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Mechanics I

Basic Physical Quantities

There are seven basic physical quantities from which all other units of measurement can
be derived. They are:
Time (s)
Length (m)
Luminous intensity (cd)
Mass (kg)
Number of particles (moles)
Temperature (K)
Charge (C)
Uniformly Accelerating Motion
v = u + at
v² = u² + 2as
s = ut + ½at²
Newton's Laws of Motion
1. inertia
2. F = ma
3. action & reaction
Univeral Law of Gravitation
F = Gm1m2/r2
Uniform Circular Motion
Centripetal acceleration is given by
a = v2/r

Centripetal force is given by

F = ma = mv2/r

Friction
Static friction = Force acting normally to surface x coefficient of static friction
= FN S

Dynamic friction = Force acting normally to surface x coefficient of dynamic friction

= FN  D

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Mechanics II

Translational Equilibrium

A body is in translational equilibrium when the vector sum of forces acting on it is zero.
As a result, the body stays in one location.
Moments
Moment (or torque) = F x perpendicular distance to pivot point
Rotational Equilibrium
A body is in rotational equilibrium when the sum of clockwise moments = sum of
counter-clockwise moments. As a result, the body does not rotate.
Momentum
Momentum = mv

Momentum is a vector quantity, meaning it has direction as well as magnitude.

Law of Conservation of Momentum

 mv before collision =  mv after collision
Elastic and Inelastic Collisions
In an elastic collision, KE is conserved. In an inelastic collision, some or all of the KE is
converted to sound, light, heat, and so forth.

Impulse
Impulse = change in momentum
=  (mv)
= m v

Since F = ma = m v/t
mv = Ft
or impulse = Ft

Potential Energy (PE)

PE = mgh
Kinetic Energy (KE)
KE = ½mv2
Work
Work done = Fd

Where F is force and

d is distance

Power

Power is the rate at which work is done

Power = Fd/t = Fv

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Elastic moduli/SHM

Elastic Moduli

A body is elastic if it spontaneously returns to its original shape after being deformed in
some way. A modulus is a physical constant. There are three main types of elastic
moduli.
Young's Modulus
Y = stress / strain = (F/A) / (l/l)
where F is a force applied to the end of the object of study and directed towards
or away from its attachment point, A is the cross-sectional area of the object,
and l is the length of the object.
Shear Modulus
S = stress / strain = (perpendicular F/A) / (x/l)
where F is a force applied perpendicularly to the length of the object, A is the
cross-sectional area of the object,  x is the lateral displacement, and l is the
length of the object.
Bulk Modulus
B = stress / strain = P / (V/V)
where P is pressure and V is volume.
Hooke’s Law
Hooke's law states that stress is directly proportional to strain.
However, Hooke's law only holds true up to a certain limit, the proportionality limit.
Between the proportionality limit and the elastic limit, stress is no longer proportional to
strain, although the object will return to its original size and shape once the stress is
removed. Beyond the elastic limit, the object remains permanently deformed.
Simple Harmonic Motion
Simple Harmonic Motion is oscillatory motion that occurs when a restoring force of the
form F = kx acts on a body, where k is a constant and x is the displacement from the
resting position. A graph of x against time shows a sinusoidal curve.
It can be shown that the frequency of oscillations is proportional to  (k/m), m being the
mass of the body. Thus, for a body oscillating on a spring, the stiffer the spring the
greater is k and the higher is the frequency. Similarly, the more massive the body, the
lower the frequency.
Pendulum Motion
A pendulum exhibits simple harmonic motion. The period, which is the time taken for
each cycle, is given by:
T = 2  (l/g)
where l is the length of the pendulum.

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Bernoulli's principle

Conservative Forces

A conservative force has the following properties.

1. The work done in moving an object between two positions is independent of the
path of the motion.
2. The work done when an object moves around in a closed path, finishing at its
starting point, is zero.

An example of a conservative force is gravity. An example of a non-conservative force is

friction since the longer the path the greater the work done by friction. The presence of
non-conservative forces means that total mechanical energy (KE + PE) is not conserved
since some of it is converted into heat energy.

Continuity Equation

The mass flow rate (Av) is constant at every position along a tube that has a single
entry and a single exit point for fluid flow.

 1A1v1 =  2A2v2
where  is density, A is cross-sectional area, and v is fluid speed.

