QUESTION BANK

BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

(BBOK407)
1. With a neat labelled diagram, describe the structure and functions of a prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cell.
Answer:
2. Describe Stem cells. Elaborate on their types and applications.
Answer:

• Stem cells are specialized human cells that are able to develop into many different cell types.
This can range from muscle cells to brain cells. In some cases, they can also fix damaged
tissues.
• Types: Adult Stem Cells, Embryonic Stem Cells, induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
• Stem cells are immature cells that have the potential to differentiate into specialized cells
which have a distinct function.
• Unique Properties of Stem Cells
• 1. Self-renewal: the ability to go through numerous cycles of cell division to produce more
stem cells.
• 2. Differentiation: these cells can differentiate into specialized cell types.
• Stem cells are essential cells that replace damaged cells or cells lost due to diseases.
• These cells are the earliest cells of the cell lineage in all tissues and are found in both
embryonic and adult organisms.
• These cells provide a continuous supply of new cells that make up the tissues and organs of
animals and plants.
• Stem cells have been of great interest as a therapeutic method for various diseases and
conditions.

1. Embryonic stem cells

 • Embryonic stem cells are a group of cells that are present in the inner cell mass of the embryo
at a very early stage of development (4-5 days of fertilization), called a blastocyst. The
number of cells at that point is about 50-150.
• These cells are pluripotent, meaning they can develop and differentiate into various cell types
(approx 250 types) during their proliferation. These do not, however, contribute to the
extraembryonic cells like the placenta.
• Embryonic stem cell culture is important as they perform as a new source for regenerative
medicine and genetic disease and toxicology test in vitro.
• Embryonic stem cells are present within the embryo, which divides and differentiates into
germ layers as they become specialized.

2. Adult stem cells (Somatic or Tissue-specific stem cell)

• Adult stem cells, also called somatic stem cells, are the cells found in specific tissues that
function to repair and form cells of only the tissues they are found on.
• These cells are Multipotent as they cannot differentiate to different cell types.
• Adult stem cells are found in both children and adults and mostly localized in tissue like the
epidermis, bone marrow, and lining of the intestine.
• Adult stem cells present in the bone marrow are the hematopoietic cells that differentiate to
form three different types of blood cells and immune cells.

3. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs)

• Induced pluripotent stem cells are formed when the adult cells are cultured with embryonic
stem cells where a fusion of these two cells forms new cells with stem cell-like properties.
• Induced pluripotent stem cells are similar to embryonic stem cells in that they can also be
stimulated to differentiate into different cell types.
• These cells are of significant importance as they can be used in therapeutic medicine where
doctors will be able to generate cells of practically all organs of the body for each patient.
• Besides, they also prevent the use of more embryonic stem cells which might cause ethical
issues.

Application of Stem Cell Research

• Stem cell research has been used in the field of regenerative medicine, which deals with the
restoration of tissues or organs in the patient suffering from severe injuries or some chronic
disease.
• Induced stem cells of the heart and the eyes can be used in the transplantation of the cells
during severe heart and eye-related diseases.
• The progress made in the field of stem cell research has laid the foundation for other cell-
based therapies of disease that cannot be cured with conventional medicines.
• Stem cell research has also been used for the testing of new drugs before they can be tested in
animals or humans.
• Cultured stem cells are used for the transplant of cells in the case of various diseases like bone
marrow for leukemia, nerve cells for Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease, heart muscle for
heart disease, and pancreatic islets for diabetes.

3. Discuss the classes and activity of enzymes.

Answer:
Enzymes are the protein biocatalysts synthesized by the living cells.
• An enzyme is specific in its action, possessing active site, where the substrate binds to form enzyme-
substrate complex, before the product is formed.
• Factors like concentration of enzyme, substrate, temperature, pH etc. influence enzyme activity.
• The majority of enzymes are proteins with catalytic capabilities crucial to perform different
processes. With the exception of ribozymes, all enzymes are protein-based. Metabolic processes and
other chemical reactions in the cell are carried out by a set of enzymes that are necessary to sustain
life.
• Enzymes are found in all tissues and fluids of the body. Catalysis of all reactions taking place in
metabolic pathways is carried out by intracellular enzymes.
• The enzymes in the plasma membrane govern the catalysis in the cells as a response to cellular
signals and enzymes in the circulatory system regulate the clotting of blood. Most of the critical life
processes are established on the functions of enzymes.

Classes of Enzymes

Enzymes are categorized into six major classes based on the type of reaction they catalyze. This
classification is part of the Enzyme Commission (EC) numbering system, which provides a systematic
way of naming enzymes.

1. Oxidoreductases:
o Function: These enzymes catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions, where the transfer
of electrons occurs between molecules. Oxidoreductases often require cofactors such
as NAD+ or FAD.
o Examples:
▪ Dehydrogenases: Catalyze the removal of hydrogen atoms from substrates
(e.g., lactate dehydrogenase).
▪ Oxidases: Catalyze the transfer of electrons from a substrate to oxygen (e.g.,
cytochrome oxidase).
2. Transferases:
o Function: Transferases catalyze the transfer of functional groups (such as methyl,
acyl, or phosphate groups) from one molecule to another.
o Examples:
▪ Kinases: Transfer phosphate groups from ATP to substrates (e.g.,
hexokinase).
▪ Transaminases: Transfer amino groups from one molecule to another (e.g.,
alanine transaminase).
3. Hydrolases:
o Function: Hydrolases catalyze the hydrolysis of various bonds by adding water.
These enzymes are involved in digestion and the breakdown of complex molecules.
o Examples:
▪ Proteases: Break down proteins into amino acids (e.g., trypsin).
▪ Lipases: Hydrolyze lipids into fatty acids and glycerol (e.g., pancreatic
lipase).
4. Lyases:
o Function: Lyases catalyze the addition or removal of groups to form double bonds,
or the breaking of bonds without hydrolysis or oxidation. They often facilitate the
formation or cleavage of carbon-carbon, carbon-oxygen, carbon-nitrogen, or carbon-
sulfur bonds.
o Examples:
▪ Decarboxylases: Remove carboxyl groups from substrates (e.g., pyruvate
decarboxylase).
▪ Synthases: Catalyze the formation of new bonds without using ATP (e.g.,
citrate synthase).
5. Isomerases:
o Function: Isomerases catalyze the rearrangement of atoms within a molecule,
converting it from one isomer to another. This class is crucial for maintaining
 metabolic pathways by converting intermediates to forms that can be used in
subsequent reactions.
o Examples:
▪ Racemases: Convert optical isomers (e.g., alanine racemase).
▪ Mutases: Shift functional groups within a molecule (e.g.,
phosphoglucomutase).
6. Ligases:
o Function: Ligases catalyze the joining of two molecules with the concomitant
hydrolysis of a high-energy molecule such as ATP. They are essential in processes
like DNA replication and repair.
o Examples:
▪ DNA Ligase: Joins DNA strands together during replication and repair.
▪ Carboxylases: Add carbon dioxide to substrates using ATP (e.g., pyruvate
carboxylase).
Enzyme activity
The functional unit of the enzyme is known as holoenzyme which is often made up of apoenzyme (the
protein part) and a coenzyme (nonprotein organic part).
• An enzyme molecule has a specific active site to which its substrate binds and produces an enzyme-
substrate complex.
• The reaction proceeds at the binding site to produce the products which remain associated briefly
with the enzyme.
• The product is then liberated, and the enzyme molecule is freed in an active state to initiate another
round of catalysis.

4. Explain the properties and functions of proteins and lipids in human body.
Proteins are nitrogen containing, most abundant organic macromolecules widely distributed in
animals and plants. Proteins are polymers composed of L-α-amino acids. They are 20 in number and
classified into different groups based on their structure, chemical nature, nutritional requirement and
metabolic fate.
Properties and Functions of Proteins
1. Properties of Proteins:
• Structure:
➢ Proteins are composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds, forming polypeptide chains.
The sequence of amino acids determines the protein’s structure and function. Proteins can
have four levels of structure:
o Primary Structure: The linear sequence of amino acids.
o Secondary Structure: Local folding into alpha-helices or beta-sheets stabilized by
hydrogen bonds.
 o Tertiary Structure: The overall 3D shape of the polypeptide, formed by interactions
between side chains.
o Quaternary Structure: The assembly of multiple polypeptide chains into a functional
protein complex.
➢ Solubility: Proteins can be soluble or insoluble in water, depending on their amino acid
composition and structure. Soluble proteins, such as enzymes and antibodies, perform
functions in the aqueous environment of the cell, while insoluble proteins, such as collagen,
provide structural support.
➢ Specificity: Proteins are highly specific in their function, with each protein typically
interacting with only a specific substrate or group of molecules.
➢ Denaturation: Proteins can lose their structure and function when exposed to extreme
conditions such as high temperature, extreme pH, or the presence of certain chemicals. This
process is known as denaturation and is usually irreversible.

