreign matter
like bullet etc., in the human body.
(ii) X-rays are also used for the diagnosis of tuberculosis, stones in kidneys, gall bladder etc.
(iii) Many types of skin diseases, malignant sores, cancer and tumors have been cured by
controlled exposure of X-rays of suitable quality.
(iv) Hard X-rays are used to destroy tumors very deep inside the body.
Industrial applications
(i) X-rays are used to detect the defects or flaws within a material
(ii) X-rays can be used for testing the homogeneity of welded joints, insulating materials etc.
(iii) X-rays are used to analyze the structure of alloys and the other composite bodies.
(iv) X-rays are also used to study the structure of materials like rubber, cellulose, plastic fibers
etc.
Scientific research
(i) X-rays are used for studying the structure of crystalline solids and alloys.
(ii) X-rays are used for the identification of chemical elements including determination of their
atomic numbers.
(iii) X-rays can be used for analyzing the structure of complex molecules by examining their X-
ray diffraction pattern.
For Additional knowledge (Optional)

Origin of X-rays: The X-rays originate by the two different mechanisms:
i) Continuous X-ray spectra: Bremsstrahlung
X-rays are produced, when high
velocity electrons strike the target
material of high atomic number. When
a few fast moving electrons penetrate
deep into the interior of the atoms of
the target material and are attracted
towards the nuclei by the attractive
forces of their nuclei. Due to these
forces, the electrons get deflected from
their original path. As a result of this,
the electrons are decelerated, and hence energy of the electron decreases
continuously. This loss of energy during retardation is given off in the form of X-
rays of continuously varying wavelength. The X - rays consist of continuous range
of frequencies upto a maximum frequency νmax or minimum wave length λmin. This
is called as continuous X - rays
ii) Characteristic Spectrum
Few of the fast moving electrons having velocity of about (1/10)th of the velocity
of light may penetrate the surface atoms of the target materials and knock out the
tightly bound electrons even from the inner most shells (like K, L shells) of the
atom. When the fast moving electrons knock off one electron from K-Shell and
the vacancy is filled by the nearby electron from the L shell. During this
transition, the energy difference is radiated in the form of X-rays of very small
wave length. This corresponds to Kα - line of the series. The frequency ν1 of this
line is given by the relation (EK - EL) = hν1. Suppose, the electron from M shell
jumps to the K shell, it gives out Kβ line and so on. If an electron jumps from the
M-Shell to the vacant state in L-Shell, it contributes Lα line and if the vacancy in
L-Shell is filled up by an electron of N shell, it contributes Lβ and so on. The
frequency of radiation depends upon the target material. The characteristic
spectrum consists of definite, well defined wavelengths superimposed on the
continuous spectrum. These spectral lines generally occur in the form of small
groups and are characteristic of the material of the target.
Moseley's law
Moseley investigated systematically, the characteristic radiations emitted by different targets.
Based on his experiments, he has concluded that the frequency of the spectral line in the
characteristic X-ray spectrum is directly proportional to the square of the atomic number (Z) of the
element considered. This is known as Moseley's law. i.e
ν α Z2
or ν = a ( Z − b)2
Where a and b are constants depending upon the particular spectral line.

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Notes On X-Rays

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Notes on X-rays

What are X-rays?

Who discovered them?

How are they produced?

Production of X-rays - Modern Coolidge tube

The anode should have the following characteristics:

(i) High atomic weight - to produce hard X-rays

(iii) High thermal conductivity - to carry away the heat generated.

which depends on the accelerating potential (V). Therefore, energy of X-rays,

From equations (1) and (2), we have,

h𝜈max = eV ---------------- (3)

This gives maximum frequency,

At maximum frequency, wavelength in minimum, i.e. c = 𝜈max 𝜆min

Diffraction of X-rays: Laue Experiment

The central spot is due

(i) X-rays are electro-magnetic waves of extremely short wave length.

Bragg's law for X-ray diffraction

For Additional knowledge (Optional)

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