If it can be assumed that  remains constant, the continuity equation reduces to

A1v1 = A2v2
Bernoulli's Principle
For a non-compressible, non-viscous fluid
P1 +  gh1 + ½ v12 = P2 +  gh2 + ½ v22
where P is pressure (Pa or N/m2)
 is density (kg/m3)
h is height above an arbitrary reference point (m)
v is the velocity that a particle in the fluid is travelling at (m/s) (not to be confused with
flow, which is the volume of fluid that passes a certain point in a given time interval)
Bernoulli's principle is a consequence of the law of conservation of mechanical energy:
PE + KE + work done = constant. Below is a simplified explanation of Bernoulli's
principle.
Consider a 1 m3 volume of water ( = 1,000 kg/m3; mass, m =  x volume =
1,000 kg) at height h.
Its PE = mgh = gh
If it is allowed to fall height h, its PE will be converted to KE = ½mv2 = ½v2
And at any point, h, in its fall, PE + KE = gh + ½v2 = constant
Examples of the above are waterfalls and water going down pipes of constant
cross-sectional area. However, if the cross-sectional area of a pipe varies,
another variable enters the equation: work done, not by gravity, but by the fliud
itself.
Now consider water flowing in a horizontal tube of constant cross-sectional area.
PE at all points is constant, as is KE. However, if the tube narrows at a certain

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point, v will increase in the narrowed portion so that the flow rate is the same in
all portions of the tube. This means that KE (which equals ½v2) increases.
So KE increases but PE remains the same. Work must have been done to
accelerate the water molecules. This work is reflected in the difference in
pressures between the "normal" tube and the narrowed tube.
KE = Work done = net force x distance
Since we are dealing with a volume of 1 m3,
KE = (net force/volume) x distance
= net force/area
= P
It becomes apparent then that in this hypothetical tube,
P + ½v2 = constant at all points
Similarly, if there were a dilation in the tube, the opposite occurs. In the dilation,
v would decrease and P increase. Work is done by the fluid on itself to slow it
down when it enters the dilation. And the relationship "P + ½v2 = constant at
all points" still holds.
Combining this outcome with the outcome from the previous scenario, we have
Bernoulli's equation:
P1 +  gh1 + ½ v12 = P2 +  gh2 + ½ v22
Sound
Rapid Review
Sound
Sound consists of longitudinal waves and requires a medium to travel in. It cannot travel in a
vacuum.
When we listen to a sound, we perceive its loudness (intensity), pitch (frequency), and timbre
(harmonic composition).
Velocity of Sound in Different Media
Velocity of sound in a solid > velocity of sound in a liquid > velocity of sound in a gas
Velocity of sound in a gas or liquid, v =  (B/)
where B is the bulk modulus and  is density.
Also, absolute temperature, T  KE of molecules
And since KE = ½mv2

T  ½mv2
or T  ½(mw)v2
where mw is the molecular weight
 v   (T/mw)
So when T increases so does v, and when mw is lower v is higher.
Velocity of sound in a solid =  (Y/)
where B is the Young's modulus and  is density.
Velocity of waves in a taut string =  (tension/[mass/length]),
and this is proportional to the frequency of sound produced from it.
So if the tension is increased the frequency increases, and if the mass/length
increases the frequency decreases.
Interference
When the paths of two or more waves intersect, the result is interference. At any given
time and place where there is interference, the resulting disturbance is the sum of the
disturbances of the individual waves at that time and place.

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When two waves always meet crest-to-crest and trough-to-trough, they are exactly in
phase and exhibit constructive interference.
Conversely, when two waves always meet crest-to-trough, they are exactly out of phase
and exhibit destructive interference.
Constructive interference and destructive interference occur when the frequencies from
two sound sources, placed a distance apart, are equal.
Beats
When there are two sound sources of slightly different frequencies, a different pattern of
interference is established. A listener would hear beats, which are alternating periods of
loudness and softness. The frequency of the beats is given by:
Beat frequency = difference between the two frequencies
Harmonics
A harmonic is a frequency that is a multiple of another frequency; e.g. 800 Hz and 1,200
Hz are harmonics of 400 Hz. Using this example, 400 Hz is called the fundamental
frequency or first harmonic. Harmonics higher than the first harmonic are sometimes
referred to as overtones. When the disturbances from each harmonic are summed, a
complex sound wave is created. The relative amplitudes of the different harmonics gives
sound its timbre.
Standing Waves
A standing wave is one that does not travel; that is, it stands still, unlike the waves that
produce it. A standing wave is usually set up when a wave reflects off a surface and
travels back along the same path in which it came. It interferes with itself creating the
effect of a wave where at certain fixed points there is no vibration (nodes) and in
between these there are fixed points of maximum vibration (antinodes). Since the
vibration at the antinodes is greater than the amplitude of the travelling wave that
caused it, a resonance effect is occurring.
Standing Wave in a Tube Open at Both Ends
Supposing a standing wave is produced in a tube of length l with both ends
open. Sound waves enter one end of the tube and travel down it and are
reflected back at the other end (even though it is open). At the end closest to
the sound source is an antinode. At the opposite end is also an antinode because
the air molecules there are free to move longitudinally. At the middle of the tube
is a node. Thus,
l = /2
 = 2l
f1 = v/ = v/2l = 0.5v/l
where f1 is the first harmonic, v is the velocity of sound, and  is the wavelength
Now, the frequency of sound can be increased to a level where another standing
wave would be established. Such a standing wave would again have an antinode
at one end of the tube and an antinode at the opposite end; however,
l=
f2 = v/ = v/l
f2 is the second harmonic since it is twice f1
And if the frequency is increased again until resonance occurs again,
l = 3 /2
 = 2l/3
f3 = v/ = 3v/2l = 1.5v/l
f3 is the third harmonic since it is three times f1

