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Determinants of Organizational Commitment in Banking Sector: I J A R

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL Of ACADEMIC RESEARCH

Vol. 3. No. 4. July, 2011, II Part

DETERMINANTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT IN BANKING SECTOR


Komal Khalid Bhatti , Dr. Samina Nawab
1 1 2

Lecturer, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, PhD. Scholar (HRM), Mohammad Ali Jinnah University, 2 Assistant Professor, COMSATS, Institute of Information Technology, Wah Cantt (PAKISTAN) ABSTRACT

The objective of this research is to understand some of the major determinants that contribute in managers commitment to an organization (OC). A survey of 147 banks was conducted, using non-probability conversion sampling technique. These were conducted in public and private sectors in the twin cities of Rawalpindi and Islamabad. In overall perspective and in public and private sectors, job satisfaction has the highest impact on organizational commitment, role clarity has the highest impact on organizational commitment whereas in the overall point of view, employee participation has the least impact and in the private sector, organizational climate has lease impact on organizational commitment. Key words: banking sector, Industrial/Organizational Psychology, Organizational commitment 1. INTRODUCTION

Human resource is a crucial asset of any organization. It plays a dynamic role in achieving goals and objectives of the organization with its skills and experience. The retention of HR is a task so important that most of the organizations create an exclusive department to manage its affairs. The commitment of HR managers is essential in retaining and maximizing the utilization of HR. This study discusses some of the factors (parameters), which have relationship with organizational commitment and may directly or indirectly influence the commitment of managers to the organization. The focus is on banking sector as in banking and telecommunication sector-rapid growth has been witnessed in a decade. Because of this growth, the demand for experienced and skilled human resource has increased many folds. The supply is however limited. In the study of organizational behavior and Industrial/Organizational Psychology, organizational commitment is the employee's psychological attachment to the organization. It can be contrasted with other work-related attitudes, such as Job Satisfaction (an employee's feelings about their job) and Organizational Identification (the degree to which an employee experiences a 'sense of oneness' with their organization). The study of commitment in this context is important for the reasons like even though organizations are becoming leaner, they must maintain a core of people who are the source of organizational life. In the last two decades, OC has received special attention and has grown in acceptance in the literature of industrial and organizational psychology, and organizational behavior. The literature search indicates that OC is linked to various determinants ranging from personal variables and organizational characteristics. The work suggests that OC may have an impact on: employee participation, role clarity, job satisfaction and organizational climate. Gaining a greater understanding of the processes related to OC has implications for employees, organizations, and society as a whole. Thus OC would appear to have potentially serious consequences for overall organizational performance. 2. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The goals of this study are to: 1. Establish if there is a relationship between the selected determinants and OC. 2. Identify the organizational implications of the research. The broader purpose of the present study is to explore the organizational commitment in banking industry in both public and private sector in Pakistan. And then show the impact of employee participation, 'role clarity', 'job satisfaction' and organizational climate on organizational commitment in banking industry. Thus, present study can be helpful from all above-mentioned angles. a. Literature review The objective of this study is to deduce how much organizational commitment of employee effects an organization. The parameters to test the hypothesis are organizational commitment, employee participation, role clarity, job satisfaction and organizational climate. Organizational commitment covers three parameters, affective commitment, continuance commitment and normative commitment. b. Commitment In the last two decades, OC has received special attention and has grown in acceptance in the literature of industrial and organizational psychology, and organizational behavior. The literature search indicates that OC is

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Vol. 3. No. 4. July, 2011, II Part

