Waste management

Waste management or waste disposal includes the processes and actions required to
manage waste from its inception to its final disposal.[1] This includes
the collection, transport, treatment, and disposal of waste, together with monitoring and
regulation of the waste management process and waste-related laws, technologies, and
economic mechanisms.

Waste can either be solid, liquid, or gases and each type has different methods of
disposal and management. Waste management deals with all types of waste,
including industrial, biological, household, municipal, organic, biomedical, radioactive
wastes. In some cases, waste can pose a threat to human health.[2] Health issues are
associated with the entire process of waste management. Health issues can also arise
indirectly or directly: directly through the handling of solid waste, and indirectly through
the consumption of water, soil, and food.[2] Waste is produced by human activity, for
example, the extraction and processing of raw materials.[3] Waste management is
intended to reduce the adverse effects of waste on human health, the environment,
planetary resources, and aesthetics.

The aim of waste management is to reduce the dangerous effects of such waste on the
environment and human health. A big part of waste management deals with municipal
solid waste, which is created by industrial, commercial, and household activity.[4]

Waste management practices are not the same across countries

(developed and developing nations); regions (urban and rural areas),
and residential and industrial sectors can all take different approaches.[5]

Proper management of waste is important for building sustainable and liveable cities,
but it remains a challenge for many developing countries and cities. A report found that
effective waste management is relatively expensive, usually comprising 20%–50% of
municipal budgets. Operating this essential municipal service requires integrated
systems that are efficient, sustainable, and socially supported.[6] A large portion of waste
management practices deal with municipal solid waste (MSW) which is the bulk of the
waste that is created by household, industrial, and commercial activity.[7] According to
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), municipal solid waste is
expected to reach approximately 3.4 Gt by 2050; however, policies and lawmaking can
reduce the amount of waste produced in different areas and cities of the
world.[8] Measures of waste management include measures for integrated techno-
economic mechanisms[9] of a circular economy, effective disposal facilities, export and
import control[10][11] and optimal sustainable design of products that are produced.

In the first systematic review of the scientific evidence around global waste, its
management, and its impact on human health and life, authors concluded that about a
fourth of all the municipal solid terrestrial waste is not collected and an additional fourth
is mismanaged after collection, often being burned in open and uncontrolled fires – or
close to one billion tons per year when combined. They also found that broad priority
areas each lack a "high-quality research base", partly due to the absence of
"substantial research funding", which motivated scientists often require.[12][13] Electronic
waste (ewaste) includes discarded computer monitors, motherboards, mobile phones
and chargers, compact discs (CDs), headphones, television sets, air conditioners and
refrigerators. According to the Global E-waste Monitor 2017, India generates ~ 2 million
tonnes (Mte) of e-waste annually and ranks fifth among the e-waste producing
countries, after the United States, the People's Republic of
China, Japan and Germany.[14]

Effective 'Waste Management' involves the practice of '7R' - 'R'efuse, 'R'educe', 'R'euse,
'R'epair, 'R'epurpose, 'R'ecycle and 'R'ecover. Amongst these '7R's, the first two
('Refuse' and 'Reduce') relate to the non-creation of waste - by refusing to buy non-
essential products and by reducing consumption. The next two ('Reuse' and 'Repair')
refer to increasing the usage of the existing product, with or without the substitution of
certain parts of the product. 'Repurpose' and 'Recycle' involve maximum usage of the
materials used in the product, and 'Recover' is the least preferred and least efficient
waste management practice involving the recovery of embedded energy in the waste
material. For example, burning the waste to produce heat (and electricity from heat).
Certain non-biodegradable products are also dumped away as 'Disposal', and this is not
a "waste-'management'" practice

Principles of waste management

[edit]

Diagram of the waste hierarchy

Waste hierarchy
[edit]
The waste hierarchy refers to the "3 Rs" Reduce, Reuse and Recycle, which classifies
waste management strategies according to their desirability in terms of waste
minimisation. The waste hierarchy is the bedrock of most waste minimization strategies.
The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from
products and to generate the minimum amount of end waste; see: resource
recovery.[16][17] The waste hierarchy is represented as a pyramid because the basic
premise is that policies should promote measures to prevent the generation of waste.
The next step or preferred action is to seek alternative uses for the waste that has been
generated, i.e., by re-use. The next is recycling which includes composting. Following
this step is material recovery and waste-to-energy. The final action is disposal, in
landfills or through incineration without energy recovery. This last step is the final resort
for waste that has not been prevented, diverted, or recovered.[18][page needed] The waste
hierarchy represents the progression of a product or material through the sequential
stages of the pyramid of waste management. The hierarchy represents the latter parts
of the life-cycle for each product

Life-cycle of a product
The life-cycle of a product, often referred to as the product lifecycle, encompasses
several key stages that begin with the design phase and proceed through manufacture,
distribution, and primary use. After these initial stages, the product moves through the
waste hierarchy's stages of reduce, reuse, and recycle. Each phase in this lifecycle
presents unique opportunities for policy intervention, allowing stakeholders to rethink
the necessity of the product, redesign it to minimize its waste potential, and extend its
useful life.

During the design phase, considerations can be made to ensure that products are
created with fewer resources, are more durable, and are easier to repair or recycle. This
stage is critical for embedding sustainability into the product from the outset. Designers
can select materials that have lower environmental impacts and create products that
require less energy and resources to produce.

Manufacturing offers another crucial point for reducing waste and conserving resources.
Innovations in production processes can lead to more efficient use of materials and
energy, while also minimizing the generation of by-products and emissions. Adopting
cleaner production techniques and improving manufacturing efficiency can significantly
reduce the environmental footprint of a product.

Distribution involves the logistics of getting the product from the manufacturer to the
consumer. Optimizing this stage can involve reducing packaging, choosing more
sustainable transportation methods, and improving supply chain efficiencies to lower the
overall environmental impact. Efficient logistics planning can also help in reducing fuel
consumption and greenhouse gas emissions associated with the transport of goods.

The primary use phase of a product's lifecycle is where consumers interact with the
product. Policies and practices that encourage responsible use, regular maintenance,
and the proper functioning of products can extend their lifespan, thus reducing the need
for frequent replacements and decreasing overall waste.

Once the product reaches the end of its primary use, it enters the waste hierarchy's
stages. The first stage, reduction, involves efforts to decrease the volume and toxicity of
waste generated. This can be achieved by encouraging consumers to buy less, use
products more efficiently, and choose items with minimal packaging.

The reuse stage encourages finding alternative uses for products, whether through
donation, resale, or repurposing. Reuse extends the life of products and delays their
entry into the waste stream.

Recycling, the final preferred stage, involves processing materials to create new
products, thus closing the loop in the material lifecycle. Effective recycling programs can
significantly reduce the need for virgin materials and the environmental impacts
associated with extracting and processing those materials.

Product life-cycle analysis (LCA) is a comprehensive method for evaluating the

environmental impacts associated with all stages of a product's life. By systematically
assessing these impacts, LCA helps identify opportunities to improve environmental
performance and resource efficiency. Through optimizing product designs,
manufacturing processes, and end-of-life management, LCA aims to maximize the use
of the world's limited resources and minimize the unnecessary generation of waste.