2. Functions of Proteins:

• Enzymatic Activity: Proteins that act as enzymes catalyze biochemical reactions, increasing
the rate of reactions that are essential for metabolism. Examples include DNA polymerase,
which synthesizes DNA, and amylase, which breaks down starches into sugars.
• Structural Support: Structural proteins like collagen, keratin, and elastin provide mechanical
support and strength to tissues and organs. Collagen is the most abundant protein in the
human body and is a key component of connective tissues such as cartilage, tendons, and
skin.
• Transport and Storage: Proteins like hemoglobin transport oxygen in the blood, while others
like ferritin store iron in the liver. Transport proteins embedded in cell membranes also
facilitate the movement of ions and molecules across the membrane.
• Regulation: Regulatory proteins, including hormones and transcription factors, control
various physiological processes. For example, insulin regulates blood glucose levels, while
transcription factors control gene expression.
• Immune Response: Antibodies, which are proteins produced by the immune system,
recognize and neutralize foreign invaders such as bacteria and viruses.
• Movement: Proteins like actin and myosin are involved in muscle contraction and movement.
They are also responsible for cell movement during processes such as cytokinesis and cellular
migration.
LIPIDS
Lipids are a group of diverse macromolecules consisting of fatty acids and their derivatives that are
insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. Lipids consist of fats, oils, hormones, and certain
components of membranes that are grouped together because of their hydrophobic interactions. The
lipids are essential constituents of the diet because of their high energy value.
Properties and Functions of Lipids
1. Properties of Lipids

• Hydrophobic Nature: Lipids are hydrophobic or amphipathic molecules, meaning they have
both hydrophobic (water-repelling) and hydrophilic (water-attracting) regions. This property
allows lipids to form cellular membranes and act as barriers to water and water-soluble
substances.
 • Diverse Structure: Lipids have diverse structures, including fatty acids, triglycerides,
phospholipids, and sterols. Each type of lipid has unique properties that contribute to its
function.
• Energy Density: Lipids are highly energy-dense, providing more than twice the energy per
gram (9 kcal/g) compared to carbohydrates and proteins (4 kcal/g). This makes them an
efficient form of long-term energy storage.
2. Functions of Lipids:

• Energy Storage: Triglycerides, stored in adipose tissue, serve as the primary energy reservoir
in the body. During periods of energy demand, triglycerides are broken down into fatty acids
and glycerol, which are then used to produce ATP.
• Membrane Structure: Phospholipids are major components of cell membranes, forming a
bilayer that acts as a barrier and regulates the movement of substances into and out of the cell.
Cholesterol, another lipid, is also found in cell membranes and helps maintain membrane
fluidity.
• Insulation and Protection: Adipose tissue, composed of fat cells, provides insulation to
maintain body temperature and cushions vital organs against physical trauma.
• Signal Transduction: Some lipids, such as steroid hormones (e.g., estrogen, testosterone) and
eicosanoids (e.g., prostaglandins), act as signaling molecules that regulate various
physiological processes, including inflammation, immune responses, and reproductive
functions.
• Vitamin Absorption: Lipids aid in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) in
the digestive tract. These vitamins are essential for processes such as vision, bone health, and
antioxidant activity.
• Cellular Communication: Lipids in the form of glycolipids and sphingolipids play roles in cell
recognition and communication, particularly in the nervous system.

5. Explain the role of hormones in human body.

Answer:

• Hormones are the organic substances, produced in minute quantities by specific tissues
(endocrine glands) and secreted into the blood stream to control the biological activities in the
target cells. They may be regarded as the chemical messengers involved in the regulation and
coordination of body functions.

• Hormones are classified based on their chemical nature or mechanism of action. Chemically,
they may be proteins or peptides (insulin, oxytocin), steroids (glucocorticoids, sex hormones)
and amino acid derivatives (epinephrine, thyroxine). By virtue of the function, group I
hormones bind to the intracellular receptors (estrogens, calcitriol), while group II hormones
(ACTH, LH) bind to the cell surface receptors and act through the second messengers.

Hormones are chemical messengers produced by the endocrine glands that play a crucial role in
regulating various physiological processes in the human body. They are released into the bloodstream
and travel to target organs and tissues, where they bind to specific receptors and trigger specific
biological responses. Hormones are essential for maintaining homeostasis, growth, development,
metabolism, reproduction, and behavior.

Types of Hormones and Their Sources

Hormones can be classified based on their chemical structure into three main categories:

1. Peptide/Protein Hormones:
 o These are made up of chains of amino acids.
o Examples include insulin (produced by the pancreas) and growth hormone (produced
by the pituitary gland).
2. Steroid Hormones:
o Derived from cholesterol, these hormones are lipid-soluble.
o Examples include cortisol (produced by the adrenal glands) and sex hormones like
estrogen and testosterone (produced by the ovaries and testes, respectively).
3. Amino Acid-Derived Hormones:
o These hormones are synthesized from single amino acids, usually tyrosine or
tryptophan.
o Examples include thyroxine (produced by the thyroid gland) and adrenaline
(produced by the adrenal glands).

Functions of Hormones in the Human Body

1. Regulation of Metabolism:

• Thyroid Hormones (T3 and T4): Produced by the thyroid gland, these hormones regulate
the body’s metabolic rate, influencing how fast or slow the body uses energy.
• Insulin and Glucagon: Insulin, produced by the pancreas, lowers blood glucose levels by
facilitating cellular uptake of glucose. Glucagon, also from the pancreas, raises blood glucose
levels by stimulating the liver to release stored glucose.

2. Growth and Development:

• Growth Hormone (GH): Produced by the pituitary gland, GH stimulates growth in tissues,
bones, and muscles during childhood and adolescence.
• Thyroid Hormones: In addition to metabolic regulation, thyroid hormones are essential for
normal growth and neurological development in children.
• Sex Hormones (Estrogen, Testosterone): These hormones regulate the development of
secondary sexual characteristics during puberty and are essential for reproductive function.

3. Regulation of Reproductive Processes:

• Estrogen and Progesterone: These hormones, produced by the ovaries, regulate the
menstrual cycle, prepare the body for pregnancy, and maintain pregnancy.
• Testosterone: Produced by the testes, testosterone regulates sperm production and male
secondary sexual characteristics.
• Luteinizing Hormone (LH) and Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): Produced by the
pituitary gland, these hormones regulate the function of the ovaries and testes, including the
release of eggs and the production of sperm.

4. Stress Response:

• Cortisol: Produced by the adrenal glands, cortisol helps the body respond to stress by
increasing blood glucose levels, suppressing the immune system, and aiding in fat, protein,
and carbohydrate metabolism.
• Adrenaline and Noradrenaline: Also produced by the adrenal glands, these hormones
increase heart rate, blood pressure, and energy supply in response to acute stress (fight or
flight response).

5. Regulation of Homeostasis:
 • Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): Produced by the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary
gland, ADH helps regulate water balance in the body by reducing urine production and
conserving water.
• Aldosterone: Produced by the adrenal glands, aldosterone regulates sodium and potassium
balance, thereby controlling blood pressure and fluid balance.

6. Influence on Mood and Behavior:

• Serotonin and Dopamine: Although primarily neurotransmitters, these chemicals also act as
hormones, influencing mood, motivation, and behavior.
• Oxytocin: Produced by the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary gland, oxytocin is
often called the "love hormone" as it plays a role in social bonding, sexual reproduction, and
during childbirth.

Hormones are integral to the proper functioning of the human body, orchestrating a vast array of
processes that are critical to survival and well-being. They regulate metabolism, growth, development,
reproduction, and the body’s response to stress, while also playing a role in maintaining homeostasis
and influencing behavior. Understanding the role of hormones is essential for grasping how the body
maintains its internal environment and responds to external challenges.

6. “Bioplastics are a promising alternative to traditional plastics.” Justify the statement

focusing on its environmental impact.
ANSWER:

• Bioplastics are a type of plastic material derived from renewable biological sources, such as
plants, algae, or microorganisms, rather than from fossil fuels like traditional plastics. They
can be designed to have similar properties to conventional plastics, including flexibility,
durability, and strength, but with a reduced environmental impact.
• Bioplastics are biopolymers which are produced with the help of microorganisms require
specific nutrients and controlled environmental conditions. They are produced either directly
via fermentation or by chemical polymerization of monomers, which are in turn produced
through fermentation.
• Bioplastics are basically classified as bio based and/or biodegradable.

Bio-Based Plastics:

• These are made partially or entirely from renewable biological resources like corn starch,
sugarcane, potato starch, or cellulose. Examples include:
o Polylactic Acid (PLA): Derived from fermented plant starch, PLA is used in
packaging, disposable cutlery, and medical implants.
• PLA, or polylactic acid, is a biodegradable and compostable thermoplastic that is derived
from renewable resources such as corn starch, sugarcane, and other plant-based sources. It is
one of the most widely used bioplastics and is increasingly popular as a sustainable
alternative to traditional petroleum-based plastics.

Properties of PLA:

• Biodegradability: PLA is biodegradable and can break down into natural substances such as
carbon dioxide, water, and organic compounds under specific conditions.
• Renewable Resource: PLA is made from renewable resources, which makes it a sustainable
alternative to traditional plastics made from fossil fuels.
 • Versatility: PLA can be used in a wide range of applications, including packaging materials,
food containers, disposable tableware, and 3D printing filaments.
• Mechanical Properties: PLA has good mechanical properties, such as high tensile strength,
which makes it suitable for various applications.
• Low Environmental Impact: The production of PLA generates lower greenhouse gas
emissions and uses less energy than traditional plastics, which makes it more environment
friendly.

Fig: Structure of PLA

• Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA): Produced by bacterial fermentation of sugars or lipids,

PHAs are biodegradable and used in medical applications, packaging, and agriculture.