linked to various determinants (of organizational characteristics). The major objective of the literature review is to investigate the concepts and inherent relationship between a number of dominant determinants and OC. A key objective of this study is to investigate the relationship between organizational commitment and its determinants. Among a long list of determinants the following has been selected in this study: employee participation, role clarity, job satisfaction and organizational climate. In the present study, organizational commitment refers to a congruence between the goals of the individual and the organization where by the individual identifies with an extend effort on behalf of the general goals of the organization (Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982; Reichers, 1985). Most previous research has suggested that organizational commitment is more strongly related to turnover than is job satisfaction (Parasuraman, 1982; Steers, 1977). c. Elements of Organizational Commitment Some researchers have classified organizational commitment into three basic components. The three component model of organizational commitment incorporates affective, continuance and normative as the three dimensions of organizational commitment. Allen and Meyer (1990) refer to affective commitment as the employees emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in the organization. The affective component refers to the employees emotional attachment to, identification with and involvement in the organization. The continuance component refers to commitment based on the costs that the employee associates with leaving the organization. The normative component refers to the employees feeling of obligation to remain with the organization. The second of Allen and Meyers (1990) dimensions of organizational commitment is continuance commitment, which is based on Beckers (1960) side bet theory. The theory posits that as individuals remain in the employment of an organization for longer periods, they accumulate investments, which become costly to lose the longer an individual stays. The third dimension of organizational commitment is normative commitment, which reflects a feeling of obligation to continue employment. Employees with a high level of normative commitment feel they ought to remain with the organization (Allen & Meyer, 1990). There are some factors such as organizational culture, leadership style, and human resources practices, which could be deliberately manipulated by organizations to influence the levels of organizational commitment in their employees. And HRM can be defined as a strategic approach to acquiring, developing, managing, motivating and gaining the commitment of an organizations key resources, its employees (Ahmed, 1999). d. Job Satisfaction Smith et al. (1969) suggested that ... job satisfaction is feelings or affective responses to facets of the situation. Job satisfaction can be conceptualized as the difference between what a worker experiences on the job and what he or she wants or expects to find. Locke hypothesized that job satisfaction is an affective response or feeling "... associated with a perceived difference between what is expected as a fair and reasonable return... and what is experienced, in relation to the alternatives available in a given situation" (Locke, 1976). Given the uncertainty of whether satisfaction is a total or partial mediator of the effects of other determinants on commitment, job satisfaction has been examined in literature as a potential mediator of the effects of organizational culture and subculture as well as their direct effects on commitment. This view is consistent with previous research (Price & Mueller 1981). Job satisfaction is not a single concept. Rather, it has multiple dimensions or facets that correspond to different aspects of the work environment. Each facet must be addressed in the measurement of job satisfaction. Further, because researchers have concluded that multiple (non-aggregated) measures of facet-specific satisfaction, used as a set, provide more information about the nature and causes of job satisfaction than do single scales composed of such measures aggregated together, multiple measures of job satisfaction usually are indicated (Kendall, Hulin, Smith, 1969). In addition to the facet-specific aspects of satisfaction, global, or overall, satisfaction also has been identified as an important component of job satisfaction. Global satisfaction differs conceptually and empirically from facet-specific satisfaction. Global measures engage a longer time horizon than facet-specific aspects of satisfaction and tend to show quite different distributions of satisfaction among respondents than the facet specific measures (Campbell, Kahn, 1972). e. Employee participation Employee Participation is generally defined as a process in which influence is shared among individuals who are otherwise hierarchically unequal (Wagner, 1994). Participatory management practice balances the involvement of managers and their subordinates in information processing, decision making and problem solving endeavors (Wagner, 1994). f. Role clarity One of the major causes of job tension is a lack of role clarity; that is, either the nonexistence of information needed to do his job effectively, or the lack of adequate information, leaves the worker with an ambiguous perception of his role (L. Kahn, Donald M. Wolfe, Robert P. Quinn, J. Diedrick Snoek and R. A. Rosenthal, 1964). It has been shown that a lack of role clarity increases the probability that a person will be dissatisfied with his job, will experience psychological stress (job tension), will seek opportunities for improving clarity and

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Vol. 3. No. 4. July, 2011, II Part