In summary, the product lifecycle framework underscores the importance of a holistic

approach to product design, use, and disposal. By considering each stage of the
lifecycle and implementing policies and practices that promote sustainability, it is
possible to significantly reduce the environmental impact of products and contribute to a
more sustainable future.

Resource efficiency
Resource efficiency reflects the understanding that global economic growth and development
can not be sustained at current production and consumption patterns. Globally, humanity
extracts more resources to produce goods than the planet can replenish. Resource efficiency is
the reduction of the environmental impact from the production and consumption of these goods,
from final raw material extraction to the last use and disposal.

Polluter-pays principle
The polluter-pays principle mandates that the polluting parties pay for the impact on the
environment. With respect to waste management, this generally refers to the requirement for a
waste generator to pay for appropriate disposal of the unrecoverable materials

History
Throughout most of history, the amount of waste generated by humans was insignificant
due to low levels of population density and exploitation of natural resources. Common
waste produced during pre-modern times was mainly ashes and human biodegradable
waste, and these were released back into the ground locally, with
minimum environmental impact. Tools made out of wood or metal were generally
reused or passed down through the generations.

However, some civilizations have been more profligate in their waste output than others.
In particular, the Maya of Central America had a fixed monthly ritual, in which the people
of the village would gather together and burn their rubbish in large dumps

Modern era
Following the onset of the Industrial Revolution, industrialisation, and the sustained
urban growth of large population centres in England, the buildup of waste in the cities
caused a rapid deterioration in levels of sanitation and the general quality of urban life.
The streets became choked with filth due to the lack of waste clearance
regulations.[22] Calls for the establishment of municipal authority with waste removal
powers occurred as early as 1751, when Corbyn Morris in London proposed that "... as
the preservation of the health of the people is of great importance, it is proposed that
the cleaning of this city, should be put under one uniform public management, and all
the filth be...conveyed by the Thames to proper distance in the country".[23]

However, it was not until the mid-19th century, spurred by increasingly

devastating cholera outbreaks and the emergence of a public health debate that the first
legislation on the issue emerged. Highly influential in this new focus was the report The
Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population in 1842[24] of the social reformer, Edwin
Chadwick, in which he argued for the importance of adequate waste removal and
management facilities to improve the health and wellbeing of the city's population.

In the UK, the Nuisance Removal and Disease Prevention Act of 1846 began what was
to be a steadily evolving process of the provision of regulated waste management in
London.[25] The Metropolitan Board of Works was the first citywide authority that
centralized sanitation regulation for the rapidly expanding city, and the Public Health Act
1875 made it compulsory for every household to deposit their weekly waste in
"moveable receptacles" for disposal—the first concept for a dustbin.[26] In the Ashanti
Empire by the 19th century, there existed a Public Works Department that was
responsible for sanitation in Kumasi and its suburbs. They kept the streets clean daily
and commanded civilians to keep their compounds clean and weeded.[27]
 Manlove, Alliott & Co. Ltd. 1894 destructor furnace. The use
of incinerators for waste disposal became popular in the late 19th century.
The dramatic increase in waste for disposal led to the creation of the
first incineration plants, or, as they were then called, "destructors". In 1874, the first
incinerator was built in Nottingham by Manlove, Alliott & Co. Ltd. to the design of Alfred
Fryer.[23] However, these were met with opposition on account of the large amounts of
ash they produced and which wafted over the neighbouring areas. [28]

Similar municipal systems of waste disposal sprung up at the turn of the 20th century in
other large cities of Europe and North America. In 1895, New York City became the first
U.S. city with public-sector garbage management.[26]

Early garbage removal trucks were simply open-bodied dump trucks pulled by a team of
horses. They became motorized in the early part of the 20th century and the first
closed-body trucks to eliminate odours with a dumping lever mechanism were
introduced in the 1920s in Britain.[29] These were soon equipped with 'hopper
mechanisms' where the scooper was loaded at floor level and then hoisted
mechanically to deposit the waste in the truck. The Garwood Load Packer was the first
truck in 1938, to incorporate a hydraulic compacto

Waste handling and transport

Waste collection methods vary widely among different countries and regions. Domestic waste
collection services are often provided by local government authorities, or by private companies
for industrial and commercial waste. Some areas, especially those in less developed countries,
do not have formal waste-collection systemS

Waste handling practices

[edit]

Curbside collection is the most common method of disposal in most European

countries, Canada, New Zealand, the United States, and many other parts of the
developed world in which waste is collected at regular intervals by specialised trucks.
This is often associated with curb-side waste segregation. In rural areas, waste may
need to be taken to a transfer station. Waste collected is then transported to an
appropriate disposal facility. In some areas, vacuum collection is used in which waste is
transported from the home or commercial premises by vacuum along small bore tubes.
Systems are in use in Europe and North America.
Main article: Automated vacuum collection

In some jurisdictions, unsegregated waste is collected at the curb-side or from waste

transfer stations and then sorted into recyclables and unusable waste. Such systems
are capable of sorting large volumes of solid waste, salvaging recyclables, and turning
the rest into bio-gas and soil conditioners. In San Francisco, the local government
established its Mandatory Recycling and Composting Ordinance in support of its goal of
"Zero waste by 2020", requiring everyone in the city to keep recyclables and
compostables out of the landfill. The three streams are collected with the curbside
"Fantastic 3" bin system – blue for recyclables, green for compostables, and black for
landfill-bound materials – provided to residents and businesses and serviced by San
Francisco's sole refuse hauler, Recology. The city's "Pay-As-You-Throw" system
charges customers by the volume of landfill-bound materials, which provides a financial
incentive to separate recyclables and compostables from other discards. The city's
Department of the Environment's Zero Waste Program has led the city to achieve 80%
diversion, the highest diversion rate in North America.[30] Other businesses such
as Waste Industries use a variety of colors to distinguish between trash and recycling
cans. In addition, in some areas of the world the disposal of municipal solid waste can
cause environmental strain due to official not having benchmarks that help measure
the environmental sustainability of certain practices.[31]

Waste segregation
[edit]

Further information: Waste separation

Recycling point at the Gdańsk University of Technology

This is the separation of wet waste and dry waste. The purpose is to recycle dry waste
easily and to use wet waste as compost. When segregating waste, the amount of waste
that gets landfilled reduces considerably, resulting in lower levels of air and water
pollution. Importantly, waste segregation should be based on the type of waste and the
most appropriate treatment and disposal. This also makes it easier to apply different
processes to the waste, like composting, recycling, and incineration. It is important to
practice waste management and segregation as a community. One way to practice
waste management is to ensure there is awareness. The process of waste segregation
should be explained to the community.[32]

Segregated waste is also often cheaper to dispose of because it does not require as
much manual sorting as mixed waste. There are a number of important reasons why
waste segregation is important such as legal obligations, cost savings, and protection of
human health and the environment. Institutions should make it as easy as possible for
their staff to correctly segregate their waste. This can include labelling, making sure
there are enough accessible bins, and clearly indicating why segregation is so
important.[33] Labeling is especially important when dealing with nuclear waste due to
how much harm to human health the excess products of the nuclear cycle can cause.[34]

Hazards of waste management

[edit]

