Astrophysics Summary

1. Our understanding of celestial objects depends upon observations made from Earth or from space near Earth. Discuss Galileos use of the telescope to identify features of the moon.

In 1609, Galileo heard about an invention by a Dutch spectacle maker that used lenses to make objects appear closer. Galileo then designed and made his own telescope to examine planets and stars. Galileo observed the surface of the moon is not smooth and spherical as most philosophers of the time believed. It was uneven, full of cavities and prominences, not unlike the mountains and valleys of Earth. He also was able to find the altitude of mountains of the moon using their shadows and simple geometry. This led to Galileos adoption of Copernicuss heliocentric model of the universe. Discuss why some wavebands can be more easily detected from space.

The Sun, and other celestial bodies, generate electromagnetic radiation in all wavelengths from radio to gamma rays. However, most do not reach the earths surface because various gases and ions in the atmosphere and ionosphere absorb them. Only visible light, radio waves and some UV and IR make it to the ground. This then limits ground-based telescopes to using only visible light and radio waves. Observations of other frequencies must be carried out either from a plane, high-altitude balloon or from a spacecraft. Also, light is scattered and dispersed by gases in the atmosphere that all Define the terms resolution and sensitivity of telescopes.

The Resolution, or resolving power, of telescopes is the ability to distinguish two close objects as separate images. It is measured as an angle subtended at the telescope. Resolution depends on the quality of the lenses or mirrors (so as to prevent aberration), the diameter of the telescope and the wavelength observed. The sensitivity of a telescope is its light gathering ability, which is its ability to see dim stars. It is directly related to the diameter of the objective lens or primary mirror The sensitivity of a telescope is proportional to the square of the radius. Problems with Ground Based Astronomy

Ground-based astronomy is limited to the visible and radio wavelengths of the EM spectrum, as all other wavelengths or fully or partially absorbed by gases and ions. The turbulent nature of the atmosphere places a limit on an optical telescopes resolving power. Due to the motion and difference in densities of gases in the atmosphere, the path of light is not straight and stars appear to twinkle, this phenomenon is known as seeing and limits resolution to around 1 second of arc. Seeing affects optical telescope more than radio telescopes by virtue of the shorter wavelength. Outline methods by which the resolution or sensitivity of ground-based systems can be improved including: adaptive optics, interferometry, and active optics.

Interferomety is a technique used to combine the data from several elements of an antenna array in order to achieve a higher resolution. The angular resolution of a telescope is inversely proportional to the wavelength being observed and proportional to the diameter of the telescope. For radio telescopes, with a

Astrophysics Summary relatively long wavelength, even the largest single radio dish, which is at the edge of practicality, can only achieve a resolution of 175 compared to 1 of optical telescopes. Using interferometry, a number of radio dishes are laid out in a large pattern and the signals are combined to make them behave as a much larger telescope. Active Optics use a slow feedback system to correct sagging or other deformities in the primary mirror of large reflecting telescopes.

As a telescope heats up or cools down or changes direction the primary mirror will change in shape. A wave front sensor is used to detect how incoming light has been altered. A computer then calculates what shape adjustments will need to be made and then moves the actuators situated under the mirror every few minutes. Adaptive Optics use a fast feedback system to attempt to correct for effects of atmospheric turbulences. A wave front sensor is used between the primary mirror and the lens and allows rapid computer-calculated corrections to a secondary mirror to be made around 1000 times per second. Examples KECK I and II two 10m telescopes that use active optics and interferometry. The VLA in New Mexico consists of 27 dishes that give the resolution of a 21km telescope Demonstrate why it is desirable for telescopes to have a large diameter objective lens or mirror in terms of both sensitivity and resolution. Sensitivity1. Set up a light meter in the sunlight 2. If the needle of the meter already indicates a maximum value place both polarizing filters on the on the sensor panel and rotate the top one until the meter slides back to the central reading. 3. Starting with the smallest lens, measure its diameter, and use it to gather the suns light so that it fills the sensor:

4. Record reading, and lens diameter in a table Results: Light reading is proportional to lens area squared

Astrophysics Summary

Resolution

1. Draw two small dots on a piece of paper 2. Hold the two convex lenses so that the image of the dots is in focus 3. Determine the maximum distance you can stand from the paper and still distinguish the 2 dots as separate images 4. Use a larger primary lens and repeat Results The larger the primary lens, the further the distinguish he dots, therefore the higher the resolution. 2. Careful measurement of a celestial objects position in the sky (astrometry) may be used to determine its distance. Define the terms parallax, parsec and light year.

Parallax is the apparent shift in position of a close object against a distant background due to a change in position of the observer. In astrometry, it is measured in seconds of arc (1 degree divided by 3600). A parsec or parallax-second (pc) is a unit of length measurement that corresponds to an annual parallax of 1 second of arc. In which case the position of the star would appear as below: A light year is the distance traveled through space in one year by light.

d=

1 p

When d= distance from earth (pc)

Astrophysics Summary P = parallax (seconds of arc) Remember: when using the above formula, convert light years to pc. 1 pc is equal to 3.26 light years. Hence, the distance is inversely proportional to parallax. The greater the parallax, the closer the star must be. Explain how trigonometric parallax can be used to determine the distance to stars.

The orbit of the Earth around the Sun as this provides a large enough baseline for trigonometric calculations. Observations of a of the apparent movement nearby star against a background of distant stars are made six months apart, so that the earth will be on opposite sides of its orbit, and the greatest change in position will be apparent. This angle is then halved to give a right triangle with a baseline of 1 AU. Basic trigonometry cant then be used to determine the lengths of the sides.

Discuss the limitations of trigonometric parallax measurements.

The angle of parallax for is very small so very sensitive equipment is needed to create accurate measurements; this combined with the effect of atmospheric blurring has limited the smallest parallax to approximately 0.03 seconds of arc.

1 p 1 = 33 pc 0.03 Therefore, the maximum distance of measurement to reasonable accuracy is approximately 33 parsecs. Which is very small in astronomical terms and limits trigonometric parallax to only the closet stars. d =
It takes a minimum of 6 months for the annually parallax of a star to be determined, so calculations take a long time. Determine the relative limits to trigonometric parallax distance determinations using recent ground-based and space-based telescopes.

Between 1989 and 1993 the European HIPPARCOS satellite measured the parallax of over 120,000 stars. As it was above the Earths atmosphere, it was free from the effects of atmospheric distortion. It was able to determine parallax to a precision of 0.001 seconds of arc, over 10 times more precise than ground based technology. Consequently, it was able to determine distances to 1000 pc. 3. Spectroscopy is a vital tool for astronomers and provides a wealth of information.

Astrophysics Summary

Account for the production of emission and absorption spectra and compare these with a continuous blackbody spectrum.

Continuous Black Body Spectra If the light source is a hot, glowing solid, liquid or high-density gas, then full spectrum will be produced that is unevenly distributed with the peak wavelength depending on the temperature. The thermal motion of the electrons in the hot material produces the radiation. Produced in the lab by an incandescent light globe, and celestially by the inner layer of stars (hot, dense gases) and galaxies. Emission Spectra An emission spectrum has the appearance of a long, dark rectangle upon which discrete bright coloured bands appear. When insufficient energy is applied to a sample of a gas, then the electrons remain in the ground state. Yet if sufficient energy is applied then the electrons can jump into higher energy states as they absorb this energy. They then are unstable and return to the ground state in either a single jump or a set of smaller jumps. Each jump emits a particular amount of energy, and consequently a photon of radiation of different wavelength. Each particular element is unique in its atomic structure and will therefore have a unique set of energy levels. This means that each element has its own particular emission spectra fingerprint and it can be identified in celestial bodies. As deduced from the equation E2 - E1 = hf Absorption Spectra An absorption spectra has the appearance of a continuous spectrum upon which discrete lines appear that represent missing wavelengths. Absorption spectra are produced by a cool, non-luminous gas placed in front of a continuous spectrum source. As the continuous spectrum shines through the gas, the atoms of the gas will absorb those particular wavelengths that they would emit if the gas were hot. Absorbing these wavelengths raises the electrons to their excited states, and the radiation is immediately re-emitted as the drop down to the ground state. However, the radiation is emitted in all directions, not just the original direction. This causes dark lines to appear on the spectra which correspond to the fingerprint spectra of the elements present. Technology needed to measure astronomical spectra

