 Liquid water is essential to all known life forms on Earth.

Helical structure of DNA: the hydrophilic sugar-phosphate backbone is

found on the outside of the molecule. The hydrophobic bases are found on
the inside.

Phospholipid bilayer:

Three-dimensional shape of protein:

 What is the longest period of time a water bear can

remain dormant? To remain alive, what is the minimum
metabolic activity they must perform?

Water bears, scientifically known as tardigrades, are microscopic,

water-dwelling organisms known for their incredible resilience and
ability to survive extreme conditions. Tardigrades can enter a state
called cryptobiosis, where they can withstand harsh environments
by slowing down their metabolism to an almost undetectable level.
During this state, they can survive without water, extreme
temperatures, and even in the vacuum of space.

The longest recorded period of dormancy for a tardigrade is up to 30

years. In this state, tardigrades can survive desiccation, freezing,
high levels of radiation, and other extreme conditions.

To remain alive during dormancy, tardigrades must perform the

minimum metabolic activity required to sustain essential cellular
functions and protect themselves from damage. They achieve this
by synthesizing protective proteins called intrinsically disordered
proteins (IDPs) that stabilize their cells and organs during extreme
conditions.

Overall, the ability of tardigrades to enter cryptobiosis and survive

long periods without water or food by minimizing their metabolic
activity is one of the most remarkable adaptations in the animal
kingdom.

 When space scientists look for evidence of life on other

planets, why do they begin by searching for the presence
of liquid water?

Space scientists often begin their search for evidence of life on

other planets by looking for the presence of liquid water. This is
because water is a fundamental requirement for life as we know it.
Here are a few reasons why water is crucial in the search for
extraterrestrial life:

1. Universal solvent: Water is an excellent solvent, meaning it

can dissolve many different substances. This property allows
essential molecules for life, such as proteins and nucleic acids,
to interact and participate in biochemical reactions.
2. Reaction medium: Water also serves as a medium for
chemical reactions necessary for life processes. Many
biochemical reactions in living organisms occur in an aqueous
environment, where water acts as a reactant and a product.
3. Supports metabolism: Water plays a vital role in
metabolism, transporting nutrients, gases, and waste products
within living organisms. Without water, these essential
processes cannot occur efficiently.
4. Temperature regulation: Water has a high specific heat
capacity, meaning it can absorb and release heat without
significant temperature changes. This property helps stabilize
temperatures on Earth and within living organisms, providing
a stable environment for life to thrive.
5. Protection and stability: Water provides a protective
environment for biological molecules, helping to maintain
their structure and function. It can also shield against harmful
radiation and environmental stresses.

Given these critical roles of water in supporting life on Earth,

scientists believe that liquid water is essential for the existence of
life as we know it. Therefore, when exploring other planets or moons
for signs of life, the presence of liquid water is a key factor that
scientists consider in their search.

 What are the physical and chemical properties of water

that make it essential for life?

Water is essential for life due to a combination of its unique physical

and chemical properties. Here are some key properties of water that
make it vital for supporting life:

1. Universal solvent: Water is known as the universal solvent

due to its ability to dissolve a wide range of substances. This
property allows essential nutrients and molecules to be
transported within living organisms, facilitating biochemical
reactions necessary for life.
 2. High specific heat capacity: Water has a high specific heat
capacity, meaning it can absorb and retain a significant
amount of heat before its temperature changes. This property
helps regulate temperature variations on Earth and within
living organisms, creating a stable environment for biological
processes.
3. Density changes: Water is one of the few substances that
becomes less dense as it freezes, causing ice to float on liquid
water. This property insulates bodies of water during cold
temperatures, preventing them from freezing completely and
allowing life to survive beneath the surface.
4. Cohesion and adhesion: Water molecules exhibit strong
cohesive forces, sticking together due to hydrogen bonding.
This cohesion allows water to flow smoothly, supporting
processes like plant water transport in xylem vessels.
Adhesion allows water to stick to other substances, aiding in
processes like nutrient uptake in plants.
5. Capillary action: Water can move upward through narrow
spaces against the force of gravity, a phenomenon known as
capillary action. This property is essential for water uptake by
plant roots and helps distribute water in soil environments.
6. Excellent solvent for ions: Water's polar nature makes it an
excellent solvent for ions and polar molecules, facilitating
chemical reactions within living organisms and assisting in the
transport of nutrients and waste products.