• PHA is bio-based biopolymer that can be created using bacterial fermentation of plant
feedstocks including waste, vegetable oils, sugars, starches, and even methane and
wastewater.
PHA bioplastics has several advantages over traditional plastics.
• Biodegradability: PHAs are biodegradable and can be broken down naturally by
microorganisms in the environment. This makes them an environmentally friendly alternative
to traditional plastic. materials that can persist in the environment for centuries.
• Versatility: PHAs can be produced in a variety of different forms, from flexible films to rigid
structures, depending on the specific production methods used. This makes them versatile
material that can be used for a range of different applications.
• Renewable: PHAs are produced using renewable resources such as plant oils or waste streams
from the food industry. This makes them a sustainable alternative to traditional plastic
materials that are derived from fossil fuels.
• Non-toxic: PHAs are non-toxic and biocompatible, making them suitable for use in medical
applications such as sutures, drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering.
• PHA bioplastics also has a wide range of potential applications, including in packaging,
agriculture, and medical devices. PHA bioplastics have been shown to be compatible with
human tissues and have low toxicity, making them an attractive option for medical
applications.
 • PHA bioplastics are a promising alternative to traditional plastics, offering a sustainable and
environmentally friendly solution to the plastic waste problem.

• Fig: Structure of PHA

7. Explain the following:

a. DNA Fingerprinting
b. Meat analogues
DNA fingerprinting is a laboratory technique used to determine the probable identity of a person
based on the nucleotide sequences of certain regions of human DNA that are unique to individuals.
Developed by Sir Alec Jeffreys in the 1980s, DNA fingerprinting has become a cornerstone of
modern forensic investigations.
• Forensic genetic fingerprinting can be defined as the comparison of the DNA in a person’s
nucleated cells with that identified in biological matter found at the scene of a crime or with
the DNA of another person for the purpose of identification or exclusion. The application of
these techniques introduces new factual evidence to criminal investigations and court cases.
• The DNA testing process is comprised of four main steps, including
• extraction,
• quantitation ,
• amplification, and
• capillary electrophoresis.
• The procedure for creating a DNA fingerprint consists of:
• First, obtaining a sample of cells, such as skin, hair, or blood cells, which contain DNA.
• The DNA is extracted from the cells and purified, the DNA is then cut at specific points along
the strand with proteins known as restriction enzymes.
• The enzymes produce fragments of varying lengths that are sorted by placing them on a gel
and then subjecting the gel to an electric current (electrophoresis): the shorter the fragment,
the more quickly it moved toward the positive pole (anode).
• The sorted double-stranded DNA fragments are then subjected to a blotting technique in
which they are split into single strands and transferred to a nylon sheet.
 • The fragments undergo autoradiography in which they are exposed to DNA probes--pieces of
synthetic DNA that are made radioactive and that bind to the mini satellites.
• A piece of X-ray film is then exposed to the fragments, and a dark mark is produced at any
point where a radioactive probe had attached.
• The resultant pattern of marks can then be analyzed.
Forensic scientists can compare DNA profiles from different samples to determine if they come from
the same individual or related individuals This information can be used to identify suspects or link
individuals to a crime scene. DNA fingerprinting has been used to solve numerous high- profile cases
and has revolutionized forensic science.

Meat Analogues

Meat analogues, also known as meat substitutes or plant-based meats, are food products designed to
mimic the taste, texture, appearance, and nutritional profile of traditional meat but are made from non-
animal ingredients. These products are developed for consumers seeking alternatives to meat for
health, ethical, or environmental reasons.

Types of Meat Analogues:

1. Plant-Based Meat Analogues:

o These are made primarily from plant proteins, such as soy, wheat, peas, or other
legumes. They often incorporate additional ingredients like fats, flavorings, and
binders to replicate the sensory experience of eating meat.
o Examples:
▪ Soy-Based Products: Tofu, tempeh, and textured vegetable protein (TVP)
are traditional soy-based meat analogues.
▪ Wheat Gluten (Seitan): Seitan is a high-protein product made from wheat
gluten that has a chewy texture similar to meat.
▪ Modern Plant-Based Meats: Companies like Beyond Meat and Impossible
Foods have developed products like burgers, sausages, and nuggets that
closely resemble meat in flavor and texture.
Characteristics of Meat Analogues:

• Nutritional Profile: Meat analogues are often fortified with vitamins and minerals, such as
B12 and iron, to match the nutritional content of animal meat. They are typically lower in
saturated fat and cholesterol.
• Environmental Impact: Meat analogues generally have a lower environmental impact
compared to traditional meat, as they require less land, water, and energy to produce and
generate fewer greenhouse gas emissions.
• Ethical Considerations: Meat analogues offer an alternative for people concerned about
animal welfare, as they do not involve the killing of animals.

Applications:

• Home Cooking: Meat analogues can be used in a variety of dishes, such as burgers, tacos,
stir-fries, and stews, as a direct replacement for animal meat.
• Restaurants and Food Service: Many restaurants and fast-food chains offer meat analogue
options, catering to the growing demand for plant-based meals.
• Processed Foods: Meat analogues are also found in ready-to-eat meals, frozen foods, and
snacks, providing convenient options for consumers.

Challenges:

• Taste and Texture: While modern meat analogues have made significant advancements,
replicating the exact taste and texture of meat remains a challenge.
• Cost: Some meat analogues are more expensive than traditional meat, which can be a barrier
for widespread adoption.
• Consumer Acceptance: Despite growing interest, some consumers may be hesitant to try
meat analogues due to unfamiliarity or skepticism about their taste and health benefits.

8. With rabies vaccine as an example, explain the development of DNA vaccines.

• Rabies is a viral disease that affects the central nervous system of humans and other
mammals. It is typically spread through the saliva of infected animals, most commonly
through bites or scratches. The virus can also be transmitted through contact with the eyes,
nose, or mouth if infected saliva comes into contact with these areas.
• A DNA vaccine for rabies is a type of vaccine that uses a small piece of DNA that encodes
the genetic instructions for producing a protein from the rabies virus.
• This protein is then produced by the cells of the vaccinated individual, which triggers an
immune response and produces immunity against the virus.

Development of DNA Vaccines: The development of DNA vaccines for rabies involves several key
steps:

1. Identification of Antigen:
o The first step is to identify the gene encoding the rabies virus's key antigen, typically
the glycoprotein (G protein), which is responsible for eliciting an immune response in
the host.
2. Construction of the DNA Vaccine:
o The gene for the rabies G protein is inserted into a plasmid, which is a small, circular
piece of DNA that can replicate within cells. This plasmid is engineered to ensure that
the gene is expressed efficiently once inside the host cells.
o The plasmid DNA is then purified and prepared for delivery into the body.
3. Delivery Methods:
 o The DNA vaccine can be delivered into the host via several methods, including
intramuscular or intradermal injection. One advanced technique is electroporation,
where an electrical pulse is applied to create temporary pores in the cell membrane,
allowing the DNA to enter the cells more effectively.
4. Host Immune Response:
o Once inside the host cells, the DNA is transcribed and translated into the rabies virus
G protein. The host's immune system recognizes this foreign protein as an antigen
and mounts an immune response.
o The immune system produces antibodies against the G protein and activates T-cells
that target cells expressing the antigen, preparing the body to respond rapidly if
exposed to the actual rabies virus.
5. Testing and Efficacy:
o DNA vaccines undergo preclinical testing in animal models to evaluate their safety,
immunogenicity, and efficacy. For rabies, animal studies have shown that DNA
vaccines can induce strong, protective immunity.
o Clinical trials in humans are conducted to further assess safety and effectiveness.
DNA vaccines have been found to be generally safe, with minimal side effects, and
they have the potential to be used in both pre-exposure prophylaxis and post-exposure
treatment for rabies.

9. Write short notes on:

a. Bio-bleaching using enzymes
b. Role of lipids in the production of biodiesel
Biobleaching is the bleaching of pulps using enzymes or ligninolytic fungi that reduce the amount
of chemical bleach required to obtain a desirable brightness of pulps.
 Ligninolytic enzymes play a key role in degradation and detoxification of lingo-cellulosic waste
in environment.
The major ligninolytic enzymes are laccase, lignin peroxidase, manganese peroxidase.
Ligninolytic fungi and enzymes (i.e., laccase, manganese peroxidase, and lignin peroxidase) have
been applied recently in the production of second-generation biofuels.
White-rot fungi are the main producers of lignin-oxidizing enzymes. These fungi secrete a
number of oxidative enzymes and some hitherto unknown substances (mediators) into their
environment together effecting a slow but continuous degradation.
The most important lignin-oxidizing enzymes are lignin peroxidases, manganese peroxidases and
laccases. Lignin peroxidase and manganese peroxidase appear to constitute a major component of
the ligninolytic system.
Detoxification of Environmental Pollutants:
• These enzymes play a role in the detoxification of various environmental pollutants. They can
oxidize a wide range of organic pollutants, including aromatic compounds, polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), dyes, pesticides, and industrial chemicals by breaking them
down into less toxic or more biodegradable forms. They contribute to environmental
remediation and pollution control.
• Bioremediation of Contaminated Sites: Ligninolytic enzymes are utilized in bioremediation
processes to clean up sites contaminated with lignin-rich substances, such as industrial
effluents, pulp and paper mill wastewater, and soil polluted with petroleum hydrocarbons.
• Production of High-Value Products: They are used in the production of high-value
products, such as biofuels, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals, through the enzymatic conversion
of lignin-derived compounds into valuable intermediates.
b) Role of lipids in the production of biodiesel
Biodiesel is a renewable fuel made from natural oils and fats, such as vegetable oil, animal fats, or
recycled cooking grease.