A spectroscope is used to disperse a light ray to observe the full spectrum of light. It consists of: A lights source, celestial or other. A collimator, which consists of several slits that produce thin, parallel beam. The light then enters a triangular prism or diffraction grating that disperse the light out into a spectrum The spectrum can then be photographed with film or digitally Spectra Produced by Celestial Bodies Stars - absorption spectra, continuous spectra generated by core, absorption lines caused by cooler outer layers. Some Doppler shift evident. Emission Nebulae - emission spectra (hot gas clouds heated by a nearby star until they glow). Almost always the red/pink of Hydrogen. Little Doppler shift measurable as nebulae neither recede nor approach the earth at great speeds.

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Galaxies composed of vast numbers of stars. Therefore many absorption spectra, yet the individual feature of stars is less prominent and the spectra of the galaxy as a whole is continuous. There is a strong Doppler red shift for distant galaxies. Quasars continuous spectrum with emission lines that fluctuate regularly and rapidly. They are incredibly bright, 10 to 1000 times that of an entire galaxy and have huge red shifts indicting they are very distant and moving away from us rapidly.

Spectral Classification Stars a classified into seven spectral classes based on their surface temperatures: O, B, A, F, G, K and M which is further divided into subdivision 0-9. O being the hottest with a surface temp. of >25,000 K and M being the coolest with <3500 K. The spectral class of a star can be deduced from the strength and type of absorption spectra the star emits. i. The dominant or brightness wavelength of visible light will indicate its temperature. In order of increasing brightness it is red, orange, yellow, white, blue. ii. The lower the surface temperature of a star, the more complex the materials that can exist there. So that cool M stars have strong spectra absorption lines of molecules, medium F stars have metal element lines and hot O stars have ionized helium ions, as ionized hydrogen cannot absorb radiation. Describe how spectra can provide information on surface temperature, rotational and translational velocity, density and chemical composition of stars.

Using a spectrograph to determine the wavelength of maximum output and then using Wiens law to calculate the temperature. The translational velocity of a star can be determined by observing the direction and magnitude of the Doppler shifts of the absorption lines. Rotational velocity as a star spins can be found, as its spectral lines will be simultaneously red and blue shifted, as one side is moving toward us and the other away from us. The faster the star rotates, the greater the broadening of the lines. This method can also determine a rotating binary star system as seen below. High density and pressure within the atmosphere of a star will also broaden its spectral lines. Super giant stars have much narrower lines compared to main sequence stars Chemical composition can also be determined by matching the spectra lines with the known emission spectra of elements in the laboratory. 4. Photometric measurements can be used for determining distance and comparing objects. Define absolute and apparent magnitude

Apparent magnitude, m, is the magnitude given to a star as it is viewed from Earth. This is determined by the brightness of a star, and its distance from Earth. Absolute magnitude, M, is the magnitude that a star would have if it were viewed from a standard distance of 10 pc. Explain how the concept of magnitude can be used to determine the distance to a celestial object.