These properties of water collectively make it a versatile and

indispensable medium for life, providing the necessary conditions
for biochemical reactions, metabolism, and overall biological
functioning.

 Which orders of mammals have blubber?

Blubber is primarily found in marine mammals, particularly those

that inhabit cold waters. The orders of mammals that typically have
blubber include:

1. Cetacea: This order includes whales, dolphins, and porpoises.

They have a thick layer of blubber beneath their skin, which
helps them insulate against the cold water and provides
buoyancy.
2. Pinnipedia: This group includes seals, sea lions, and
walruses. Pinnipeds also have a layer of blubber that helps
them stay warm in cold waters and provides energy reserves.
Blubber serves several functions for these marine mammals,
including insulation, buoyancy control, and energy storage. It is a
specialized adaptation to their aquatic environments, allowing them
to thrive in harsh conditions

 What role of blubber have in buoyancy?

Blubber plays a crucial role in buoyancy for marine mammals,

particularly those that inhabit cold waters. Here’s how:

1. Density Regulation: Blubber has a lower density than water,

which helps marine mammals achieve neutral buoyancy. This
means they can stay at a specific depth in the water without
actively swimming or sinking.
2. Buoyancy Control: By adjusting the amount of air and fat
within their blubber layer, marine mammals can fine-tune
their buoyancy. This allows them to conserve energy during
dives and maintain a comfortable position in the water
column.
3. Insulation and Buoyancy: The insulative properties of
blubber help marine mammals retain heat in cold waters. This
insulation is important because it reduces the amount of
energy they need to expend to maintain body temperature,
which indirectly affects buoyancy by allowing them to
conserve energy that would otherwise be needed for heat
production.

In summary, blubber not only provides insulation against cold but

also helps marine mammals achieve and maintain buoyancy in
water, contributing to their overall survival and energy efficiency in
their aquatic environments.

 Do birds or whales require more energy to counteract gravity?

Birds generally require more energy to counteract gravity compared

to whales. Here’s why:

1. Flight: Birds actively fly, which requires continuous energy

expenditure to overcome gravity. Flight involves flapping
wings to generate lift and maintain altitude. This constant
movement and effort to stay airborne demand a high
metabolic rate and significant energy expenditure.
2. Body Structure: Birds have relatively lightweight skeletons
and streamlined bodies to facilitate flight, but this also means
 they have less mass to counteract gravitational pull.
Therefore, they must continuously generate lift through wing
flapping, which consumes more energy compared to
mammals that are not engaged in continuous locomotion.

In contrast:

1. Buoyancy of Whales: Whales, being aquatic mammals,

benefit from buoyancy in water. Their bodies are adapted to
be close to neutral buoyancy, meaning they don’t have to
expend energy continuously to remain suspended in water.
Their blubber layer and body composition contribute to their
buoyancy, reducing the need for constant energy expenditure
to counteract gravity.
2. Swimming vs. Flying: While whales do swim and move
through water, swimming in a buoyant medium like water
requires less energy than flying through air. Water supports
their weight to a greater extent than air supports the weight
of birds, reducing the energy required to move and maintain
position.

Therefore, birds expend more energy to counteract gravity due to

their flight activity and the energy-intensive process of staying
airborne, while whales benefit from the buoyancy of water, reducing
their energy expenditure in this regard.

 Do organisms require more energy to move through water

than through air?