There are multiple facets of waste management that all come with hazards, both for
those around the disposal site and those who work within waste management.
Exposure to waste of any kind can be detrimental to the health of the individual, primary
conditions that worsen with exposure to waste are asthma and tuberculosis.[35] The
exposure to waste on an average individual is highly dependent on the conditions
around them, those in less developed or lower income areas are more susceptible to
the effects of waste product, especially though chemical waste.[36] The range of hazards
due to waste is extremely large and covers every type of waste, not only chemical.
There are many different guidelines to follow for disposing different types of waste.[37]

Diagram showing the multiple ways that incineration is hazardous

to the population

The hazards of incineration are a large risk to many variable communities, including
underdeveloped countries and countries or cities with little space for landfills or
alternatives. Burning waste is an easily accessible option for many people around the
globe, it has even been encouraged by the World Health Organization when there is no
other option.[38] Because burning waste is rarely paid attention to, its effects go
unnoticed. The release of hazardous materials and CO2 when waste is burned is the
largest hazard with incineration.[39]

Financial models
[edit]

In most developed countries, domestic waste disposal is funded from a national or local
tax which may be related to income, or property values. Commercial and industrial
waste disposal is typically charged for as a commercial service, often as an integrated
charge which includes disposal costs. This practice may encourage disposal contractors
to opt for the cheapest disposal option such as landfill rather than the environmentally
best solution such as re-use and recycling.
 Financing solid waste management projects can be overwhelming for the city
government, especially if the government see it as an important service they should
render to the citizen. Donors and grants are a funding mechanism that is dependent on
the interest of the donor organization. As much as it is a good way to develop a city's
waste management infrastructure, attracting and utilizing grants is solely reliant on what
the donor considers important. Therefore, it may be a challenge for a city government to
dictate how the funds should be distributed among the various aspect of waste
management.[40]

An example of a country that enforces a waste tax is Italy. The tax is based on two
rates: fixed and variable. The fixed rate is based on the size of the house while the
variable is determined by the number of people living in the house.[41]

The World Bank finances and advises on solid waste management projects using a
diverse suite of products and services, including traditional loans, results-based
financing, development policy financing, and technical advisory. World Bank-financed
waste management projects usually address the entire lifecycle of waste right from the
point of generation to collection and transportation, and finally treatment and disposa

Disposal methods

Waste management
60 languages

 Article
 Talk
 Read
 Edit
 View history
Tools
















Appearance
hide

Text

Small

Standard

Large

Width

Standard

Wide

Color (beta)

Automatic

Light

Dark

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

14 September: Wikipedia still won't be sold.

We're sorry we've asked you a few times recently, but it's Saturday, 14 September, and
our fundraiser doesn't last long. Wikipedia is free and doesn't rely on ads. If everyone
reading this gave ₹ 25, we'd reach our goal in a few hours. Just 2% of our readers
donate, so if Wikipedia has given you ₹ 25 worth of knowledge, kindly donate today.
Any contribution helps, whether it's ₹ 25 or ₹ 1,000.

 Give ₹ 25

 Give a different amount

 Maybe later I already donatedClose

For the company, see Waste Management (corporation). For other uses, see Waste
management (disambiguation).

"Waste disposal" redirects here. For the kitchen device, see Garbage disposal unit.

Not to be confused with Sanitary engineering.

hideThis article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these
issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these messages)

This article needs additional citations for verification. (May 2011)

This article may be too technical for most readers to understand. (December
2022)

Part of a series on

Pollution

Air pollution from a factory

show

Air

show

Biological
 show

Digital

show

Electromagnetic

show

Natural

show

Noise

show

Radiation

show

Soil

hide

Solid waste

 Advertising mail
 Biodegradable waste
 Brown waste
 Electronic waste
 Foam food container
 Food waste
 Green waste
 Hazardous waste
  Industrial waste
 Litter
 Mining
 Municipal solid waste
 Nanomaterials
 Plastic
 Packaging waste
 Post-consumer waste
 Waste management

show

Space

show

Thermal

show

Visual

show

War

show

Water

show

Topics

show

Misc

 Environment portal
 Ecology portal
  v
 t
 e

A specialized trash collection truck providing regular

municipal trash collection in a neighborhood in Stockholm, Sweden

Waste pickers burning e-waste in Agbogbloshie, a site near

Accra in Ghana that processes large volumes of international electronic waste. The pickers burn
the plastics off of materials and collect the metals for recycling, However, this process exposes

pickers and their local communities to toxic fumes. Containers for

consumer waste collection at the Gdańsk University of Technology
 A recycling and waste-to-energy plant for waste that is not
exported

Waste management or waste disposal includes the processes and actions required to
manage waste from its inception to its final disposal.[1] This includes
the collection, transport, treatment, and disposal of waste, together with monitoring and
regulation of the waste management process and waste-related laws, technologies, and
economic mechanisms.

Waste can either be solid, liquid, or gases and each type has different methods of
disposal and management. Waste management deals with all types of waste,
including industrial, biological, household, municipal, organic, biomedical, radioactive
wastes. In some cases, waste can pose a threat to human health.[2] Health issues are
associated with the entire process of waste management. Health issues can also arise
indirectly or directly: directly through the handling of solid waste, and indirectly through
the consumption of water, soil, and food.[2] Waste is produced by human activity, for
example, the extraction and processing of raw materials.[3] Waste management is
intended to reduce the adverse effects of waste on human health, the environment,
planetary resources, and aesthetics.

The aim of waste management is to reduce the dangerous effects of such waste on the
environment and human health. A big part of waste management deals with municipal
solid waste, which is created by industrial, commercial, and household activity.[4]

Waste management practices are not the same across countries

(developed and developing nations); regions (urban and rural areas),
and residential and industrial sectors can all take different approaches.[5]

Proper management of waste is important for building sustainable and liveable cities,
but it remains a challenge for many developing countries and cities. A report found that
effective waste management is relatively expensive, usually comprising 20%–50% of
municipal budgets. Operating this essential municipal service requires integrated
systems that are efficient, sustainable, and socially supported.[6] A large portion of waste
management practices deal with municipal solid waste (MSW) which is the bulk of the
waste that is created by household, industrial, and commercial activity.[7] According to
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), municipal solid waste is
expected to reach approximately 3.4 Gt by 2050; however, policies and lawmaking can
reduce the amount of waste produced in different areas and cities of the
world.[8] Measures of waste management include measures for integrated techno-
economic mechanisms[9] of a circular economy, effective disposal facilities, export and
import control[10][11] and optimal sustainable design of products that are produced.