satisfaction, will be less innovative, and will generally show a lack of job interest (A. F. Cohen, E. Stotland, and D. M. Wolfe, 1955). g. Organizational Climate Lawler (1986) places particular emphasis on employee involvement and employee participation as a property of organizations rather than individuals or their jobs. In particular, he sees involvement as a combination of processes, which increase the power of employees, enhance the use of appropriate reward and performance measurement systems to align the interests of individuals with organizational goals. Employees also learn through interaction with co-workers at the workplace. Potentially, such approaches offer at least two advantages for employers. First, staff may be more knowledgeable in respect of certain tasks than employers themselves, particularly in highly skilled work roles or where the employer lacks experience. Second, employers can devote time to other activities where responsibility for enabling or supervising employee learning is delegated. One caf employer, having recently bought an existing business, makes both points: 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter addresses the approach to the study. It provides an explanation of the research design (sample size, survey, questionnaire development, description of instruments), details regarding the sample, research model and variables (independent variables and dependent variables), hypotheses and response rate, chosen measurement instruments, means of data collection, and correlation and regression in term of data analysis. The main objective of this chapter is to outline the steps followed in carrying out the research design. a. Research Design Mostly in primary researches survey is considered the most effect practice. Our research study is a relational for exploring association among employee participation, 'role clarity', 'job satisfaction', organizational climate and organizational commitment. For the tangible research work, information regarding name of sector, employee age, education and total years of experience on one side and employee participation, role clarity, job satisfaction, organizational climate and organizational commitment at the other was collected from bank managers in both public and private sector. These managers were requested to respond to all questions up to the best of their knowledge with reference to the working practices implemented in their organizations. b. Hypothesis This research study was conducted on to test the following hypothesis: Hypothesis 1a: The employee participation of bank managers is positively associated with the organizational commitment in banking industry in Pakistan. Hypothesis 1b: The role clarity of bank managers has no association with the organizational commitment in banking industry in Pakistan. Hypothesis 1c: The job satisfaction of bank managers is positively associated with the organizational commitment in banking industry in Pakistan. Hypothesis 1d: The organizational climate of bank managers is negatively associated with the organizational commitment in banking industry in Pakistan. Hypothesis 2: Bank managers in Public Sector are likely to have a higher level of organizational commitment than bank managers in Private sector. c. Sample and Response Rate The sample for this study was drawn from banking industry both in public and private sector. Banking industry was selected for the sample because during last seven years growth rate, employee demand, realization of different HR issues and employee turnover ratio is higher in these industries as compared to other industries in Pakistan. Total sample size was 147 and we calculated the results by using Correlation and Regression Analysis for rating scale on the collected data.
Employee Participation Role Clarity Affective Commitment Continuous Commitment Normative Commitment Organizational Commitment

Job Satisfaction

Organizational Climate

Fig. 1. Theoretical Research Model d. Description of the Instrumentation This study was conducted from very initial level because there was no data available prior to this research in the field of organizational commitment in terms of affective commitment, continuance commitment and normative commitment. Therefore based on simple categorization and rating scale questionnaire was developed to find out response of employees while rating their preferences. The impact of employee participation, 'role clarity', 'job

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Vol. 3. No. 4. July, 2011, II Part

satisfaction' and organizational climate on organizational commitment in banking industry was analyzed through rating strength of agreement on likert scale 1-5 where 1 stands for strongly disagree and 5 stands for strongly agree. 4. DATA ANALYSIS

a. Descriptive Statistics Once the data is collected then we decided to measure descriptive statistics in terms of different central tendencies, variances, standard error, skew ness and kurtosis in order to have clearer picture of the variables as shown in table 4.0 before analyzing correlation and regression between these variables. The results are shown in Table 4.1 in terms of mean, median, mode and dispersion. In this table independent variable Role Clarity appear as a variable with highest mean value i.e. (4.00) and standard deviation (0.76) show that almost all employees agree with little difference in their opinion that in banking sector they are allowed to make decision related to quality matters, their supervisors ask them to participate in operations related decisions, they have opportunity to suggest improvements in these ways things are done in their banks and more than all they have support and authority to make the decisions necessary for accomplishing assigned task. On the other hand dependent variable organizational commitment has lowest mean value among all five variables i.e. (3.54) with standard deviation 0.76 shows that although employees in banking sector believe in employee participation, are very clear about roles and authorities, have comparatively higher level of satisfaction when talking about job and organizational climate, they are not as committed as they showed when organizational commitment is measured in terms of affective commitment, continuance commitment and normative commitment. The reason of comparatively less organizational commitment, high turnover and intention to leave is the positive demand of skilled and experience managers in banking sector in last 10 years provided all facilities same in all banks. It is a common observation that on switching maximum employee join the new bank on double (100% increment on current salary). In the public sector of banking in Pakistan, results show that role clarity has maximum mean, which is 3.9362 with standard deviation 0.70 this reflects that people strongly agree that role clarity play an important role in the job. They agree that if a person is clear what he/she can do, the role to be played is crystal clear then the best performance can be provided by a person. While in case of organizational commitment, mean is lowest, which is 3.48 and standard deviation is 0.74 this reflects remaining independent variables are supported more. Organizational commitment is lower than the independent variables, which mean that there must be other variables for example, monetary reasons. Table 1. Descriptive Statistics
Org Com Emp Part Role Clarity Job Sat Org Climate Mean Standard Error Median Mode Standard Deviation Sample Variance Count 3.54 0.07 3.39 4.56 0.76 0.57 147.00 3.76 0.07 3.80 4.00 0.81 0.65 147.00 4.00 0.06 4.00 4.00 0.68 0.46 147.00 3.84 0.06 3.92 4.46 0.68 0.46 147.00 3.81 0.06 3.86 3.57 0.66 0.43 147.00