Yes, organisms generally require more energy to move through

water than through air. Here are the main reasons why:

1. Density and Viscosity: Water is denser and more viscous

than air. This means that organisms moving through water
encounter greater resistance to their movements compared to
moving through air. The higher density of water makes it more
difficult to displace, requiring more energy to push through.
2. Drag: Water exerts more drag force on moving objects than
air does. Drag is the resistance force exerted by a fluid (either
water or air) on an object moving through it. Because water is
denser and more viscous, the drag force it exerts on
organisms is significantly higher than in air. This increased
drag necessitates more energy to overcome and maintain
movement.
 3. Buoyancy: In water, organisms may also need to adjust their
buoyancy. This requires additional energy to control depth
and position in the water column, especially for marine
organisms that need to maintain neutral buoyancy for efficient
movement.
4. Adaptations: Aquatic organisms have evolved specific
adaptations to reduce the energy cost of swimming. These
adaptations include streamlined body shapes, efficient
swimming techniques (such as oscillatory movements of fins
or flippers), and specialized muscle structures. Despite these
adaptations, the energy cost of swimming in water remains
higher compared to flying in air for most organisms.

In summary, due to the higher density, viscosity, and drag of water

compared to air, organisms generally require more energy to move
through water. This is particularly true for aquatic organisms, which
have evolved various adaptations to optimize their swimming
efficiency and minimize the energetic cost of movement in their
aquatic habitats.

 What role does blubber play in thermoregulation?

Blubber plays a crucial role in thermoregulation for marine

mammals, particularly those inhabiting cold environments. Here are
the key roles that blubber plays:

1. Insulation: Blubber is a thick layer of adipose tissue (fat)

located beneath the skin of marine mammals. Its primary
function is to insulate the body against cold temperatures. The
blubber layer acts as a thermal barrier, reducing heat loss
from the body to the surrounding cold water. This insulation is
crucial for maintaining stable body temperature in chilly
marine environments.
2. Heat Storage: Blubber serves as a reservoir for energy and
heat. It stores excess energy derived from food intake as fat,
which can be metabolized when needed to generate heat. This
metabolic heat production helps marine mammals maintain
their core body temperature, even in cold waters where heat
loss is significant.
3. Buoyancy Control: While not directly related to
thermoregulation, the buoyant properties of blubber also
indirectly contribute to energy conservation. By reducing the
 need for continuous muscular effort to stay afloat, blubber
allows marine mammals to conserve energy that would
otherwise be expended on maintaining buoyancy.
4. Thickness Variation: The thickness of blubber varies among
species and can change seasonally or with age. Marine
mammals in colder regions tend to have thicker blubber layers
to enhance insulation during winter months when
temperatures drop. This adaptive variation helps them cope
with seasonal changes in environmental conditions.

In summary, blubber is a specialized adaptation that plays a critical

role in thermoregulation for marine mammals. It provides insulation
against cold, stores energy, and helps maintain buoyancy, all of
which contribute to the survival and efficient functioning of these
animals in their aquatic habitats.

 What is the significance of the high thermal conductivity of

water of warm-blooded animals?

The high thermal conductivity of water is significant for warm-

blooded animals, including mammals and birds, because it helps
them regulate their body temperature efficiently. Here's why this
property is crucial for maintaining stable body temperatures in
warm-blooded animals:

1. Temperature regulation: Warm-blooded animals are called

endotherms because they generate heat internally to
maintain a constant body temperature, irrespective of
external environmental conditions. Water's high thermal
conductivity allows these animals to dissipate excess body
heat efficiently, preventing overheating.
2. Heat exchange: Warm-blooded animals use processes like
conduction, convection, and radiation to exchange heat with
their environment. Water's high thermal conductivity enables
effective heat transfer between the animal's body and the
external environment. For example, when a warm-blooded
animal is in contact with water, heat can be rapidly exchanged
with the surrounding water, helping to regulate body
temperature.
3. Thermoregulation: Warm-blooded animals employ various
physiological mechanisms to regulate their body temperature
within a narrow range. Water's high thermal conductivity
supports these thermoregulatory processes by enhancing the
 efficiency of heat transfer, ensuring that the animal can
maintain optimal internal conditions for cellular functions.
4. Cooling mechanisms: Warm-blooded animals can use
mechanisms like sweating, panting, or dilating blood vessels
to dissipate excess body heat. Water's high thermal
conductivity aids in these cooling mechanisms by facilitating
the transfer of heat away from the body, helping prevent
overheating and heat stress.