Lipids as a Source for Biodiesel: Lipids are organic compounds that are insoluble in water but
soluble in nonpolar solvents. They are made up of fatty acids and glycerol and can be found in various
natural sources, including:

1. Vegetable Oils: Soybean, rapeseed (canola), palm, sunflower, and coconut oils are
commonly used in biodiesel production. These oils are rich in triglycerides, which are the
main lipid molecules used in biodiesel production.
2. Animal Fats: Tallow, lard, and fish oil are examples of animal fats that can also be converted
into biodiesel. These fats are often by-products of meat processing industries.
3. Waste Oils: Used cooking oils and grease are another important source of lipids for biodiesel
production. Recycling waste oils reduces waste and lowers the cost of biodiesel production.

• It is an alternative to conventional fossil diesel and can be used in diesel engines with little or
no modification. The primary feedstocks for biodiesel production are lipids, which include
vegetable oils, animal fats, and waste cooking oils.
• It is produced through a process called transesterification, which involves reacting these oils
or fats with an alcohol (usually methanol or ethanol) in the presence of a catalyst (such as
sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide). This reaction converts the oils or fats into fatty
 acid methyl esters (FAME), which are the chemical compounds that make up biodiesel, along
with glycerin as a byproduct.
• This chemical reaction converts an ester (vegetable oil or animal fat) into a mixture of esters
of the fatty acids that makes up the oil (or fat).
• Biodiesel is obtained from the purification of the mixture of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME).
• A catalyst is used to accelerate the reaction.

Fig: Transesterification reaction

Fig: Biodiesel production process

10. Compare the architecture of brain with CPU using necessary tabulations.
Human Brain Computer
Brain is constituted with neurons and synapses. Computer can be constructed using IC,
transistors, diodes, capacitors, and transistors.

The memory growth of a brain increases every time The memory growth of the computer can be
synaptic links are connected. increased by adding memory chips to it

The brain has a built-in backup system. The backup systems are manually constructed.

Brain has a memory power of about 100 teraflops Computer has a memory power of about 100
(approx. 100 trillion calculations/seconds) million megabytes.

The memory density of the brain is 107 circuits/cm3. Computer has a memory density of
1014 bits/cm3 .
The energy consumption is 12 watts of power. The energy consumption is in terms of
gigawatts of power.
The information is stored as electrochemical and The information is stored in numeric and
electric impulses. symbolic form (as in binary bits).
The weight of the brain is around 3.3 pounds. Its size and weight varies depending on type
system- from a few grams to tons.

The information is transmitted using chemicals that The communication happens using electrical
fire the action potential in the neurons. coded signals.

The information processing ability of the brain is low. Computer has the ability to process large
amounts of information.
The input or output equipment is the sensory organs. The input and/or output equipment includes
keyboards, mouse, web cameras.

Brain is self-organized. Computer has a pre-programmed structure.

Brain implements massive amounts of parallelism. Computer has limited parallelism.

Brain is reliable, and self-maintaining. Since computer performs a monotonous job, it

can’t rectify its mistakes on its own.

11. Explain Human Blood Substitutes with HBOCs and PFCs as an example.

Blood substitutes are developed to mimic and fulfill some functions of biological blood, primarily to
carry and deliver oxygen to tissues and remove carbon dioxide. Two main types of blood substitutes
are Hemoglobin-Based Oxygen Carriers (HBOCs) and Perfluorocarbons (PFCs). These substitutes
aim to provide solutions for situations where blood transfusions are unavailable or impractical, such
as during massive blood loss, in remote locations, or for patients with rare blood types.
Hemoglobin-Based Oxygen Carriers (HBOCs)

1. Mechanism and Structure:

• Hemoglobin Derivatives: HBOCs are derived from hemoglobin, the protein in red blood
cells responsible for oxygen transport. They can be based on human hemoglobin, bovine
hemoglobin, or recombinant hemoglobin.
• Modification Techniques: To enhance the functionality and stability of hemoglobin outside
the red blood cell environment, various modifications are made. These include
polymerization, encapsulation, and cross-linking of hemoglobin molecules to prevent rapid
breakdown and renal toxicity.

2. Advantages:

• Immediate Availability: HBOCs can be stored and used immediately, unlike donated blood
which may require typing and cross-matching.
• Universal Compatibility: They are designed to be universally compatible, reducing the risk
of immunological reactions.
• No Risk of Disease Transmission: HBOCs eliminate the risk of transmitting infectious
diseases, which can be a concern with donated blood.

3. Challenges:

• Vasoactivity: Free hemoglobin can scavenge nitric oxide, leading to vasoconstriction and
hypertension. This has been a significant issue with some HBOC formulations.
• Short Circulatory Half-Life: Despite modifications, HBOCs tend to have a shorter half-life
in the circulatory system compared to natural red blood cells.
• Oxidative Stress: Hemoglobin outside the red blood cell environment can promote the
formation of reactive oxygen species, potentially causing oxidative damage to tissues.

4. Clinical Applications:

• Emergency Medicine: HBOCs are used in situations of acute blood loss where immediate
oxygen delivery is critical.
• Military Use: They are beneficial in battlefield settings where blood supply logistics are
challenging.
• Surgery: HBOCs can be used during surgeries to maintain oxygen delivery when blood
transfusion is not an option.

Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)

1. Mechanism and Structure:

• Synthetic Compounds: PFCs are synthetic compounds with a high capacity to dissolve and
carry gases, including oxygen and carbon dioxide.
• Emulsification: PFCs are hydrophobic and must be emulsified with surfactants to be
administered intravenously. This forms tiny droplets capable of transporting oxygen.

2. Advantages:

• High Oxygen Solubility: PFCs can dissolve large amounts of oxygen, facilitating efficient
oxygen transport.
 • Non-Immunogenic: PFCs are inert and do not elicit immune responses, making them safe for
use in various patients.
• Rapid Clearance: PFCs are rapidly cleared from the body through exhalation, reducing the
risk of long-term side effects.

3. Challenges:

• Limited Oxygen Delivery: The amount of oxygen PFCs can carry is lower compared to
hemoglobin, limiting their effectiveness in severe hypoxia.
• Complex Administration: The requirement for emulsification and careful administration
poses practical challenges.
• Side Effects: Some formulations of PFCs have been associated with side effects such as flu-
like symptoms and potential liver toxicity.

4. Clinical Applications:

• Augmenting Oxygenation: PFCs can be used to augment oxygenation in patients with

respiratory distress or during surgeries with expected blood loss.
• Oxygenating Tumors: PFCs are investigated for their potential to oxygenate hypoxic
tumors, enhancing the effectiveness of radiotherapy.
• Liquid Ventilation: In experimental settings, PFCs have been used in liquid ventilation to
improve gas exchange in premature infants or patients with severe lung injury.

12. Explain architecture of human eye and rod and cone cells with a diagram.
The human eye is a complex organ responsible for the sense of vision. It functions by capturing light
and converting it into electrical signals that are interpreted by the brain. The eye's structure is
designed to focus light accurately onto the retina, where photoreceptor cells, known as rods and
cones, detect the light and initiate the process of vision.

Fig: Human Eye

Key Components of the Human Eye:

1. Cornea:
 o The cornea is the transparent, dome-shaped front layer of the eye that covers the iris,
pupil, and anterior chamber. It refracts (bends) light entering the eye and provides
most of the eye's optical power.
2. Pupil:
o The pupil is the black circular opening in the center of the iris. It controls the amount
of light that enters the eye by changing size—dilating in low light and constricting in
bright light.
3. Iris:
o The iris is the colored part of the eye surrounding the pupil. It contains muscles that
adjust the size of the pupil, regulating the amount of light that enters the eye.
4. Lens:
o The lens is a transparent, flexible structure located behind the pupil. It further focuses
light rays onto the retina by changing its shape through a process called
accommodation.
5. Retina:
o The retina is a thin layer of tissue lining the back of the eye. It contains photoreceptor
cells (rods and cones) that detect light and convert it into electrical signals.
6. Fovea:
o The fovea is a small pit in the center of the retina responsible for sharp central vision.
It contains a high concentration of cone cells, allowing for detailed color vision.
7. Optic Nerve:
o The optic nerve transmits visual information from the retina to the brain. The signals
are interpreted by the brain to create images.
8. Sclera:
o The sclera is the white, opaque outer layer of the eye that provides structure and
protection. It is continuous with the cornea at the front of the eye.
9. Choroid:
o The choroid is a layer of blood vessels between the retina and the sclera. It supplies
oxygen and nutrients to the retina.
10. Aqueous and Vitreous Humors:
o The aqueous humor is a clear fluid in the anterior chamber between the cornea and
lens, helping maintain eye pressure and providing nutrients.
o The vitreous humor is a gel-like substance filling the space between the lens and the
retina, maintaining the eye's shape and supporting the retina.

Architecture of Rod and Cone cells:

Rod and Cone Cells:

• The retina contains two main types of photoreceptor cells: rods and cones. These cells play a
critical role in detecting light and enabling vision.
Rod and Cone Distribution in Retina:

• A cross-sectional view of the retina showing the distribution of rod and cone cells.
• Rods are more numerous and are found primarily in the outer regions of the retina.
• Cones are concentrated in the fovea, the central part of the retina responsible for sharp vision.

1. Rod Cells:
o Rod cells are highly sensitive to light and are responsible for vision in low-light
conditions (scotopic vision). They do not detect color and are more numerous than
cone cells, especially in the peripheral retina.
o Rods are shaped like elongated cylinders and contain a photopigment called
rhodopsin, which is sensitive to low levels of light.
2. Cone Cells:
o Cone cells are responsible for color vision and function best in bright light (photopic
vision). There are three types of cones, each sensitive to different wavelengths of
light—red, green, and blue.
o Cones are concentrated in the fovea and are shorter and wider than rods. They contain
photopigments called opsins, which allow for the perception of different colors.