In the first systematic review of the scientific evidence around global waste, its
management, and its impact on human health and life, authors concluded that about a
fourth of all the municipal solid terrestrial waste is not collected and an additional fourth
is mismanaged after collection, often being burned in open and uncontrolled fires – or
close to one billion tons per year when combined. They also found that broad priority
areas each lack a "high-quality research base", partly due to the absence of
"substantial research funding", which motivated scientists often require.[12][13] Electronic
waste (ewaste) includes discarded computer monitors, motherboards, mobile phones
and chargers, compact discs (CDs), headphones, television sets, air conditioners and
refrigerators. According to the Global E-waste Monitor 2017, India generates ~ 2 million
tonnes (Mte) of e-waste annually and ranks fifth among the e-waste producing
countries, after the United States, the People's Republic of
China, Japan and Germany.[14]

Effective 'Waste Management' involves the practice of '7R' - 'R'efuse, 'R'educe', 'R'euse,
'R'epair, 'R'epurpose, 'R'ecycle and 'R'ecover. Amongst these '7R's, the first two
('Refuse' and 'Reduce') relate to the non-creation of waste - by refusing to buy non-
essential products and by reducing consumption. The next two ('Reuse' and 'Repair')
refer to increasing the usage of the existing product, with or without the substitution of
certain parts of the product. 'Repurpose' and 'Recycle' involve maximum usage of the
materials used in the product, and 'Recover' is the least preferred and least efficient
waste management practice involving the recovery of embedded energy in the waste
material. For example, burning the waste to produce heat (and electricity from heat).
Certain non-biodegradable products are also dumped away as 'Disposal', and this is not
a "waste-'management'" practice.[15]

Principles of waste management

[edit]
 Diagram of the waste hierarchy

Waste hierarchy
[edit]

The waste hierarchy refers to the "3 Rs" Reduce, Reuse and Recycle, which classifies
waste management strategies according to their desirability in terms of waste
minimisation. The waste hierarchy is the bedrock of most waste minimization strategies.
The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from
products and to generate the minimum amount of end waste; see: resource
recovery.[16][17] The waste hierarchy is represented as a pyramid because the basic
premise is that policies should promote measures to prevent the generation of waste.
The next step or preferred action is to seek alternative uses for the waste that has been
generated, i.e., by re-use. The next is recycling which includes composting. Following
this step is material recovery and waste-to-energy. The final action is disposal, in
landfills or through incineration without energy recovery. This last step is the final resort
for waste that has not been prevented, diverted, or recovered.[18][page needed] The waste
hierarchy represents the progression of a product or material through the sequential
stages of the pyramid of waste management. The hierarchy represents the latter parts
of the life-cycle for each product.[19]

Life-cycle of a product
[edit]

This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this
section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (May 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this
 message)

The life-cycle of a product, often referred to as the product lifecycle, encompasses

several key stages that begin with the design phase and proceed through manufacture,
distribution, and primary use. After these initial stages, the product moves through the
waste hierarchy's stages of reduce, reuse, and recycle. Each phase in this lifecycle
presents unique opportunities for policy intervention, allowing stakeholders to rethink
the necessity of the product, redesign it to minimize its waste potential, and extend its
useful life.

During the design phase, considerations can be made to ensure that products are
created with fewer resources, are more durable, and are easier to repair or recycle. This
stage is critical for embedding sustainability into the product from the outset. Designers
can select materials that have lower environmental impacts and create products that
require less energy and resources to produce.

Manufacturing offers another crucial point for reducing waste and conserving resources.
Innovations in production processes can lead to more efficient use of materials and
energy, while also minimizing the generation of by-products and emissions. Adopting
cleaner production techniques and improving manufacturing efficiency can significantly
reduce the environmental footprint of a product.

Distribution involves the logistics of getting the product from the manufacturer to the
consumer. Optimizing this stage can involve reducing packaging, choosing more
sustainable transportation methods, and improving supply chain efficiencies to lower the
overall environmental impact. Efficient logistics planning can also help in reducing fuel
consumption and greenhouse gas emissions associated with the transport of goods.

The primary use phase of a product's lifecycle is where consumers interact with the
product. Policies and practices that encourage responsible use, regular maintenance,
and the proper functioning of products can extend their lifespan, thus reducing the need
for frequent replacements and decreasing overall waste.

Once the product reaches the end of its primary use, it enters the waste hierarchy's
stages. The first stage, reduction, involves efforts to decrease the volume and toxicity of
waste generated. This can be achieved by encouraging consumers to buy less, use
products more efficiently, and choose items with minimal packaging.

The reuse stage encourages finding alternative uses for products, whether through
donation, resale, or repurposing. Reuse extends the life of products and delays their
entry into the waste stream.

Recycling, the final preferred stage, involves processing materials to create new
products, thus closing the loop in the material lifecycle. Effective recycling programs can
significantly reduce the need for virgin materials and the environmental impacts
associated with extracting and processing those materials.
Product life-cycle analysis (LCA) is a comprehensive method for evaluating the
environmental impacts associated with all stages of a product's life. By systematically
assessing these impacts, LCA helps identify opportunities to improve environmental
performance and resource efficiency. Through optimizing product designs,
manufacturing processes, and end-of-life management, LCA aims to maximize the use
of the world's limited resources and minimize the unnecessary generation of waste.

In summary, the product lifecycle framework underscores the importance of a holistic

approach to product design, use, and disposal. By considering each stage of the
lifecycle and implementing policies and practices that promote sustainability, it is
possible to significantly reduce the environmental impact of products and contribute to a
more sustainable future.

Resource efficiency
[edit]

Main article: resource efficiency

Resource efficiency reflects the understanding that global economic growth and
development can not be sustained at current production and consumption patterns.
Globally, humanity extracts more resources to produce goods than the planet can
replenish. Resource efficiency is the reduction of the environmental impact from the
production and consumption of these goods, from final raw material extraction to the
last use and disposal.

Polluter-pays principle
[edit]

The polluter-pays principle mandates that the polluting parties pay for the impact on the
environment. With respect to waste management, this generally refers to the
requirement for a waste generator to pay for appropriate disposal of the unrecoverable
materials.[20]

History
[edit]

Main article: History of waste management

Throughout most of history, the amount of waste generated by humans was insignificant
due to low levels of population density and exploitation of natural resources. Common
waste produced during pre-modern times was mainly ashes and human biodegradable
waste, and these were released back into the ground locally, with
minimum environmental impact. Tools made out of wood or metal were generally
reused or passed down through the generations.
However, some civilizations have been more profligate in their waste output than others.
In particular, the Maya of Central America had a fixed monthly ritual, in which the people
of the village would gather together and burn their rubbish in large dumps.[21][irrelevant citation]

Modern era
[edit]

Edwin Chadwick's 1842 report The Sanitary Condition of the

Labouring Population was influential in securing the passage of the first legislation aimed at
waste clearance and disposal.

Following the onset of the Industrial Revolution, industrialisation, and the sustained
urban growth of large population centres in England, the buildup of waste in the cities
caused a rapid deterioration in levels of sanitation and the general quality of urban life.
The streets became choked with filth due to the lack of waste clearance
regulations.[22] Calls for the establishment of municipal authority with waste removal
powers occurred as early as 1751, when Corbyn Morris in London proposed that "... as
the preservation of the health of the people is of great importance, it is proposed that
the cleaning of this city, should be put under one uniform public management, and all
the filth be...conveyed by the Thames to proper distance in the country".[23]

However, it was not until the mid-19th century, spurred by increasingly

devastating cholera outbreaks and the emergence of a public health debate that the first
legislation on the issue emerged. Highly influential in this new focus was the report The
Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population in 1842[24] of the social reformer, Edwin
Chadwick, in which he argued for the importance of adequate waste removal and
management facilities to improve the health and wellbeing of the city's population.

In the UK, the Nuisance Removal and Disease Prevention Act of 1846 began what was
to be a steadily evolving process of the provision of regulated waste management in
London.[25] The Metropolitan Board of Works was the first citywide authority that
centralized sanitation regulation for the rapidly expanding city, and the Public Health Act
1875 made it compulsory for every household to deposit their weekly waste in
"moveable receptacles" for disposal—the first concept for a dustbin.[26] In the Ashanti
Empire by the 19th century, there existed a Public Works Department that was
responsible for sanitation in Kumasi and its suburbs. They kept the streets clean daily
and commanded civilians to keep their compounds clean and weeded.[27]

Manlove, Alliott & Co. Ltd. 1894 destructor furnace. The use
of incinerators for waste disposal became popular in the late 19th century.