If the apparent and absolute magnitude of a star are known then the difference between them

Astrophysics Summary will indicate how far the star is from Earth in accordance with the distance modulus formula. . Outline spectroscopic parallax

Spectroscopic parallax is a method of using the H-R diagram and the distance modulus formula to determine the approximate distance of a star. The method involves: 1. Using photometry to determine the apparent magnitude of the star. 2. Using spectroscopy to determine the spectral class (temp/colour) of the star and note the luminosity class (width of lines). 3. Using the H-R diagram, a vertical line is drawn at the appropriate spectra class on the x-axis. From this the approximate position of the star can be found and the absolute magnitude can be determined from the y-axis. 4. M and m are both known, so the distance modulus formula can be used to determine distance. This method only finds approximate distance. Explain how two-colour values (colour index and B-V) are obtained and why they are useful.

The human eye is most sensitive to yellow-green region of the visible spectrum. Consequently, red and blue stars are not judged by the eye be as bright as they really are. While photographic film is most sensitive to the blue region of the spectrum. To provide a more accurate reading of magnitude both values are used. The colour index can also determine the colour and therefore spectral class of the star. Describe the advantages of photoelectric technologies over photographic methods for photometry.

Photoelectric technology is more sensitive to a larger range of wavelengths. It is also more sensitive that photographic film and the data can be fed instantly into a computer for quick observation and analysis and controlled remotely. Assess the impact of improvements in measurement technologies on our understanding of celestial objects.

Key discoveries in imaging and measurement of celestial bodies typically follow the introduction of improved technologies. Tyhco Brahes large metal and wooden quadrants and scales allowed an enormous improvement in the measurements of the position of celestial bodies. Kepler then used Brahes measurements to calculate that the orbit of Mars was elliptical, undermining the accepted belief in circular orbits. The invention of photography in the 19th century allowed lengthy, integrated exposures that produced a permanent image that could be measured and analyzed. It allowed stars to be accurately compared over time, this allowed time-varying phenomenon such as variable stars to be studied. Measurements of plates allowed magnitudes of objects to be determined, and faint objects such as galaxies to be determined. The development of the spectrograph led to the discovery of helium in the sun before it was found on Earth. Hubble combined long-exposure photographic plates with spectral observations to discover that galaxies were separate from the Milky Way and that the Universe is expanding. These discoveries had profound social and philosophical implications. More recently, developments in electronics have allowed astronomers to observe wavelengths other than visible light. The advent of computers and space based telescope has

Astrophysics Summary allowed them to detect and image objects such as nebulae and galaxies across the electromagnetic spectrum. By linking CCDs to optical fiber feeds, spectroscopic surveys such as 2dF have allowed astronomers to observe about 250 000 galaxies and construct 3-d maps of the universe, a vital development to test various cosmological theories. Demonstrate the use of filters for photometric measurements

1. Place a red filter in front of a light ray kit lamp to simulate a red star. 2. Darken the room and place the light sensor at a distance from the lamp to produce an appropriate reading. Record the reading. 3. Place a yellow filter in front of sensor (to simulate the V filter) while keeping everything else the same and take a reading 4. Replace the yellow with a blue filter and take reading (b simulation) 5. Repeat steps 2-4 using a blue filter in front of the ray box to simulate a blue star

5. The study of binary and variable stars reveals vital information about stars. Binary stars consist of two stars gravitationally bound to one another in orbit around a common centre of mass. Describe binary stars in terms of the means of their detections: visual, eclipsing, spectroscopic and astrometric.

Visual binaries are those that can actually be seen orbiting one another when viewed with a telescope. Eclipsing binaries orbit each other in a plane almost parallel to the observers line of sight so that periodically the stars eclipse each other. The eclipsing will create a regular pattern in brightness such as seen below:

Spectroscopic binaries are detected using the spectral shift of the light emitted from each star due to their motion and the Doppler effect. Twice each orbit one star will be moving towards the earth and the other away so that the light received at the Earth has both red and blue Doppler shifts. While when the stars are moving perpendicular to the line of sight no such shift will be observed.

Astrophysics Summary

Astrometric binaries occur when one of the stars is significantly brighter and larger than the other. The unseen partner is too small to be observed yet its presence can be deduced from a detectable wobble in the stars motion. Explain the importance of binary stars in determining stellar masses.