13. Explain Lungs as a purification system and the gas exchange mechanism with a neat
labelled diagram.
The lung purifies air by removing harmful substances and adding oxygen to the bloodstream. The
architecture of the lung is designed to maximize surface area for efficient gas exchange. The lung is
divided into several parts, including the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli.
 Fig: Architecture of Lungs
• Trachea: The trachea is the main airway that leads from the larynx (voice box) to the lungs. It is
lined with cilia and mucus-secreting glands that help to filter out harmful substances and trap them in
the mucus.
• Bronchi: The trachea branches into two main bronchi, one for each lung. The bronchi are larger
airways that continue to branch into smaller airways called bronchioles.
• Bronchioles: The bronchioles are smaller airways that eventually lead to the alveoli. They are
surrounded by tiny air sacs called alveoli, which are the sites of gas exchange.
Alveoli: The alveoli are tiny air sacs that are lined with a network of capillaries. This close proximity
of the alveoli and capillaries allows for efficient diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the
air in the alveoli and the bloodstream.
The process of purifying air in the lungs can be described as follows:
• Filtration: The nose and mouth serve as a first line of defense against harmful substances in the air,
such as dust, dirt, and bacteria. The tiny hairs in the nose, called cilia, and the mucus produced by the
respiratory system trap these substances and prevent them from entering the lungs.
• Moisturization: The air is also humidified as it passes over the moist lining of the respiratory tract,
which helps to keep the airways moist and prevent them from drying out.
• Gas Exchange: Once the air reaches the alveoli, the gas exchange process occurs, where oxygen
diffuses across the thin alveolar and capillary walls into the bloodstream, and carbon dioxide diffuses
in the opposite direction, from the bloodstream into the alveoli to be exhaled. This process ensures
that the bloodstream is supplied with fresh, oxygen-rich air, while waste carbon dioxide is removed
from the body.
 Fig: Gas exchange mechanism in alveolus
• The gas exchange mechanism in the lung involves the transfer of oxygen from the air in the
alveoli to the bloodstream, and the transfer of carbon dioxide from the bloodstream to the air
in the alveoli. This process is known as diffusion and occurs due to differences in partial
pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
• • Oxygen Diffusion: The partial pressure of oxygen in the air in the alveoli is higher than the
partial pressure of oxygen in the bloodstream. This difference creates a gradient that causes
oxygen to diffuse from the alveoli into the bloodstream, where it binds to hemoglobin in red
blood cells to form oxyhemoglobin.
• • Carbon Dioxide Diffusion: The partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream is
higher than the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the air in the alveoli. This difference
creates a gradient that causes carbon dioxide to diffuse from the bloodstream into the alveoli,
where it is exhaled.

14. Explain the reasons for blockage of blood vessels, adding a note on the design of stents.
Blockages in blood vessels can result from various factors, leading to reduced or obstructed blood
flow and potentially causing serious health issues. Here are some common reasons for blood vessel
blockages:
1. Atherosclerosis:
• Description: The buildup of fatty deposits (plaques) on the inner walls of arteries.
• Causes: High cholesterol, high blood pressure, smoking, diabetes, obesity, and a sedentary
lifestyle.
• Impact: Can lead to coronary artery disease, carotid artery disease, and peripheral artery
disease.
2. Blood Clots (Thrombosis):
• Description: Formation of clots within blood vessels.
 • Types:
• Arterial Thrombosis: Clots form in arteries, often due to atherosclerosis.
• Venous Thrombosis: Clots form in veins, such as deep vein thrombosis (DVT).
• Causes: Immobility, certain medications, genetic clotting disorders, and medical conditions
like cancer.
3. Inflammation of Blood Vessels (Vasculitis):
• Description: Inflammation that can cause vessel narrowing or blockage.
• Causes: Autoimmune diseases, infections, and certain medications.
• Impact: Can affect arteries, veins, and capillaries, leading to reduced blood flow and organ
damage.
• 4. High cholesterol levels: Excessive amounts of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol
in the blood can lead to the formation of plaque in the blood vessels, which can narrow or
block them.
• 5. High blood pressure: Over time, high blood pressure can cause damage to the blood
vessels, leading to the formation of plaque and blockages.
• 6. Smoking: Smoking can damage the inner walls of blood vessels and promote the buildup
of plaque, leading to blockages.
• 7. Diabetes: People with uncontrolled diabetes are at a higher risk of developing blockages in
their blood vessels, due to damage to the blood vessels from high levels of glucose.
• 8. Age: As people age, the blood vessels can become stiff and less flexible, increasing the risk
of blockages.
• 9. Genetics: Some people may be predisposed to developing blockages in their blood vessels
due to genetic factors.
• 10. Poor diet: A diet high in saturated fats, trans fats, and cholesterol can increase the risk of
developing blockages in the blood vessels.
A stent is a tiny wire mesh tube that keeps an artery propped open to increase blood flow to the heart
and relieve chest pain. When plaque builds up in a coronary artery (which feeds the heart muscle), it
can narrow the artery, potentially reducing blood flow and causing symptoms like chest pain. Here are
some key points about stents:
• Types of Stents:
• Bare Metal Stents: These are simple metal mesh tubes.
• Drug-Eluting Stents: Coated with medicine that releases into the artery over time,
preventing narrowing.
• Biodegradable Stents: Temporary stents that dissolve after a few months
• Design Features:
• The design of stents can vary depending on the type of stent and the specific medical
condition it is used to treat. Some common design features of stents include:
 • Shape: Stents can be designed in a variety of shapes, including cylindrical, helical, and
spiraled, to match the shape of the blood vessel and provide adequate support.
• Material: Stents can be made of different materials, including stainless steel, cobalt
chromium, and nitinol (a type of metal that is flexible and can return to its original shape after
being expanded).
• Coating: Stents can be coated with different materials to prevent blood clots from forming
and reduce the risk of restenosis (recurrent blockage of the blood vessel).
• Drug Coating (for DES): Antiproliferative drugs like sirolimus or paclitaxel to prevent
tissue growth that can block the artery.
• Expansion mechanism: Stents can be designed to expand in different ways, such as by balloon
inflation or self-expansion, depending on the type of stent and the specific medical condition
it is used to treat.
• Overall, the design of stents plays an important role in their effectiveness and safety. Stents
must be designed to provide adequate support to the blood vessel, prevent restenosis, and
minimize the risk of complications such as blood clots.

15. Apply the concept of echolocation to explain Ultrasonography and SONAR.

Echolocation occurs when an animal emits a sound wave that bounces off an object, returning an echo
that provides information about the object’s distance and size. This principle is central to both
ultrasonography and SONAR, although they are applied in different contexts.

Ultrasonography
Ultrasonography (or ultrasound imaging) uses high-frequency sound waves to create images of the
inside of the body.

• Diagnostic ultrasound, also called sonography or diagnostic medical sonography, is an

imaging method that uses sound waves to produce images of structures within your body. The
images can provide valuable information for diagnosing and directing treatment for a variety
of diseases and conditions.

Mechanism

• Emission: A transducer emits high-frequency sound waves (usually above the range of
human hearing) into the body.
• Reflection: These waves travel through body tissues and reflect off structures with different
densities (e.g., organs, tissues, fluids).
• Reception: The transducer receives the echoes as they bounce back.
• Analysis: The time taken for the echoes to return and their intensity are used to construct an
image of the internal structures. The images are displayed on a monitor and can be analyzed
to assess the condition of internal organs and tissues.

Applications of Ultrasonography

Ultrasonography is a versatile imaging method that is used in a wide range of medical applications.

• Some of the most common uses of ultrasonography include:

• Obstetrics and gynecology: Ultrasonography is commonly used to monitor the growth and
development of a fetus during pregnancy, as well as to evaluate the reproductive organs and
female pelvic organs for conditions such as ovarian cyst, fibroids, and endometrial cancer.

• Abdominal imaging: Ultrasonography is used to image the organs of the abdomen, such as
the liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, and kidney, to diagnose conditions such as liver disease,
gallstones, pancreatitis and kidney stones.

• Musculoskeletal imaging: Ultrasonography is used to image the muscles, tendons, and

ligaments to diagnose conditions such as muscle strain, tendonitis, and ligament sprains.

• Vascular imaging: Uranography is used to image blood vessels, such as the arteries and
veins, to diagnose conditions such as clots, blockages, and aneurysms.

SONAR

SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging) is used primarily in maritime contexts to detect objects
underwater.

• Transmission: A sonar system consists of a transmitter that produces and emits a series of
sound pulses into the water. These sound pulses are typically in the form of high- frequency,
low-power acoustic signals, known as "ping."
• Reflection: These sound waves travel through the water and reflect off underwater objects
(e.g., fish, ships, the seafloor).
• Reception: The system receives the reflected echoes.
• Analysis: The time delay and intensity of the echoes are used to determine the distance, size,
and shape of the objects. SONAR can be used for navigation, mapping the seafloor, and
locating underwater objects.
 Applications of SONAR
• • Naval applications: Sonars are used by naval vessels to detect and locate other ships,
submarines, and underwater obstacles, allowing them to navigate safely and avoid potential
collisions.
• • Fishery: Sonars are used in the fishing industries to locate schools of fish and determine the
depth of the water allowing fishermen to more efficiently target their catch.
• • Oceanography: Sonar are used in oceanography to study the physical and biological
properties of the ocean including the structure of the ocean floor, the movement of currents,
and the distribution of marine life.
• • Environmental monitoring: Sonars are used to monitor the health of marine ecosystems,
track the migration pattern of whales and other marine mammals, and assess the impact of
human activities on the ocean environment.