The dramatic increase in waste for disposal led to the creation of the
first incineration plants, or, as they were then called, "destructors". In 1874, the first
incinerator was built in Nottingham by Manlove, Alliott & Co. Ltd. to the design of Alfred
Fryer.[23] However, these were met with opposition on account of the large amounts of
ash they produced and which wafted over the neighbouring areas.[28]

Similar municipal systems of waste disposal sprung up at the turn of the 20th century in
other large cities of Europe and North America. In 1895, New York City became the first
U.S. city with public-sector garbage management.[26]

Early garbage removal trucks were simply open-bodied dump trucks pulled by a team of
horses. They became motorized in the early part of the 20th century and the first
closed-body trucks to eliminate odours with a dumping lever mechanism were
introduced in the 1920s in Britain.[29] These were soon equipped with 'hopper
mechanisms' where the scooper was loaded at floor level and then hoisted
mechanically to deposit the waste in the truck. The Garwood Load Packer was the first
truck in 1938, to incorporate a hydraulic compactor.

Waste handling and transport

[edit]

Main articles: Waste collection vehicle, Waste collector, and Waste sorting

Moulded plastic, wheeled waste bin in Berkshire, England

Waste collection methods vary widely among different countries and regions. Domestic
waste collection services are often provided by local government authorities, or by
private companies for industrial and commercial waste. Some areas, especially those in
less developed countries, do not have formal waste-collection systems.

Waste handling practices

[edit]

Curbside collection is the most common method of disposal in most European

countries, Canada, New Zealand, the United States, and many other parts of the
developed world in which waste is collected at regular intervals by specialised trucks.
This is often associated with curb-side waste segregation. In rural areas, waste may
need to be taken to a transfer station. Waste collected is then transported to an
appropriate disposal facility. In some areas, vacuum collection is used in which waste is
transported from the home or commercial premises by vacuum along small bore tubes.
Systems are in use in Europe and North America.

Main article: Automated vacuum collection

In some jurisdictions, unsegregated waste is collected at the curb-side or from waste

transfer stations and then sorted into recyclables and unusable waste. Such systems
are capable of sorting large volumes of solid waste, salvaging recyclables, and turning
the rest into bio-gas and soil conditioners. In San Francisco, the local government
established its Mandatory Recycling and Composting Ordinance in support of its goal of
"Zero waste by 2020", requiring everyone in the city to keep recyclables and
compostables out of the landfill. The three streams are collected with the curbside
"Fantastic 3" bin system – blue for recyclables, green for compostables, and black for
landfill-bound materials – provided to residents and businesses and serviced by San
Francisco's sole refuse hauler, Recology. The city's "Pay-As-You-Throw" system
charges customers by the volume of landfill-bound materials, which provides a financial
incentive to separate recyclables and compostables from other discards. The city's
Department of the Environment's Zero Waste Program has led the city to achieve 80%
diversion, the highest diversion rate in North America.[30] Other businesses such
as Waste Industries use a variety of colors to distinguish between trash and recycling
cans. In addition, in some areas of the world the disposal of municipal solid waste can
cause environmental strain due to official not having benchmarks that help measure
the environmental sustainability of certain practices.[31]

Waste segregation
[edit]

Further information: Waste separation

 Recycling point at the Gdańsk University of Technology

This is the separation of wet waste and dry waste. The purpose is to recycle dry waste
easily and to use wet waste as compost. When segregating waste, the amount of waste
that gets landfilled reduces considerably, resulting in lower levels of air and water
pollution. Importantly, waste segregation should be based on the type of waste and the
most appropriate treatment and disposal. This also makes it easier to apply different
processes to the waste, like composting, recycling, and incineration. It is important to
practice waste management and segregation as a community. One way to practice
waste management is to ensure there is awareness. The process of waste segregation
should be explained to the community.[32]

Segregated waste is also often cheaper to dispose of because it does not require as
much manual sorting as mixed waste. There are a number of important reasons why
waste segregation is important such as legal obligations, cost savings, and protection of
human health and the environment. Institutions should make it as easy as possible for
their staff to correctly segregate their waste. This can include labelling, making sure
there are enough accessible bins, and clearly indicating why segregation is so
important.[33] Labeling is especially important when dealing with nuclear waste due to
how much harm to human health the excess products of the nuclear cycle can cause.[34]

Hazards of waste management

[edit]

There are multiple facets of waste management that all come with hazards, both for
those around the disposal site and those who work within waste management.
Exposure to waste of any kind can be detrimental to the health of the individual, primary
conditions that worsen with exposure to waste are asthma and tuberculosis.[35] The
exposure to waste on an average individual is highly dependent on the conditions
around them, those in less developed or lower income areas are more susceptible to
the effects of waste product, especially though chemical waste.[36] The range of hazards
due to waste is extremely large and covers every type of waste, not only chemical.
There are many different guidelines to follow for disposing different types of waste.[37]
 Diagram showing the multiple ways that incineration is
hazardous to the population

The hazards of incineration are a large risk to many variable communities, including
underdeveloped countries and countries or cities with little space for landfills or
alternatives. Burning waste is an easily accessible option for many people around the
globe, it has even been encouraged by the World Health Organization when there is no
other option.[38] Because burning waste is rarely paid attention to, its effects go
unnoticed. The release of hazardous materials and CO2 when waste is burned is the
largest hazard with incineration.[39]

Financial models
[edit]

In most developed countries, domestic waste disposal is funded from a national or local
tax which may be related to income, or property values. Commercial and industrial
waste disposal is typically charged for as a commercial service, often as an integrated
charge which includes disposal costs. This practice may encourage disposal contractors
to opt for the cheapest disposal option such as landfill rather than the environmentally
best solution such as re-use and recycling.

Financing solid waste management projects can be overwhelming for the city
government, especially if the government see it as an important service they should
render to the citizen. Donors and grants are a funding mechanism that is dependent on
the interest of the donor organization. As much as it is a good way to develop a city's
waste management infrastructure, attracting and utilizing grants is solely reliant on what
the donor considers important. Therefore, it may be a challenge for a city government to
dictate how the funds should be distributed among the various aspect of waste
management.[40]

An example of a country that enforces a waste tax is Italy. The tax is based on two
rates: fixed and variable. The fixed rate is based on the size of the house while the
variable is determined by the number of people living in the house.[41]

The World Bank finances and advises on solid waste management projects using a
diverse suite of products and services, including traditional loans, results-based
financing, development policy financing, and technical advisory. World Bank-financed
waste management projects usually address the entire lifecycle of waste right from the
point of generation to collection and transportation, and finally treatment and disposal.[6]
Disposal methods
[edit]

Landfill
[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Landfill.[edit]

A landfill[a] is a site for the disposal of waste materials. It is the oldest and most common
form of waste disposal, although the systematic burial of waste with daily, intermediate
and final covers only began in the 1940s. In the past, waste was simply left in piles or
thrown into pits (known in archeology as middens).