Classify variable stars as either intrinsic or extrinsic and periodic or non-periodic. a. Intrinsic variables change their brightness due to some process within the star that changes their surface temperature. Cepheids are an example. b. Extrinsic variables are stars that change in brightness becomes of some event external to the star itself, Eclipsing variables for example. c. Periodic variables change their brightness in a repeated cycle with a fixed period. d. Non-periodic variables change their brightness irregularly. Eg nova.

Explain the importance of the period-luminosity relationship for determining the distance of cepheids.

Cepheids are super giant stars that are intrinsic, periodic variables and can be identified by their characteristic light curve:

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There are two types of Cepheids, the type I cepheids are massive, old first generation stars while the type II cepheids are small, old and red second generation stars. With both types of Cepheids there is a close relationship between period and luminosity as seen below:

By observing the period and spectra of a Cepheid variable, the type of spectra can be determined and consequently the absolute magnitude can be found. Using direct observation, the stars apparent magnitude can be determined. The distance modulus formula can then be used to calculate the distance to the star. 6. Stars evolve and eventually die. Describe the process involved in stellar formation

A molecular cloud that is sufficiently cool and massive will begin to contract under its own gravity. The collapse starts slow, but increases as the density and mass increases. As the core contracts, the GPE of the gas particles are converted to KE, creating heat energy. This creates an outward force that eventually stabilizes the collapse. This is then called a protostar, which is approximately 1 million years into the process. The surrounding material is still contracting and slowly increases the mass of the protostar. It then develops strong stellar winds that blow away the remnants of the surround cloud that previously obscured it. With no energy source the protostar begins a slow shrinkage. This decreases its size and luminosity but increases the heat. If the mass is above 0.01 solar masses it will reach a temperature (approx 8 million k) that will trigger the fusion of hydrogen within its core. This long lasting energy source stabilizes the star which is no a zero-age main sequence star. Outline the key stages in a stars life in terms of the physical processes involved.

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1. Gases and dust contract under their own gravitational attraction. 2. Contraction continues until sufficient heat provides outward pressure to provide an equilibrium. 3. Slower contraction takes place until nuclear fusion occurs. 4. Extended stable period during main sequence 5. Nuclear fusion ceases as H runs out, so the star contracts. This causes significant heat generation as GPE converted to KE. 6. Fusion of He starts, causing the star to expand. 7. The core has no more fusing material, so it will collapse under its own gravity. 8. Shrinks until it becomes a white dwarf.

Discuss the types of nuclear reactions involved in Main-sequence and post MainSequence stars.

Only H and He were formed by the big bang. All other elements up to Fe were formed by nuclear fusion in stars, and those heavier then Fe in supernovae. Stars spend the majority of their life span in the main sequence stage, in which H is fused to become He losing mass but generating energy through 2 processes with the net reaction in both being:
1 4 41 H 2 He + 2e + + 2

1. The Proton-Proton chain reaction: a series of three reactions that build a helium nucleus by adding protons. It is the first process to start in all stars. It begins with the 2 reactions:
1 1 1 2 H +1 H 1 H + e + + 1 1 2 3 H +1 H 2 He

Heavy Hydrogen and light Helium These 2 reactions occur twice before the final reaction can occur:
3 2 3 4 1 He +2 He 2 He +21 H

2. The carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle (CNO) occurs simultaneously with the PP chain, however it is more dominant in hotter, more massive stars. It uses C produced in previous stars as a catalyst for the process.
1 1 13 7 13 H +12 C 7 N 6

N 13 C + e + + 6
14 H +13 C 7 N 6 15 H +14 N 8 O 7

1 1 1 1 15 8 1 1

15 O 7 N + e + +

12 4 H +15 N 6 C +2 He 7

While red giant stars fuse helium in their core in what is known as the triple alpha reaction.
4 3 2 He 12 C + Radiation 6