16. Illustrate the biomimicry of the following mechanisms:

a. Photovoltaic cell
b. Bionic leaf
c. Bird flying in GPS technology and Aircrafts
• Photovoltaic cells, commonly known as solar cells, are devices that convert light energy
directly into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect.
• The development of photovoltaics has been heavily influenced by the natural process of
photosynthesis, and many researchers have sought to mimic and improve upon the efficiency
and effectiveness of photosynthesis in order to develop more advanced and efficient
photovoltaic systems.
• Photosynthesis is the process by which plants. algae, and some bacteria convert light energy
from the sun into chemical energy stored in organic molecules. This process is critical for life
on Earth, as it provides the primary source of energy for all living organisms.
• In plants, photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts of the cells located in the leaves. The
process starts with the absorption of light energy by pigments such as chlorophyll, which then
excites electrons.
• These excited electrons are used, to power the transfer of carbon dioxide into organic
molecules, such as sugars and starches, through a series of chemical reactions. The end
product of photosynthesis in plants is stored chemical energy in the form of organic
compounds.
Working principle of a PV cell
The working principle of a photovoltaic (PV) cell involves the conversion of sunlight into electricity
through the photovoltaic effect.
• Photon Absorption: When light (photons) strikes the surface of a photovoltaic cell, it is
absorbed by the cell's semiconductor material.
• Electron Excitation: The absorbed energy excites electrons in the semiconductor, knocking
them loose from their atoms and creating electron-hole pairs.
• Electric Field Creation: The cell has an electric field that drives these free electrons toward
one side of the cell and the holes toward the other side.
• Current Generation: This movement of electrons creates a flow of electric current when the
cell is connected to an external circuit.
 • Voltage Production: The difference in electric potential between the two sides of the cell
produces a voltage.

Photovoltaic cells can be used in numerous applications which are mentioned below:
• Residential Solar Power: Solar panels installed on rooftops or in backyard arrays capture
sunlight used to power household appliances and lighting.
• Solar Power Plants: Photovoltaic cells are used in utility-scale solar power plants to generate
large amounts of electricity for distribution to the grid. These solar farms consist of thousands
of solar panels arranged over vast areas of land, providing clean and renewable energy to
communities and cities.
• Solar Water Pumping: Photovoltaic cells power solar water pumping systems used for
irrigation, livestock watering, and drinking water supply in rural and off-grid locations.
• Solar-Powered Transportation: Photovoltaic cells are utilized in solar-powered vehicles,
including solar cars, bicycles, boats, and aircraft.
• Space Applications: Photovoltaic cells are extensively used in space exploration and satellite
missions to generate electrical power for spacecraft and space stations.
• Portable Electronics and Charging Stations: Photovoltaic cells are integrated into portable
electronic devices such as solar-powered chargers, backpacks, and lanterns.

d. Bionic leaf

A bionic leaf is an innovative technology designed to mimic the natural photosynthesis process of
plants, converting sunlight into chemical energy. It's a significant development in the field of artificial
photosynthesis and renewable energy.

Working principle of a bionic leaf:

• Light Absorption: Bionic leaves use specialized materials to absorb sunlight. These
materials can be designed to capture a broad spectrum of light.
• Water Splitting: The absorbed light energy is used to split water molecules into hydrogen
and oxygen. This process typically involves a catalyst and an electrochemical cell. The
hydrogen gas produced can be used as a clean fuel.
• Carbon Dioxide Reduction: In some advanced designs, bionic leaves also capture carbon
dioxide from the air and convert it into useful organic compounds, such as carbohydrates or
other chemicals. This process can help reduce greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
• Energy Storage: The hydrogen or other products generated can be stored and used later as a
clean energy source. The energy stored can be used to power fuel cells, batteries, or other
applications.

Components of Bionic Leaf

• Photocatalysts: Materials that use light to drive chemical reactions. These are essential for
splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen.
• Electrodes: Conductive materials that facilitate the movement of electrons during the
chemical reactions.
• Membranes: Thin layers that separate different components of the system and ensure that the
reactions occur efficiently.

Applications and benefits

1. Renewable Energy Production: Bionic leaves offer a way to produce clean energy from
sunlight and water, potentially providing an alternative to fossil fuels.
2. Carbon Dioxide Reduction: By capturing and converting CO₂, bionic leaves can help
mitigate climate change.
3. Sustainable Agriculture: If used to produce organic compounds, bionic leaves could
contribute to more sustainable agricultural practices.
4. Remote Power Supply: They could be used to generate power in remote locations where
traditional energy infrastructure is unavailable.

Challenges

1. Efficiency: Current bionic leaf technologies are not yet as efficient as natural photosynthesis
or traditional energy sources. Researchers are working to improve their efficiency.
2. Cost: The materials and technologies used in bionic leaves can be expensive, which may limit
their widespread adoption.
3. Scalability: Scaling up the technology for widespread use presents technical and economic
challenges.
 c. Bird flying in GPS technology and aircrafts
• GPS (Global Positioning System) is a technology that uses a network of satellites to provide
location and time information to users. The technology works by measuring the time it
takes for signals to travel from satellites to a receiver on the ground or in a vehicle, and
using this information to calculate the user's position. Here are some key components of
GPS technology:
• Satellites: The GPS satellite network consists of 24-32 satellites orbiting the Earth. These
satellites continuously broadcast signals containing information about their location, time, and
status.
• Receivers: GPS receivers, which are typically integrated into devices such as smartphones,
navigation system, and aircraft, receive signals from GPS satellite and use the information to
calculate the user’s position.
• Control segments: The control segments consist of ground-based monitoring stations that
track the GPS satellite, check the accuracy of their signals and make adjustments as needed.
• User segments: The user segments consist of the GPS receivers used by individual and
organization to obtain location and time information.
• GPS technology has a wide range of applications, including navigation, mapping, surveying,
search and rescue, and military operations. The accuracy and reliability of GPS have
improved over time, and the technology continues to evolve with new developments in
satellite and receiver technology, as well as the integration of GPS with other technologies
such as augmented reality and artificial intelligence.

Criteria Aircrafts Birds

Mechanism GPS technology in aircraft relies Birds use a combination of visual cues, magnetic fields,
on signals received from satellites landmarks, and celestial navigation to navigate and
to determine precise position, orient themselves during flight.
velocity, and time.

Accuracy GPS technology provides highly Birds have remarkable navigational abilities but may
accurate position information with not possess the same level of accuracy as GPS.
a margin of error typically within However, birds can adjust their flight path based on
a few meters. real-time environmental cues, which allows for more
dynamic and adaptable navigation.

Sensory Input GPS technology relies solely on Birds integrate various sensory inputs for navigation.
receiving satellite signals. They can perceive and interpret visual cues, such as
landmarks and the position of the sun or stars and they
may also have sensitivity to Earth's magnetic field,
enabling them to navigate across vast distances.

Adaptability GPS technology in aircraft Birds, on the other hand, demonstrate remarkable
provides consistent and reliable adaptability in their navigation abilities. They can adjust
navigation regardless of the their flight paths based on changing weather conditions,
environmental condition or time wind patterns, and other factors, which allows for
of day. efficient long-distance migration and navigation
through complex landscapes.
Evolutionary GPS technology is a human-made Birds, however, have evolved over millions of years,
Aspect innovation designed to enhance developing specialized neural and physiological
navigation and safety in aircraft. adaptations that enable them to navigate and fly
efficiently in diverse habitats

• Biomimicry has led to the development of various technologies inspired by birds’ flight.
Some examples include:
• Wing design: The shape of bird wings has inspired the design of aircraft wings, which have
evolved to be more aerodynamic and fuel-efficient as a result. The study of bird flight has
also led to the development of winglets, small structures at the tip of wings that reduce drag
and increase lift.
• Flapping-Wing drones: Researches have developed drones that use flapping wings to fly,
mimicking the way birds and insects fly. These drones can be used for various application,
such as monitoring crops and wildlife, inspecting building and infrastructure, and search and
rescue operations.
• Soaring algorithms: Soaring refers to the flight technique used by birds and certain aircraft
to stay aloft and travel long distances with minimal energy expenditure. It involves utilizing
rising air currents, such as thermals, ridge lift, wind shear, or atmospheric waves, to gain
altitude and maintain flight. Birds use thermals, or columns of rising warm air, to gain altitude
and soar. Researchers have developed algorithms inspired by bird flight to help gliders and
other aircraft use thermals more efficiently, leading to longer and more sustainable flights.
• Landing gear: The legs and feet of birds have inspired the design of landing gear for aircraft,
with shock-absorbing and retractable structures that help absorb impact upon landing.