Some landfill sites are used for waste management purposes, such as temporary storage,
consolidation and transfer, or for various stages of processing waste material, such as sorting,
treatment, or recycling. Unless they are stabilized, landfills may undergo severe shaking or soil
liquefaction of the ground during an earthquake. Once full, the area over a landfill site may
be reclaimed for other uses.

A landfill compaction vehicle in action.

Spittelau incineration plant in Vienna

Incineration
[edit]

Main article: Incineration

 Tarastejärvi Incineration Plant in Tampere, Finland

Incineration is a disposal method in which solid organic wastes are subjected to

combustion so as to convert them into residue and gaseous products. This method is
useful for the disposal of both municipal solid waste and solid residue from wastewater
treatment. This process reduces the volume of solid waste by 80 to 95
percent.[42] Incineration and other high-temperature waste treatment systems are
sometimes described as "thermal treatment". Incinerators convert waste materials
into heat, gas, steam, and ash.

Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by
industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid, and gaseous waste. It is recognized as a
practical method of disposing of certain hazardous waste materials (such as
biological medical waste). Incineration is a controversial method of waste disposal, due
to issues such as the emission of gaseous pollutants including substantial quantities
of carbon dioxide.

Incineration is common in countries such as Japan where land is more scarce, as the
facilities generally do not require as much area as landfills. Waste-to-energy (WtE) or
energy-from-waste (EfW) are broad terms for facilities that burn waste in a furnace or
boiler to generate heat, steam, or electricity. Combustion in an incinerator is not always
perfect and there have been concerns about pollutants in gaseous emissions from
incinerator stacks. Particular concern has focused on some very persistent organic
compounds such as dioxins, furans, and PAHs, which may be created and which may
have serious environmental consequences and some heavy metals such
as mercury[43] and lead which can be volatilised in the combustion process..

Recycling
[edit]

Main article: Recycling

Steel crushed and baled for recycling

Recycling is a resource recovery practice that refers to the collection and reuse of waste
materials such as empty beverage containers. This process involves breaking down and
reusing materials that would otherwise be gotten rid of as trash. There are numerous
benefits of recycling, and with so many new technologies making even more materials
recyclable, it is possible to clean up the Earth.[44] Recycling not only benefits the
environment but also positively affects the economy. The materials from which the items
are made can be made into new products.[45] Materials for recycling may be collected
separately from general waste using dedicated bins and collection vehicles, a procedure
called kerbside collection. In some communities, the owner of the waste is required to
separate the materials into different bins (e.g. for paper, plastics, metals) prior to its
collection. In other communities, all recyclable materials are placed in a single bin for
collection, and the sorting is handled later at a central facility. The latter method is
known as "single-stream recycling".[46][47]

A recycling point in Lappajärvi, Finland

The most common consumer products recycled include aluminium such as beverage
cans, copper such as wire, steel from food and aerosol cans, old steel furnishings or
equipment, rubber tyres, polyethylene and PET bottles, glass bottles and
jars, paperboard cartons, newspapers, magazines and light paper, and corrugated
fiberboard boxes.

PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS (see resin identification code) are also recyclable. These items
are usually composed of a single type of material, making them relatively easy to
recycle into new products. The recycling of complex products (such as computers and
electronic equipment) is more difficult, due to the additional dismantling and separation
required.

The type of material accepted for recycling varies by city and country. Each city and
country has different recycling programs in place that can handle the various types of
recyclable materials. However, certain variation in acceptance is reflected in the resale
value of the material once it is reprocessed. Some of the types of recycling include
waste paper and cardboard, plastic recycling, metal recycling, electronic devices, wood
recycling, glass recycling, cloth and textile and so many more.[48] In July 2017, the
Chinese government announced an import ban of 24 categories of recyclables and solid
waste, including plastic, textiles and mixed paper, placing tremendous impact on
developed countries globally, which exported directly or indirectly to China.[49]
Re-use
[edit]

Biological reprocessing
[edit]

Main articles: Composting, Home composting, Anaerobic digestion, and Microbial fuel cell

An active compost heap

Recoverable materials that are organic in nature, such as plant material, food scraps,
and paper products, can be recovered through composting and digestion processes
to decompose the organic matter. The resulting organic material is then recycled
as mulch or compost for agricultural or landscaping purposes. In addition, waste gas
from the process (such as methane) can be captured and used for generating electricity
and heat (CHP/cogeneration) maximising efficiencies. There are different types of
composting and digestion methods and technologies. They vary in complexity from
simple home compost heaps to large-scale industrial digestion of mixed domestic
waste. The different methods of biological decomposition are classified as aerobic or
anaerobic methods. Some methods use the hybrids of these two methods. The
anaerobic digestion of the organic fraction of solid waste is more environmentally
effective than landfill, or incineration.[50] The intention of biological processing in waste
management is to control and accelerate the natural process of decomposition of
organic matter. (See resource recovery).

Energy recovery
[edit]

Main article: Waste-to-energy

Energy recovery from waste is the conversion of non-recyclable waste materials into
usable heat, electricity, or fuel through a variety of processes, including combustion,
gasification, pyrolyzation, anaerobic digestion, and landfill gas recovery.[51] This process
is often called waste-to-energy. Energy recovery from waste is part of the non-
hazardous waste management hierarchy. Using energy recovery to convert non-
recyclable waste materials into electricity and heat, generates a renewable energy
source and can reduce carbon emissions by offsetting the need for energy from fossil
sources as well as reduce methane generation from landfills.[51] Globally, waste-to-
energy accounts for 16% of waste management.[52]

The energy content of waste products can be harnessed directly by using them as a
direct combustion fuel, or indirectly by processing them into another type of fuel.
Thermal treatment ranges from using waste as a fuel source for cooking or heating and
the use of the gas fuel (see above), to fuel for boilers to generate steam and electricity
in a turbine. Pyrolysis and gasification are two related forms of thermal treatment where
waste materials are heated to high temperatures with limited oxygen availability. The
process usually occurs in a sealed vessel under high pressure. Pyrolysis of solid waste
converts the material into solid, liquid, and gas products. The liquid and gas can be
burnt to produce energy or refined into other chemical products (chemical refinery). The
solid residue (char) can be further refined into products such as activated carbon.
Gasification and advanced Plasma arc gasification are used to convert organic
materials directly into a synthetic gas (syngas) composed of carbon
monoxide and hydrogen. The gas is then burnt to produce electricity and steam. An
alternative to pyrolysis is high-temperature and pressure supercritical water
decomposition (hydrothermal monophasic oxidation).