The factors (independent variables) considered in the study can be observed in banks but organizational commitment does not depend only on the factors considered. 5. PEARSON'S CORRELATION COEFFICIENT Table 2. Pearson Correlations
Org Com Emp Part Role Clarity Job Satisfaction Org Climate Org Com 1 0.550(**) 0.560(**) 0.648(**) 0.641(**) Emp Part Role Clarity 1 0.640(**) 0.545(**) 0.641(**) Job Sat Org Climate

1 0.559(**) 0.625(**)

1 0.767(**)

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). There is a high correlation amongst the independent and dependent variables. There is strong positive correlation between organizational commitment (dependent variable) and employee participation, role clarity, job satisfaction and organizational climate (independent variables) but with little variation. Employee participation (0.550) and role clarity (0.560) has a strong positive correlation with organizational commitment but comparatively have less strong association as compared to job satisfaction (0.648) and organizational climate (0.641). The results show that the employees that have more participation are relatively more committed than those that are not. Similarly the employees that are clear about the job responsibilities and position within organization are

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comparatively more committed than those who are not clear about their job description, duties and responsibilities. Satisfied employees show strong commitment. On the other side the employees working in better organizational climate have comparatively more commitment. But comparing all these four variables with each other including employee participation, role clarity, job satisfaction and organizational climate with the reference of organizational commitment, first two variables including employee participation and role clarity have less association than job satisfaction and organizational climate. Comparing intra-independent variable association between employee participation, role clarity, job satisfaction and organizational climate, job satisfaction has the strongest positive association with organizational climate i.e. (0.767). While comparing same job satisfaction has least positive association with employee participation i.e. (0.545). The amazing result is that all variables have strong positive association with one another. In the public sector, independent variables have strong positive association within the variables and with organizational commitment. Within independent variables, job satisfaction has a link with organizational climate and has strongest positive association (0.789) within independent variables. Whereas role clarity has strong positive association with employee participation (0.621) but overall least association within independent variables. As compared to rest, organizational commitment has highest positive association with job satisfaction (0.683) as compared to rest of the variables. Thus, job satisfaction is important factor. Job satisfaction has an imminent effect on turnover while employee participation has least effect on turnover. Table 3. Pearson Correlation of Variables in Public Sector
Organizational Commitment Employee Participation Role Clarity Job Satisfaction Organizational Climate PUOC 1 .545(**) .565(**) .683(**) .639(**) PUEP PURC PUJS PUORGC

1 .621(**) 1 .640(**) .687(**) 1 .643(**) .650(**) .789(**)

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). In the private sector, employee participation has strong positive association with role clarity and organizational climate. Organizational commitment has strong positive association with job satisfaction (.558) while with the rest of them, its week positive association. Job satisfaction has no association with role clarity (.256). Organizational climate has highest positive association with organizational commitment (.619) among other independent variables. Table 4. Pearsons Correlation of Variables in Private Sector
PRIOC PRIEP PRIRC PRIJS PRIORGC Organizational Commitment 1 Employee Participation .570(**) 1 Role Clarity .501(**) .670(**) 1 Job Satisfaction .558(**) .225 .256 1 Organizational Climate .619(**) .519(**) .381 .760(**) 1

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). 6. REGRESSION RESULTS

In regression dependence of one variable (that is random), upon the other variable (that is non -random or fixed), can be calculated. For finding the contribution of independent variable towards dependent variable, we used Multiple Regression. Table below bestows the regression outcomes from three models that is, model Public, Private to Banking Industry. Model Public represents peoples responses that are in public sector to organizational commitment with reference to four independent variables, Model Private represents those who are in private sector and Model Banking Industry shows the overall response. The output in the case of Model-Public shows that employee participation has 10% impact on organizational commitment, role clarity has 10%, job satisfaction has 38%, and organizational climate has 19%. Thus, job satisfaction has significant impact on organizational commitment. The output in the case of Model-Private shows that employee participation has 25% impact on organizational commitment, role clarity has 17%, job satisfaction has 40%, and organizational climate has 7%. Job satisfaction has significant impact on organizational commitment in this model also. In the third model, the output of Model-Banking Industry shows that employee participation has 14% impact on organizational commitment, role clarity has 16%, job satisfaction has 33%, and organizational climate has 19%. In this model, job satisfaction has significant impact on organizational commitment. From the results of the models, it is deduced that in overall scenario and public and private sector employees are more committed to their work and organization if they are satisfied with their job. Thus, job satisfaction has highest impact on organizational commitment.