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The carbon can then easily fuse with another helium nuclei to from oxygen:
12 6 4 16 C +2 He 8 O + Radiation

Explain how the age of a globular cluster can be determined from its zero-main sequence plot of a H-R diagram. Globular clusters are groups of 100,000 1,000,000 stars in a globe shape. They are useful tools for astronomers since the stars within the cluster formed from the same gas cloud and are therefore of identical age and chemical composition. They only variable betweens stars are their masses. Young clusters will have the most massive stars entering the main sequence while the smaller stars havent reached the MS yet. As the cluster ages, the smaller stars begin hydrogen fusion and enter the main sequence. Clusters of 100 million years or older will have the most massive stars finish fusing hydrogen and become a red giant. As the star ages, the stars leaving the main sequence become smaller. When plotted on a H-R diagram, a turn-off point is seen which is the most massive stars still remaining on the main sequence. From the location of this turn-off point, the age of the cluster can be inferred, the lower the turn-off point the older the cluster. Discuss the synthesis of elements in stars by fusion.

During the big bang, the majority of matter formed was hydrogen with a small amount of helium and other trace elements. Consequently, all other elements that are present today were synthesized by fusion in stars. The fusion in stars is predominantly that of hydrogen to helium in main sequence stars. This occurs through two processes, both with the overall reaction of:
1 4 41 H 2 He + 2e + + 2

The first process is called the proton-proton chain, which is a 3-step process where hydrogen atoms are sequentially added to form a helium atom plus energy. It is a slow process more prevalent in smaller, cooler stars. The second process is the Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen cycle. This occurs simultaneous to the PP chain but is more dominant in more massive, hotter stars. It uses carbon as a cataly7st for a 6-stage cycle where hydrogen atoms are continually added and large amounts of energy is released. When a stars hydrogen fuel source runs out, its outwards radiation pressure will decrease causing gravitational contraction. This heats the star as gravitational potential energy is converted to heat energy. If the star is massive enough, the temperature in the core will increase to a point where the fusion of helium to carbon is triggered. This process of contracting, heating and fusing heavier elements will continue until a the temperature reached isnt high enough or a core of Iron is formed, which cannot be fused under normal circumstances. Consequently, elements up to Iron can be made by the normal fusion reactions in a stars core. Once a star can not fuse the element formed in its core it will begin to collapse. If the star has a mass greater than 5 solar masses it will implode uncontrollably and rebound in a massive super nova. A super nova is so hot and intense that there are uncontrollable nuclear fusion reactions of all elements up to uranium.

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Explain the concept of star death in relation to: planetary nebula, supernovae, white dwarfs, neutron stars pulsars and black holes.

Eventually, a star develops are core of material that it cannot fuse, due to either lack of heat or it has reached Fe, which will not fuse. Fusion in the core ceases while the shells are still fusing lighter elements. For stars of 5 solar masses or less, the core begins to collapse under its own gravity leaving the unsupported shells unstable. The shells produced thermal pulses and super winds that disperse rapidly the shells in a ring shaped nebula known as a planetary nebula. The core collapses to make a very dense, small and hot white dwarf. Which is only prevented from complete collapse by the electron degeneracy pressure, if its mass is below 1.4 solar masses. Stars of 5 solar masses or more develop more layers in their shell, yet still experience the pulses and super winds of small giants. The difference is that as the core collapses the electron degeneracy pressure is not enough stop it. Just how far depends on the mass of the core. For cores between 1.4 and 3 solar masses, the matter is crushed to an extent that electrons and protons are forced together to form a sea of neutrons. The collapse is stopped eventually by neutron degeneracy pressure creating a neutron star that is only 10 15 km in diameter. If the core is greater than 3 solar masses nothing can stop the collapse of the core so that the matter reaches infinite density, known as a black hole. In both cases, the core collapse draws in the remaining shell gases and they rebound from this implosion in a supernova. This is a violent explosion of uncontrolled nuclear reactions that completely blows away the various layers of a massive star.