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And so on for f4, f5, etc.
Standing Wave in a Tube Closed at One End
Supposing a standing wave is produced in a tube of length l with one end closed
and the other end open. At the closed end is a node because the air molecules
there are not free to move longitudinally. At the open end is an antinode
because the air molecules there are free to move longitudinally. Thus,
l = /4
 = 4l
f1 = v/ = v/4l = 0.25v/l
f1 is the first harmonic
Now, the frequency of sound can be increased to a level where another standing
wave would be established. Such a standing wave would again have a node at
the closed end of the tube and an antinode at the open end; however,
l = 3/4
 = 4l/3
f3 = v/ = 3v/4l = 0.75v/l
f3 is the third harmonic (since it is three times the frequency of f1; the second
harmonic, which should be 0.5v/l, is not feasible).
Similarly, the next higher frequency at which there would be resonance can be
calculated as follows:
l = 5/4
 = 4l/5
f5 = v/ = 5v/4l = 1.25v/l
f5 is the fifth harmonic (since it is five times the frequency of f1; the fourth
harmonic, which should be v/l, is not feasible).
Thus, a tube open only at one end can develop standing waves at only the odd
harmonic frequencies (f1, f3, f5, etc.), while a tube open at both ends can develop
standing waves at all harmonic frequencies (f1, f2, f3, f4, f5, etc.). This results in
differences in the timbre of sounds produced from each type of tube.
Furthermore, in order to produce the same fundamental frequency, a tube with
both ends open must be twice as long as a tube with one end closed.
An example of where standing waves in tubes has applications is in the design of
musical instruments such as flutes and trumpets. The relative amplitudes of the
different harmonics give each instrument its unique timbre.

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EMR/Lenses

Rapid Review

Electromagnetic Radiation

Electromagnetic waves consist of fields of electric and magnetic energy that are
oscillating perpendicularly to the direction of propagation of the wave. The electric and
magnetic fields are in phase with each other and are also perpendicular to each other.
Since the fluctuations are perpendicular to the direction of propagation, electromagnetic
waves are transverse waves.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Type of Radiation Comments Approximate

(in order of decreasing frequency) frequency
 rays Produced by radioactive decay; nuclear  1020 Hz
reactions
X-rays Produced by deceleration of high-
speed electrons, e.g. X-ray tube.
Ultraviolet Produced by electrons going from
higher energy orbitals to lower higher
energy orbitals
Visible light Produced by electrons going from 1014 Hz
higher energy orbitals to lower higher
energy orbitals, e.g. electric light bulb
Infrared Produced by and causes movement of
(heat waves) atoms and molecules, vibration of
bonds. Used in IR spectroscopy.
Microwaves (higher-
frequency radio waves)
Lower-frequency radio waves Used in NMR spectroscopy 106 Hz

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Polarization

Since electromagnetic waves are transverse, they can be polarized. This means that the
electric field fluctuates along a single plane as opposed to fluctuating in every plane (for
simplicity, the magnetic field component is ignored).

A polarizing material placed in the path of a beam of unpolarized light will absorb the
electric field components in a certain plane. The transmitted light will thus be polarized
in the plane perpendicular to plane in which absorption is occurring. The intensity of the
light transmitted is half the intensity of the light incident on the polarizing material.

Disorders of Vision

Scientific name Common name of Basic problem Treatment

of disorder disorder
Myopia Nearsightedness Cannot focus on distant objects Diverging lenses
Hyperopia Farsightedness Cannot focus on near objects Converging lenses

Lens Aberrations

Aberration Explanation Measures to reduce it

Spherical aberration The rays from a single point on the Use an aperture so that only rays
object are not focused to a single close to the principal axis can pass
point on the image. through the lens. Or use 2 lenses
instead of 1.
Chromatic aberration Dispersion in the lens causes Use an achromatic lens (a
different colors to to be focused at converging and diverging lens in
different points along the principal tandem). This combination rejoins
axis. separated colors.

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Radioactivity

Rapid Review

Types of Radioactive Decay

Mode of decay Effect on parent nucleus Example

Mass number decreases by 4
 emission 86Rn
210
 84Po
206
+ 2He
4
Atomic number decreases by 2
Neutron turns into a proton
 emission Atomic number increases by 1 14 14
6C  7N + -1e
0

Mass number remains the same

125 0 125
Proton turns into a neutron 53I + -1e  52Te + X-ray photon
Electron capture Atomic number decreases by 1 (The captured electron decelerates and its kinetic energy is converted
Mass number remains the same into electromagnetic energy)
Proton turns into a neutron
8 8 0
Positron emission Atomic number decreases by 1 5B  4Be + +1e
Mass number remains the same
99M 99
None except nucleus becomes less  43Tc + 
 emission 43Tc
excited (The "M" stands for metastable)
252 140 108 1
Spontaneous fission Becomes much smaller 98Cf  54Xe + 44Ru + 4 0n

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