Pyrolysis
[edit]

Main article: Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis is often used to convert many types of domestic and industrial residues into a
recovered fuel. Different types of waste input (such as plant waste, food waste, tyres)
placed in the pyrolysis process potentially yield an alternative to fossil fuels.[53] Pyrolysis
is a process of thermo-chemical decomposition of organic materials by heat in the
absence of stoichiometric quantities of oxygen; the decomposition produces various
hydrocarbon gases.[54] During pyrolysis, the molecules of an object vibrate at high
frequencies to the extent that molecules start breaking down. The rate of pyrolysis
increases with temperature. In industrial applications, temperatures are above 430 °C
(800 °F).[55]

Slow pyrolysis produces gases and solid charcoal.[56] Pyrolysis holds promise for
conversion of waste biomass into useful liquid fuel. Pyrolysis of waste wood and plastics
can potentially produce fuel. The solids left from pyrolysis contain metals, glass, sand,
and pyrolysis coke which does not convert to gas. Compared to the process of
incineration, certain types of pyrolysis processes release less harmful by-products that
contain alkali metals, sulphur, and chlorine. However, pyrolysis of some waste yields
gases which impact the environment such as HCl and SO2.[57]

Resource recovery
[edit]

Main article: Resource recovery

Resource recovery is the systematic diversion of waste, which was intended for
disposal, for a specific next use.[58] It is the processing of recyclables to extract or
recover materials and resources, or convert to energy.[59] These activities are performed
at a resource recovery facility.[59] Resource recovery is not only environmentally
important, but it is also cost-effective.[60] It decreases the amount of waste for disposal,
saves space in landfills, and conserves natural resources.[60]

Resource recovery, an alternative approach to traditional waste management, utilizes

life cycle analysis (LCA) to evaluate and optimize waste handling strategies.
Comprehensive studies focusing on mixed municipal solid waste (MSW) have identified
a preferred pathway for maximizing resource efficiency and minimizing environmental
impact, including effective waste administration and management, source separation of
waste materials, efficient collection systems, reuse and recycling of non-organic
fractions, and processing of organic material through anaerobic digestion.

As an example of how resource recycling can be beneficial, many items thrown away
contain metals that can be recycled to create a profit, such as the components in circuit
boards. Wood chippings in pallets and other packaging materials can be recycled into
useful products for horticulture. The recycled chips can cover paths, walkways, or arena
surfaces.

Application of rational and consistent waste management practices can yield a range of
benefits including:

1. Economic – Improving economic efficiency through the means of resource use,

treatment, and disposal and creating markets for recycles can lead to efficient practices
in the production and consumption of products and materials resulting in valuable
materials being recovered for reuse and the potential for new jobs and new business
opportunities.
2. Social – By reducing adverse impacts on health through proper waste management
practices, the resulting consequences are more appealing to civic communities. Better
social advantages can lead to new sources of employment and potentially lift
communities out of poverty, especially in some of the developing poorer countries and
cities.
3. Environmental – Reducing or eliminating adverse impacts on the environment through
reducing, reusing, recycling, and minimizing resource extraction can result in improved
air and water quality and help in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.
4. Inter-generational Equity – Following effective waste management practices can provide
subsequent generations a more robust economy, a fairer and more inclusive
society and a cleaner environment.[18][page needed]
Waste valorization
[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Waste valorization.[edit]

Waste valorization, beneficial reuse, beneficial use, value recovery or waste

reclamation[61] is the process of waste products or residues from an economic process
being valorized (given economic value), by reuse or recycling in order to create
economically useful materials.[62][61][63] The term comes from practices in sustainable
manufacturing and economics, industrial ecology and waste management. The term is
usually applied in industrial processes where residue from creating or processing one
good is used as a raw material or energy feedstock for another industrial
process.[61][63] Industrial wastes in particular are good candidates for valorization because
they tend to be more consistent and predictable than other waste, such as household
waste.[61][64]

Historically, most industrial processes treated waste products as something to be disposed of,
causing industrial pollution unless handled properly.[65] However, increased regulation of residual
materials and socioeconomic changes, such as the introduction of ideas about sustainable
development and circular economy in the 1990s and 2000s increased focus on industrial
practices to recover these resources as value add materials.[65][66] Academics focus on finding
economic value to reduce environmental impact of other industries as well, for example the
development of non-timber forest products to encourage conservation.

Liquid waste-management
[edit]

Liquid waste is an important category of waste management because it is so difficult to

deal with. Unlike solid wastes, liquid wastes cannot be easily picked up and removed
from an environment. Liquid wastes spread out, and easily pollute other sources of
liquid if brought into contact. This type of waste also soaks into objects like soil and
groundwater. This in turn carries over to pollute the plants, the animals in the
ecosystem, as well as the humans within the area of the pollution.[67]

Industrial wastewater
[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Industrial wastewater treatment.[edit]

Wastewater from an
industrial process can be converted at a treatment plant to solids and treated water for reuse.

Industrial wastewater treatment describes the processes used for treating

wastewater that is produced by industries as an undesirable by-product. After treatment,
the treated industrial wastewater (or effluent) may be reused or released to a sanitary
sewer or to a surface water in the environment. Some industrial facilities generate
wastewater that can be treated in sewage treatment plants. Most industrial processes,
such as petroleum refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants have their own
specialized facilities to treat their wastewaters so that the pollutant concentrations in the
treated wastewater comply with the regulations regarding disposal of wastewaters
into sewers or into rivers, lakes or oceans.[68]: 1412 This applies to industries that generate
wastewater with high concentrations of organic matter (e.g. oil and grease), toxic
pollutants (e.g. heavy metals, volatile organic compounds) or nutrients such
as ammonia.[69]: 180 Some industries install a pre-treatment system to remove some
pollutants (e.g., toxic compounds), and then discharge the partially treated wastewater
to the municipal sewer system.[70]: 60

Most industries produce some wastewater. Recent trends have been to minimize such
production or to recycle treated wastewater within the production process. Some industries have
been successful at redesigning their manufacturing processes to reduce or eliminate
pollutants.[71] Sources of industrial wastewater include battery manufacturing, chemical
manufacturing, electric power plants, food industry, iron and steel industry, metal working,
mines and quarries, nuclear industry, oil and gas extraction, petroleum
refining and petrochemicals, pharmaceutical manufacturing, pulp and paper industry,
smelters, textile mills, industrial oil contamination, water treatment and wood preserving.
Treatment processes include brine treatment, solids removal (e.g. chemical precipitation,
filtration), oils and grease removal, removal of biodegradable organics, removal of other
organics, removal of acids and alkalis, and removal of toxic materials.

Sewage sludge treatment

[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Sewage sludge treatment.[edit]

Sludge treatment in anaerobic digesters at a sewage

treatment plant in Cottbus, Germany

Sewage sludge treatment describes the processes used to manage and dispose
of sewage sludge produced during sewage treatment. Sludge treatment is focused on
reducing sludge weight and volume to reduce transportation and disposal costs, and on
reducing potential health risks of disposal options. Water removal is the primary means
of weight and volume reduction, while pathogen destruction is frequently accomplished
through heating during thermophilic digestion, composting, or incineration. The choice
of a sludge treatment method depends on the volume of sludge generated, and
comparison of treatment costs required for available disposal options. Air-drying and
composting may be attractive to rural communities, while limited land availability may
make aerobic digestion and mechanical dewatering preferable for cities, and economies
of scale may encourage energy recovery alternatives in metropolitan areas.