17. Evaluate the role of bioimaging and AI in Disease diagnosis.

• Bioimaging is a non-invasive process of visualizing biological activity in a specific period. It

does not inhibit the various life processes such as movement, respiration, etc., and it helps to
report the 3D structure of specimens apart from inferencing physically.
• It is helpful in connecting the observation of subcellular structures and all the tissues in the
multicellular organisms. The imaging of biological samples, or bioimaging, plays a key role
in current life science research, enabling scientists to analyze molecules, cells and tissues
from a range of living systems.
• Bioimaging spans the observation of subcellular structures and entire cells over tissues up to
entire multicellular organisms. Among others, it uses light, fluorescence, electrons,
ultrasound, X-ray, magnetic resonance and positrons as sources for imaging.
 i) Magnetic Resonance Imaging(MRI)
MRI uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of soft tissues. It is used
in:

• Visualizing High Soft Tissue Contrast: Excellent for visualizing brain, spinal cord, and joint
tissues.
• Disease Detection: Useful in diagnosing neurological disorders, tumors, and musculoskeletal
injuries.
• Functional MRI (fMRI): Measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow, aiding
in the study of brain functions and disorders.

ii) Positron Emission Tomography

PET imaging uses radioactive tracers to visualize metabolic activity within tissues. It is mostly used
in:

• Early Detection: Sensitive to changes in metabolic activity, making it effective for detecting
cancers, heart disease, and neurological disorders at early stages.
• Disease Staging: Helps in staging cancer and assessing the response to therapy.

iii) Computed Tomography (CT Scan)

Computed Tomography (CT) Scan is a diagnostic imaging technique that combines X-ray
technology with computer processing to create detailed cross-sectional images of the body. CT scans
provide a more comprehensive view of internal structures compared to traditional X-rays, allowing
for accurate diagnosis and assessment of various medical conditions. It provides:

• Detailed Cross-Sectional Images: Provides clear images of internal organs and structures.
• Rapid Diagnosis: Useful in emergency situations for quick assessment of injuries, tumors,
and internal bleeding.
• 3D Imaging: Advanced techniques provide 3D reconstructions for better visualization and
planning of surgeries.

iv) Nanoparticle Fluorescence Imaging

Nanoparticle fluorescence imaging is an advanced imaging technique that uses fluorescent

nanoparticles to visualize and track biological processes at the molecular and cellular levels. This
method leverages the unique properties of nanoparticles to provide high-resolution, sensitive, and
specific imaging.

Applications

1. Cellular and Molecular Imaging: Nanoparticles can label specific cellular components or
markers, allowing researchers to visualize cell morphology, distribution, and interactions with
high resolution.
2. Disease Diagnosis: Nanoparticle fluorescence imaging is used to identify and characterize
disease biomarkers. For example, it can be employed to detect cancer cells, monitor the
progression of diseases, or evaluate the efficacy of treatments.
3. Drug Delivery and Monitoring: Nanoparticles can be used to deliver therapeutic agents
specifically to target cells or tissues. Fluorescence imaging helps monitor the distribution and
release of these agents in vivo.

AI in Disease Diagnosis
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is revolutionizing disease diagnosis by enhancing accuracy, efficiency, and
personalization in medical practice. AI encompasses various technologies, including machine learning
(ML), deep learning (DL), and natural language processing (NLP), which can analyze vast amounts of
data and identify patterns that might be missed by human clinicians.

i) Machine Learning and Deep Learning:

Machine Learning involves training algorithms to learn from data and make predictions or decisions
without being explicitly programmed. Deep Learning, a subset of ML, uses neural networks with
multiple layers to analyze complex patterns in data. Both are extensively used in disease diagnosis:

• Medical Imaging: AI algorithms analyze medical images (e.g., X-rays, CT scans, MRIs) to
detect abnormalities such as tumors, fractures, or lesions. Deep learning models can
outperform traditional methods in identifying subtle patterns and abnormalities.
o Example: AI systems like Google Health's DeepMind have demonstrated high
accuracy in detecting diabetic retinopathy and age-related macular degeneration from
retinal images.
• Pathology: AI assists pathologists in examining tissue samples and identifying cancerous
cells or other pathological features. AI systems can analyze digital pathology slides and
provide diagnostic support.
o Example: PathAI’s algorithms help pathologists by flagging potential cancerous
regions in biopsy samples, improving diagnostic accuracy.
• Radiology: AI can enhance the interpretation of radiological images by providing automated
measurements, identifying patterns, and suggesting potential diagnoses.
o Example: IBM Watson Health has developed AI tools that assist radiologists in
interpreting chest X-rays and CT scans for signs of pneumonia and lung cancer.

ii) Predictive analysis and Risk Assessment

AI models can analyze patient data, including medical history, genetic information, and lifestyle
factors, to predict the likelihood of developing certain diseases:

• Risk Prediction: AI algorithms assess risk factors and predict the likelihood of diseases such
as heart disease, diabetes, or cancer, enabling early intervention and personalized treatment
plans.
o Example: The Framingham Heart Study risk score, enhanced with AI, predicts
cardiovascular disease risk based on various health metrics.
• Genomic Data Analysis: AI tools analyze genetic data to identify mutations or biomarkers
associated with diseases, enabling personalized medicine approaches.
o Example: AI-driven platforms like Foundation Medicine analyze genomic data to
provide insights into cancer genomics and treatment options.

iii) Natural Language Processing

NLP enables AI systems to understand and process human language, which is valuable for extracting
information from unstructured medical records and literature:

• Electronic Health Records (EHRs): AI-driven NLP tools can extract relevant information
from EHRs, improving data organization, and facilitating better clinical decision-making.
o Example: IBM Watson for Oncology uses NLP to analyze unstructured clinical notes
and provide evidence-based treatment recommendations for cancer patients.
• Medical Literature: NLP can sift through vast amounts of medical literature to identify
relevant studies, summarize findings, and support evidence-based practices.
 o Example: Semantic Scholar uses NLP to help researchers find relevant studies and
understand trends in biomedical research.

iv) Decision Support Systems

AI-based decision support systems assist healthcare professionals in making clinical decisions by
providing evidence-based recommendations and alerts:

• Clinical Decision Support: AI systems analyze patient data and offer diagnostic suggestions
or treatment recommendations based on evidence from medical literature and historical data.
o Example: Aidoc’s AI platform provides radiologists with real-time alerts for critical
findings in CT scans, such as pulmonary embolism or intracranial hemorrhage.
• Virtual Health Assistants: AI-powered chatbots and virtual assistants offer preliminary
diagnostic support, answer patient queries, and guide patients through symptom assessment.
o Example: Babylon Health’s AI-powered chatbot provides symptom checking and
medical advice based on patient inputs.

v) Personalization and Precision Medicine

AI enables a more personalized approach to medicine by tailoring treatments to individual patient

characteristics and predicting responses to therapies:

• Personalized Treatment Plans: AI analyzes patient-specific data to recommend personalized

treatment plans and optimize drug selection.
o Example: Tempus uses AI to analyze clinical and molecular data, offering
personalized treatment recommendations for cancer patients.
• Drug Development: AI accelerates drug discovery by analyzing biological data to identify
potential drug candidates and predict their efficacy and safety.
o Example: Atomwise’s AI platform screens millions of compounds to find potential
drug candidates for various diseases.

18. Discuss Bioremediation and biomining via microbial surface adsorption.

Bioremediation and bio mining via microbial surface adsorption:
• Bioremediation is the use of living organisms, primarily microorganisms, to remove or
neutralize contaminants from polluted environments. It is an environmentally friendly and
cost-effective method for cleaning up contaminated soil, water, and air.
Types of Bioremediation:
1) Biostimulation: The bacteria are stimulated to initiate the process. The contaminated soil is first
mixed with special nutrients substances including other vital components either in the form of liquid
or gas. It stimulates the growth of microbes thus resulting in efficient and quick removal of
contaminants by microbes and other bacterias.
2) Bioaugmentation: At times, there are certain sites where microorganisms are required to extract the
contaminants. For example – municipal wastewater. In these special cases, the process of
bioaugmentation is used. There’s only one major drawback in this process. It almost becomes
impossible to control the growth of microorganisms in the process of removing the contaminant.
3) Intrinsic Bioremediation: The process of intrinsic bioremediation is most effective in the soil and
water because of these two biomes which always have a high probability of being full of contaminants
and toxins. The process of intrinsic bioremediation is mostly used in underground places like
underground petroleum tanks. In such place, it is difficult to detect a leakage and contaminants and
toxins can find their way to enter through these leaks and contaminate the petrol. Thus, only
microorganisms can remove the toxins and clean the tanks.
• Immobilization of microbial cells and enzymes by adsorption takes place through their
physical interaction with the surface of water-insoluble carriers.
• This method, commonly used in bioremediation processes, is quick, simple, eco-friendly and
cost-effective.

Microbial Surface Adsorption in Bioremediation

• Adsorption of Contaminants: Microbial cells can adsorb pollutants onto their surfaces,
including heavy metals and organic compounds. This process helps in concentrating
contaminants and facilitating their subsequent removal or transformation.
o Example: Certain bacteria and fungi can adsorb heavy metals like lead, cadmium,
and mercury on their cell walls, reducing their availability and toxicity in the
environment.
• Biofilm Formation: Microbes often form biofilms on surfaces such as soil particles or rock
formations. Within these biofilms, contaminants are adsorbed and degraded by microbial
communities.
o Example: Bacterial biofilms in wastewater treatment plants can adsorb and degrade
organic pollutants, improving water quality.

Biomining

Biomining is the extraction of valuable metals from ores or waste materials using microorganisms.
This method is used for mining metals like copper, gold, and uranium. This approach has gained
prominence as a way to reduce the environmental impact of traditional mining methods and improve
resource recovery.

Mechanism of Biomining:

• Bioleaching: Microorganisms, particularly acidophilic bacteria and archaea, oxidize metal

sulphides (e.g., chalcopyrite for copper, pyrite for iron) to release metals from ores. This
process involves the dissolution of metal ions into a solution that can then be recovered.
o Example: Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Leptospirillum ferrooxidans are
bacteria that oxidize iron and sulfur compounds, aiding in the extraction of metals
like copper and gold.

• Acid Production: Some microbes produce acids (e.g., sulfuric acid) that dissolve metal ions
from ore surfaces, facilitating the extraction process.
o Example: Ferroplasma acidarmanus, an archaeon, produces sulfuric acid that helps
in leaching copper from low-grade ores.