In summary, the high thermal conductivity of water plays a crucial

role for warm-blooded animals in maintaining stable body
temperatures, supporting efficient heat exchange with the
environment, and enabling effective thermoregulation mechanisms
to ensure optimal physiological function and overall health.

What is the adaptive advantage of the thorough vascularization of

the blubber?

The thorough vascularization of blubber, which refers to the dense

network of blood vessels present in the insulating layer of fat
beneath the skin of marine mammals, provides several adaptive
advantages for these animals, especially those living in cold aquatic
environments. Some of the key benefits include:

1. Insulation and thermoregulation: The thick layer of

blubber with extensive vascularization acts as an excellent
insulator, helping marine mammals retain body heat in cold
water. The rich blood supply in blubber helps distribute heat
evenly throughout the body, preventing heat loss and
maintaining a stable core temperature in frigid conditions.
2. Energy storage: Blubber serves as a significant energy
reserve for marine mammals, providing a readily available
source of stored calories. The vascularization of blubber
facilitates efficient nutrient exchange, allowing fats and
energy to be stored or released as needed for metabolism and
thermoregulation.
3. Buoyancy control: In addition to insulation, blubber also
assists marine mammals in buoyancy control. The density of
blubber is less than that of water, helping animals float at the
water's surface with minimal effort, conserving energy during
periods of rest or sleep.
4. Padding and protection: The thick layer of blubber,
supported by an extensive network of blood vessels, offers
 padding and protection against physical impacts and injuries.
It acts as a shock absorber, reducing the impact of collisions
with objects or predators and providing cushioning for vital
organs.
5. Metabolic support: The vascularization of blubber plays a
role in metabolic processes by facilitating the transport of
nutrients, oxygen, and waste products throughout the body.
This helps maintain metabolic functions, cell health, and
overall physiological balance in marine mammals.

Overall, the thorough vascularization of blubber provides marine

mammals with essential adaptations for survival in cold, aquatic
environments, enabling them to thrive by efficiently maintaining
body temperature, energy reserves, buoyancy, protection, and
metabolic functions.

 What other adaptations do whales have for the unique

demand of life in an aquatic environment?

Whales have evolved a variety of adaptations to meet the unique

demands of life in an aquatic environment. Some of the key
adaptations include:

1. Hydrodynamic body shape: Whales have streamlined

bodies with a fusiform shape, reducing drag as they move
through the water. This design allows for efficient swimming
and minimizes energy expenditure.
2. Blubber: As previously mentioned, blubber is a thick layer of
fat beneath the skin that provides insulation, energy storage,
buoyancy, and padding for whales in cold water environments.
3. Limb modification: Whales have evolved specialized limbs in
the form of flippers or fins that aid in steering, maneuvering,
and propelling themselves through the water. These
adaptations help optimize swimming and diving abilities.
4. Respiratory adaptations: Whales are air-breathing
mammals that have adaptations for diving and breath-holding.
They can store oxygen in their blood and muscles, slow their
heart rate, and redirect blood flow to vital organs during deep
dives.
5. Thermoregulation: In addition to blubber, whales have
mechanisms to regulate body temperature in cold water.
Some species have a countercurrent heat exchange system
 that helps retain heat in vital organs and minimize heat loss
through extremities.
6. Communication and echolocation: Whales use sound for
communication, navigation, and hunting. They have
specialized structures for producing and receiving sounds,
such as the melon in their heads for echolocation.
7. Feeding adaptations: Different whale species have adapted
feeding strategies based on their diet. For example, baleen
whales have baleen plates to filter krill and small fish from the
water, while toothed whales have specialized teeth for
capturing and consuming prey.
8. Migration and navigation: Whales undertake long-distance
migrations for breeding, feeding, and other purposes. They
have internal navigation mechanisms, such as magnetic
sensing or celestial cues, to aid in their migration patterns.