Sludge is mostly water with some amounts of solid material removed from liquid
sewage. Primary sludge includes settleable solids removed during primary treatment in
primary clarifiers. Secondary sludge is sludge separated in secondary clarifiers that are
used in secondary treatment bioreactors or processes using inorganic oxidizing agents.
In intensive sewage treatment processes, the sludge produced needs to be removed
from the liquid line on a continuous basis because the volumes of the tanks in the liquid
line have insufficient volume to store sludge.[72] This is done in order to keep the
treatment processes compact and in balance (production of sludge approximately equal
to the removal of sludge). The sludge removed from the liquid line goes to the sludge
treatment line. Aerobic processes (such as the activated sludge process) tend to
produce more sludge compared with anaerobic processes. On the other hand, in
extensive (natural) treatment processes, such as ponds and constructed wetlands, the
produced sludge remains accumulated in the treatment units (liquid line) and is only
removed after several years of operation.[73]

Sludge treatment options depend on the amount of solids generated and other site-
specific conditions. Composting is most often applied to small-scale plants with aerobic
digestion for mid-sized operations, and anaerobic digestion for the larger-scale
operations. The sludge is sometimes passed through a so-called pre-thickener which
de-waters the sludge. Types of pre-thickeners include centrifugal sludge
thickeners,[74] rotary drum sludge thickeners and belt filter presses.[75] Dewatered sludge
may be incinerated or transported offsite for disposal in a landfill or use as an
agricultural soil amendment.[76]

Energy may be recovered from sludge through methane gas production during anaerobic
digestion or through incineration of dried sludge, but energy yield is often insufficient to
evaporate sludge water content or to power blowers, pumps, or centrifuges required for
dewatering. Coarse primary solids and secondary sewage sludge may include toxic chemicals
removed from liquid sewage by sorption onto solid particles in clarifier sludge. Reducing sludge
volume may increase the concentration of some of these toxic chemicals in the sludge.[77]

Avoidance and reduction methods

[edit]

Main article: Waste minimization

An important method of waste management is the prevention of waste material being

created, also known as waste reduction. Waste Minimization is reducing the quantity of
hazardous wastes achieved through a thorough application of innovative or alternative
procedures.[78] Methods of avoidance include reuse of second-hand products, repairing
broken items instead of buying new ones, designing products to be refillable or reusable
(such as cotton instead of plastic shopping bags), encouraging consumers to avoid
using disposable products (such as disposable cutlery), removing any food/liquid
remains from cans and packaging,[79] and designing products that use less material to
achieve the same purpose (for example, lightweighting of beverage cans).[80]

International waste trade

[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Global waste trade.[edit]

The global waste trade is the international trade of waste between countries for
further treatment, disposal, or recycling. Toxic or hazardous wastes are often imported
by developing countries from developed countries.

The World Bank Report What a Waste: A Global Review of Solid Waste Management,
describes the amount of solid waste produced in a given country. Specifically, countries
which produce more solid waste are more economically developed and more
industrialized.[81] The report explains that "Generally, the higher the economic
development and rate of urbanization, the greater the amount of solid waste
produced."[81] Therefore, countries in the Global North, which are more economically
developed and urbanized, produce more solid waste than Global South countries.[81]

Current international trade flows of waste follow a pattern of waste being produced in
the Global North and being exported to and disposed of in the Global South. Multiple
factors affect which countries produce waste and at what magnitude, including
geographic location, degree of industrialization, and level of integration into the global
economy.

Numerous scholars and researchers have linked the sharp increase in waste trading and the
negative impacts of waste trading to the prevalence of neoliberal economic policy.[82][83][84][85] With
the major economic transition towards neoliberal economic policy in the 1980s, the shift
towards "free-market" policy has facilitated the sharp increase in the global waste trade. Henry
Giroux, Chair of Cultural Studies at McMaster University, gives his definition of neoliberal
economic policy:

"Neoliberalism ...removes economics and markets from the discourse of social

obligations and social costs. ...As a policy and political project, neoliberalism is wedded
to the privatization of public services, selling off of state functions, deregulation of
finance and labor, elimination of the welfare state and unions, liberalization of trade in
goods and capital investment, and the marketization and commodification of society."[86]
Given this economic platform of privatization, neoliberalism is based on expanding free-trade
agreements and establishing open-borders to international trade markets. Trade liberalization,
a neoliberal economic policy in which trade is completely deregulated, leaving no tariffs, quotas,
or other restrictions on international trade, is designed to further developing countries'
economies and integrate them into the global economy. Critics claim that although free-market
trade liberalization was designed to allow any country the opportunity to reach economic
success, the consequences of these policies have been devastating for Global South countries,
essentially crippling their economies in a servitude to the Global North.[87] Even supporters such
as the International Monetary Fund, ―progress of integration has been uneven in recent
decades.‖[88] Specifically, developing countries have been targeted by trade liberalization
policies to import waste as a means of economic expansion.[89] The guiding neoliberal economic
policy argues that the way to be integrated into the global economy is to participate in trade
liberalization and exchange in international trade markets.[89] Their claim is that smaller
countries, with less infrastructure, less wealth, and less manufacturing ability, should take in
hazardous wastes as a way to increase profits and stimulate their economies.[89]

Challenges in developing countries

[edit]

Areas with developing economies often experience exhausted waste collection services
and inadequately managed and uncontrolled dumpsites. The problems are
worsening.[18][page needed][90] Problems with governance complicate the situation. Waste
management in these countries and cities is an ongoing challenge due to weak
institutions, chronic under-resourcing, and rapid urbanization.[18][page needed] All of these
challenges, along with the lack of understanding of different factors that contribute to the
hierarchy of waste management, affect the treatment of waste.[91][full citation needed]

In developing countries, waste management activities are usually carried out by the
poor, for their survival. It has been estimated that 2% of the population in Asia, Latin
America, and Africa are dependent on waste for their livelihood. Family organized, or
individual manual scavengers are often involved with waste management practices with
very little supportive network and facilities with increased risk of health effects.
Additionally, this practice prevents their children from further education. The
participation level of most citizens in waste management is very low, residents in urban
areas are not actively involved in the process of waste management.[92]

Technologies
[edit]

See also: Environmental monitoring, Border control, and Materials recovery facility

Traditionally, the waste management industry has been a late adopter of new
technologies such as RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) tags, GPS and integrated
software packages which enable better quality data to be collected without the use of
estimation or manual data entry.[93] This technology has been used widely by many
organizations in some industrialized countries. Radiofrequency identification is a tagging
system for automatic identification of recyclable components of municipal solid waste
streams.[94]

Smart waste management has been implemented in several cities, including San
Francisco, Varde or Madrid.[95] Waste containers are equipped with level sensors. When
the container is almost full, the sensor warns the pickup truck, which can thus trace its
route servicing the fullest containers and skipping the emptiest ones.[96]
Statistics and trends
[edit]

The "Global Waste Management Outlook 2024," supported by the Environment Fund -
UNEP’s core financial fund, and jointly published with the International Solid Waste
Association (ISWA), provides a comprehensive update on the trajectory of global waste
generation and the escalating costs of waste management since 2018. The report
predicts municipal solid waste to rise from 2.3 billion tonnes in 2023 to 3.8 billion tonnes
by 2050. The direct global cost of waste management was around USD 252 billion in
2020, which could soar to USD 640.3 billion annually by 2050 if current practices
continue without reform. Incorporating life cycle assessments, the report contrasts
scenarios from maintaining the status quo to fully adopting zero waste and circular
economy principles. It indicates that effective waste prevention and management could
cap annual costs at USD 270.2 billion by 2050, while a circular economy approach
could transform the sector into a net positive, offering a potential annual gain of USD
108.5 billion. To prevent the direst outcomes, the report calls for immediate action
across multiple sectors, including development banks, governments, municipalities,
producers, retailers, and citizens, providing targeted strategies for waste reduction and
improved management practice