• Biooxidation: Microorganisms oxidize metal sulfides to enhance the recovery of precious

metals during the processing of ores.
o Example: Biooxidation is used to improve gold recovery from refractory ores by
oxidizing sulfide minerals that encapsulate gold particles.

Microbial Surface Adsorption in Biomining

 • Metal Ion Binding: Microbial surfaces can adsorb metal ions, which facilitates the
concentration of metals from dilute solutions. This process can enhance metal recovery by
increasing the efficiency of subsequent extraction processes.
o Example: Certain bacterial strains can adsorb gold ions from solution, concentrating
them and facilitating their recovery.
• Bioleaching Enhancements: Surface adsorption of metal ions by microbial cells can enhance
bioleaching efficiency by increasing the availability of metals for microbial oxidation.
o Example: Adsorption of copper ions by bacteria can improve the rate of copper
extraction from ores by providing a higher concentration of ions in the leaching
solution.

Applications:

• Environmental Cleanup: Bioremediation helps in the cleanup of contaminated sites,

reducing environmental and health risks associated with pollutants. It is used in the
remediation of oil spills, heavy metal contamination, and hazardous waste sites.
• Sustainable Mining: Biomining provides a more sustainable alternative to conventional
mining methods by reducing the environmental impact and energy consumption associated
with metal extraction.
• Resource Recovery: Both bioremediation and biomining contribute to resource recovery and
waste minimization, turning pollutants and waste materials into valuable resources.

19. Develop bioengineering solutions using scaffolds and tissue engineering concepts for
muscular dystrophy and osteoporosis with diagrams.

• Bioengineering solutions for muscular dystrophy and osteoporosis using scaffolds and tissue
engineering involve creating supportive structures and environments to regenerate or repair
damaged tissues.
• Muscular dystrophy is a group of genetic disorders that result in progressive weakness and
degeneration of the skeletal muscles, which are responsible for movement. The disorders are
caused by mutations in genes that encode proteins needed for muscle function.
• The most common type of muscular dystrophy is Duchenne muscular dystrophy, which
typically affects young boys and leads to severe disability by early adulthood. Other forms of
the disease include Becker muscular dystrophy, limb-girdle muscular dystrophy, and
facioscapulohumeral dystrophy, among others.
• There is currently no cure for muscular dystrophy, but various treatments can help manage
symptoms and slow the progression of the disease. These may include physical therapy,
assistive devices, orthopedic surgery, and medication to manage muscle spasms and pain. In
some cases, genetic therapy and stem cell transplantation are also being explored as potential
treatment options.
• Bioengineering solutions for muscular dystrophy:
• Gene therapy: This involves delivering a functional copy of the missing or mutated gene to
the affected muscle cells. The goal is to restore the production of the missing protein and
improve muscle function.
• Stem cell therapy: This involves using stem cells to replace the damaged muscle cells and
promote repair and regeneration of the muscle tissue. Stem cells can be taken from the
patient's own body (autologous stem cells) or from a donor (allogenic stem cells).
• Tissue engineering: This involves using a combination of materials, such as scaffolds and
growth factors, to promote the growth and repair of muscle tissue. The goal is to create
 functional muscle tissue that can replace the damaged tissue in individuals with muscular
dystrophy.
The basic steps in this process are as follows:
• Harvesting of muscle cells: Muscle cells are typically obtained from the patient and then
isolated and expanded in culture.
• Seeding onto scaffold: The muscle cells are then seeded onto a scaffold, such as a hydrogel or
artificial matrix. The scaffold provides a framework for the cells to grow and differentiate into
new tissue.
• Cell differentiation and tissue formation: Once the cells are seeded onto the scaffold, they
undergo differentiation, in which they change into specific cell types, such as muscle cells or
heart cells. The cells also begin to organize and form new tissue, such as heart tissue or
skeletal muscle tissue.
• Implantation into patient: The scaffold and cells are then implanted into the patient to
promote the growth of new, functional tissue.
Bioengineering Solutions for Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis
• Osteoporosis is a condition that weakens the bones and makes them more likely to break
(fracture), especially the bones in the hip, spine, and wrist. It occurs when the body loses bone
mass and density more quickly than it can be replaced, leading to fragile bones that are prone
to fracture. Osteoporosis is a common condition, especially among older women, and it can
increase the risk of falls and fractures, which can result in significant pain and disability.
• Bioengineering solutions for osteoporosis aim to improve bone health and prevent fractures.
Some of the approaches being explored include:
• Tissue engineering: This involves using scaffolds and growth factors to stimulate the growth
of new bone tissue and promote the repair of damaged bones. The goal is to create functional
bone tissue that can replace the lost bone mass and density in individuals with osteoporosis.
• Biomaterials: This involves using synthetic or natural materials to replace or augment
damaged bone tissue. Biomaterials can be designed to mimic the properties of natural bone
and promote the growth of new bone tissue.
• Stem cell therapy: This involves using stem cells to replace the damaged bone cells and
promote the repair and regeneration of bone tissue. Stem cells can be taken from the patient's
own body (autologous stem cells) or from a donor (allogenic stem cells).
• Gene therapy: This involves delivering a functional copy of a gene involved in bone growth
and repair to the affected bone cells. The goal is to restore the production of the missing
protein and improve bone health.

20. Elucidate:
a. DNA Origami
b. Biocomputing
ANSWER:

A) DNA Origami
• DNA origami is the nanoscale folding of DNA to create arbitrary two- and three-dimensional
shapes
• The specificity of the interactions between complementary base pairs makes DNA a useful
construction material, through design of its base sequences.
 • The current method of DNA origami was developed by Paul Rothemund at the California
Institute of Technology.
• The process involves the folding of a long single strand of viral DNA (typically the 7,249 bp
genomic DNA of M13 bacteriophage) aided by multiple smaller "staple" strands. These
shorter strands bind the longer in various places, resulting in the formation of a pre-defined
two or three-dimensional shape.
• To produce a desired shape, images are drawn with a raster fill of a single long DNA
molecule.
• This design is then fed into a computer program that calculates the placement of individual
staple strands.
• Each staple binds to a specific region of the DNA template, and thus due to Watson-Crick
base pairing, the necessary sequences of all staple strands are known and displayed.
• The DNA is mixed, then heated and cooled. As the DNA cools, the various staples pull the
long strand into DNA origami is the nanoscale folding of DNA to create arbitrary two- and
three-dimensional shapes at the nanoscale.
• Designs are directly observable via several methods, including electron microscopy, atomic
force microscopy, or fluorescence microscopy when DNA is coupled with fluorescent
materials.
• Bottom-up self-assembly methods are considered promising alternatives that offer cheap,
parallel synthesis of nanostructures under relatively mild conditions.
• caDNAno is an open source software for creating 3D structures from DNA.
Applications:
The potential applications include:
Enzyme immobilization, drug delivery systems, and nanotechnological self-assembly of materials,
molecular walkers on origami and switches for algorithmic computing.
B) Biocomputing
Bio-computing refers to the use of biological systems, such as cells, enzymes, and DNA, for
computing and information processing. This field combines the principles of computer science,
biology, and engineering to create novel systems for computing and data storage.
Technological Importance
• The technological importance of bio-computing lies in its potential to provide new and
innovative solutions for computing and information processing. Here are some of the key
ways in which bio-computing can impact technology:
• Computational power: Bio-computing systems have the potential to provide new levels of
computational power, as they can perform complex tasks and calculations using biological
processes.
• Data storage: Bio-computing systems can be used to store and process large amounts of data,
as DNA has a high information density [consider that a single gram of DNA can theoretically
store up to 215 petabytes (1 petabyte 1 million gigabytes) of data] and can be easily
synthesized and amplified.
• Medical applications: Bio-computing systems can be used to develop new diagnostic and
therapeutic approaches in medicine, such as biosensors and gene therapies.
• Environmental monitoring: Bio-computing systems can be used to monitor and track
environmental conditions, such as air and water quality, in real-time.
• Energy efficiency: Bio-computing systems are energy-efficient, which is becoming
increasingly important as we face the challenge of climate change and the need to reduce our
energy consumption.
 • Robustness: Bio-computing systems are highly robust, as they are less susceptible to errors
and failures compared to traditional electronic systems.
• Versatility: Bio-computing systems can be programmed and reprogrammed to perform
different tasks, which makes them highly versatile and adaptable.
Advantages of Bio-computing:
• Biocompatibility: Bio-computing systems are made from biological components, which are
biocompatible and less likely to cause an immune response compared to traditional electronic
devices.
• Energy efficiency: Bio-computing systems use significantly less energy than traditional
electronic computers, as they rely on biological processes that occur naturally and do not
require external power.
• Scalability: Bio-computing systems can be easily scaled up or down, as they are based on
biological processes that can be repeated and multiplied.
• Robustness: Bio-computing systems are often more robust and reliable than traditional
electronic systems. as they are less susceptible to errors and failures.
• Flexibility: Bio-computing systems can be programmed and reprogrammed to perform
different tasks, which makes them highly flexible and adaptable.
Limitations of Biocomputing:
• Speed: Bio-computing systems are generally slower than traditional electronic computers, as
they rely on biological processes that occur over time.
• Complexity: Bio-computing systems can be complex and challenging to design and build,
requiring specialized knowledge and expertise.
• Reliability: Bio-computing systems can be unreliable, as they are subject to the fluctuations
and errors inherent in biological systems.
• Cost: Bio-computing systems can be expensive to produce, as they require specialized
materials and equipment.