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Table 5. Comparison for Regression results of Public Sector, Private Sector and Overall banking Industry Employees
Organizational Commitment Employee Participation Role Clarity Job Satisfaction Organizational Climate 2 R 2 Adjusted R F ** P < 0.10, * P < 0.05 Model-Public Model-Private Model-Banking Industry **0.106 **0.250 **0.140 **0.105 **0.170 *0.163 *0.388 *0.405 *0.332 *0.197 **0.076 *0.194 0.507 0.550 0.508 0.485 0.464 0.491 12.882 7.421 13.681 N=94 N=53 N=147

In overall scenario, employee participation has least impact on organizational commitment. In private sector, organizational climate has least impact on organizational commitment. 7. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

The research study has been carried out in order to examine the impact of employee participation, job satisfaction, role clarity and organizational climate on organizational commitment of employees in different organizations of banking industry in Islamabad both in public and private sector. In the study the organizational commitment was measured by means of affective commitment, continuance commitment and normative commitment. This study in Pakistan is the first empirical work ever done so far in the field of Human Resource Management analyzing the impact of employee participation, job satisfaction, role clarity and organizational climate on organizational commitment where organizational commitment was measured by all its three basic types (affective commitment, continuance commitment and normative commitment) both in public and private sector. The sample organizations (located in Islamabad / Rawalpindi) selected for the study have been taken based on nonprobability convenience sampling technique that supported to achieve consistent and reliable results. On the other hand, dependent variable organizational commitment has lowest mean value among all five variables - shows that although employees in banking sector believe in employee participation, are very clear about roles and authorities, have comparatively higher level of satisfaction when talking about job and organizational climate, they are not as committed as they showed when organizational commitment is measured in terms of affective commitment, continuance commitment and normative commitment. The reason of comparatively less organizational commitment, high turnover and intention to leave is the positive demand of skilled and experience managers in banking sector in last 10 years provided all facilities same in all banks. There is a high correlation amongst the independent and dependent variables. There is strong positive correlation between organizational commitment (dependent variable) and employee participation, role clarity, job satisfaction and organizational climate (independent variables) but with little variation. The results show that the employees that have more participation are relatively more committed than those that are not. In the public sector, independent variables have strong positive association within the variables and with organizational commitment. In the private sector, employee participation has strong positive association with role clarity and organizational climate. 8. IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY

This study is an addition to earlier researchers efforts in understanding the relationship of employee participation, job satisfaction, role clarity and organizational climate with organizational commitment. The study provides new directions in the research of management by opening a debate on the importance of employee participation, job satisfaction, role clarity and organizational climate individually as well as collectively on organizational commitment. Statistically significant Pearson correlation and regression results are indicatives of the impact of all four variables' contribution (employee participation, job satisfaction, role clarity and organizational climate) towards organizational commitment. The findings of this research conclude that there can be variables, which can impact organizational commitment other than the four variables considered. The response of bank managers showed that job satisfaction is the most influential variable to organizational commitment. Role clarity plays an important role to commit employees to their jobs. Whereas employee participation, affects the environment of the organization and the organizational climate plays its role in role clarity and job satisfaction. Bank managers in private sector are more committed than that of public sectors. To put into a nutshell it is concluded in the light of hypotheses that employee participation has a positive association with organizational commitment. Bank managers find that role clarity plays a significant role in organizational commitment. Bank managers agree that satisfaction in job plays an imminent role in commitment to organization and work. In banking sector, organizational climate has a positive impact on organizational commitment. And bank managers have a higher level of organizational commitment that is in Private sector than those in Public sector. Comparing intra-independent variable association between employee participation, role clarity, job satisfaction and organizational climate, job satisfaction has the strongest positive association with organizational climate. While comparing same job satisfaction has least positive association with employee participation. The