These adaptations collectively allow whales to thrive in the

challenging aquatic environment, where they have become highly
specialized for swimming, diving, feeding, communicating, and
surviving in oceans across the world.
A1.1.1 Water as the medium for life

First organisms appearing “in some warm little pond”

https://www.bilibili.com/video/BV1MJ411A7xL/?
spm_id_from=333.999.0.0&vd_source=fb247fc4c5448792213c9c8ba303c
1f7

water vapor has been detected in the atmosphere of K2-18b

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EJU-Rj53BQk&t=38s

A1.1.2 hydrogen bonds as a consequence of the polar covalent bonds

within water molecules

Chemical bond: covalent bond, Lewis structure, Molecular shape (VSEPR),

electronegativity, Polarity, Hydrogen bonding

Intermolecular force, intramolecular bond, ionic bond, metallic bond

A1.1.3 cohesion of water molecules due to hydrogen bonding and

consequences for organisms

Conduction of water in xylem: water potential

Use of water surfaces as habitat: mercury, bromine,

Mosquito larvae, commonly called "wrigglers," have adapted to

living just below the surface of water in a few key ways that allow
them to thrive in this environment. Here are some features and
behaviors that enable mosquito larvae to live just beneath the
water's surface:

1. Breathing structures: Mosquito larvae possess specialized

structures, such as a siphon or breathing tube, at the end of
their abdomen. This siphon allows them to breathe
atmospheric oxygen while remaining submerged. The larvae
can extend the siphon above the water’s surface to take in air,
which enables them to stay close to the surface, where they
can easily access oxygen.
2. Buoyancy: The bodies of mosquito larvae are designed to be
buoyant, which helps them stay just below the surface tension
of the water. The larvae can adjust their position by changing
the angle of their bodies, allowing them to hover at various
depths.
3. Feeding: Mosquito larvae feed on organic matter and
microorganisms present in the water, including algae and
 bacteria. By residing just below the surface, they have easy
access to these food sources while also being able to absorb
nutrients from the water.
4. Avoidance of predators: Living just beneath the water's
surface can help protect mosquito larvae from some
predators. By being partially submerged, they can escape
detection by fish and other aquatic predators that are more
active in deeper waters.
5. Developmental phase: The larval stage is one of several
developmental phases in a mosquito's life cycle. After
spending time as larvae, they will eventually pupate, leading
to the emergence of adult mosquitoes.

Overall, the combination of breathing adaptations, buoyancy, access

to food, and predator avoidance allows mosquito larvae to
effectively live just beneath the surface of water bodies.

A hypothesis is a potential answer to the question, one that can somehow

be tested. For example, our hypothesis in this case could be that the toast
didn't toast because the electrical outlet is broken.

This hypothesis is not necessarily the right explanation. Instead, it's a

possible explanation that we can test to see if it is likely correct, or if we
need to make a new hypothesis.

A hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable in order to be valid. For

example, “Botticelli’s Birth of Venus is beautiful" is not a good hypothesis,
because there is no experiment that could test this statement and show it
to be false.

However, "People find Boticelli's Birth of Venus to be beautiful" is

falsifiable, because you could conduct an experiment in which you asked
many people from different walks of life whether they thought the painting
was beautiful. Notice that how we phrase a hypothesis can have a big
impact on whether it is valid or not.

This question comes up a lot, particularly in reference to things like

Darwin's theory of evolution. A theory is different from a hypothesis,
though they're certainly related. A hypothesis is a potential answer to a
relatively small, specific question. A theory, on the other hand, addresses
a broader question and is supported by a large amount of data from
multiple sources
\[^{1,2}\].

For example, "The toaster won't toast because the electrical outlet is
broken" is a hypothesis, whereas "Electrical appliances need a source of
electricity in order to run" is closer to a theory.