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amazing result is that all variables have strong positive association with one another. In the public sector, independent variables have strong positive association within the variables and with organizational commitment. Within independent variables, job satisfaction has a link with organizational climate and has strongest positive association within independent variables. REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. Meyer, J. & Allen, N. 1997, Commitment in the workplace. London, Sage. Bridges, S. & Harrison, J.K. 2003, Employee Perceptions of Stakeholder Focus and Commitment to the Organization, Journal of Managerial Issues, vol. 15, 4, 498-505. Mowday, R. T., Porter, L. W., & Steers, R. M. 1982, Employee-Organization Linkages: The Psychology of Commitment, Absenteeism, and Turnover. New York: Academic Press. Reichers, A. 1985, A review and re-conceptualization of organizational commitment, Academy of Management Review, vol. 10, 465-476. Parasuraman, S. 1982, Predicting Turnover Intentions and Turnover Behavior; A Multivariate Analysis. Journal of Vocational Behavior, vol. 21, 111-121. Steers, R. M. 1977, Antecedents and Outcomes of Organizational Commitment. Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 22(1), 46-56. Allen, N.J. & Meyer, J.P. 1990, The measurement and variables associated with affective, continuance and normative commitment to the organization. Journal of Occupational Psychology, vol. 63, 1-18. Becker, H.S. 1960, Notes on the concept of commitment. American Journal of Sociology, 66, 3240. Billings, R., Eveleth, D., & Gilbert, N. 1996, Foci and bases of employee commitment: Implications for job performance, Academy of Management Journal, vol. 39: 464-482. Meyer, J.P. & Allen, N.J. 1991, A three component conceptualization of organizational commitment, Human Resource Management Review, vol. 1, 61-98. Jaros, S.J., Jermier, J.M., Koehler, J.W. & Sincich, T. (1993), Effects of continuance, affective, and moral commitment on the withdrawal process: an evaluation, Academy of Management Journal, 36(5), 951-995. Ahmed, S. 1999, The emerging measure of effectiveness for human resource management. Journal of Management Development, vol. 18(5/6), 543-556. Smith PC, Kendall LM Hulin CL. 1969, The measurement of satisfaction in work and retirement. Chicago: Rand McNaIly. Locke EA, 1976, The nature and causes of job satisfaction. In: M D Dunnette, ed. Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally. Price, J. and Mueller, C. 1981, Professional Turnover: The Case of Nurses. New York, Medical and Scientific Books. Kahn RL, The meaning ofwork: interpretation and proposals for measurement. In: A Campbell, P E Converse, eds. The human meaning of social change. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1972. Salanick, G. R., & Pfeffer, J. A. 1978, A social information processing approach to job attitudes and task design, Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 23(1), 224-250. Steers, R., & Porter, L. 1983, Motivation and work behavior (3rd Ed), New York: McGraw-Hill. Turner Wiener, Y. 1982, Commitment in organizations: A normative view, Academy of Management Review, 7 (3), 418-428. Randall, D. 1990, The consequences of organizational commitment: methodological investigation, Journal of Organizational Behavior. vol. 11, 5, 361-378. Rogers, R. 1991, The Effects of Educational Level on Correctional Officer Job Satisfaction, Journal of Criminal Justice, vol. 19(2), 123-137. Wagner, A.J. 1994, Participations effects on performance and satisfaction: A reconsideration of research evidence, Academy of Management Review 19: 31230. Harel, H.G., S.S. Tzafrir. 1999. The effect of human resource management practices on the perceptions of organizational and market performance of the firm, Human Resource Management 38: 185200. F. Cohen, E. Stotland, & D. M. Wolfe, "An Experimental Investigation of Need for Cognition", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, vol. 51 (1955), pp. 291-294; Lawler, E. 1986, High-involvement management, A Francisco: Jossey-bass. Porter, L. W., and K. H. Roberts, "Communication in Organizations", in M. D. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology (Chicago: Rand McNally, (1976) 1553-1590. Muchinsky, P. M., "An Intra-Organizational Analysis of the Roberts and O'Reilly Organizational Communication Questionnaire", Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 62 (1977), 184-188. Hand, H., M. Richards, & J. W. Slocum, Jr., "Organizational Climate and the Effectiveness of a Human Relations Training Program," Academy of Management Journal, vol. 16 (1973), 185-195.

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