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Unit 2

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UNIT 2: BASIC CONCEPTS IN THE STUDY OF CHILD


AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
Compiled by: ROSIE FE B. LEGASPINO, RGC, Dev.Ed.D – CTU Moalboal Campus

INTRODUCTION

Defining the terminology and concepts in the study of child and adolescent development
is crucial to ensure theoretical understanding, clarity, consistency, and effective application.
This unit introduces research-based key terms and concepts that are relevant to
understanding child and adolescent development. This includes definitions of terms, periods of
development, developmental tasks during the lifespan, and domains and contexts of
development.

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOME


In this learning guide, you are expected to:
1. Explain the basic concepts related to child and adolescent development (CLO1)

PRELIMINARY QUESTIONS/DIAGNOSIS

Does a child enjoy physical play? Does a child show interest in group activities? Can a
child understand the concept of time, such as yesterday, today, and tomorrow?

Is an adolescent worried about her physical health, such as changes in weight and eating
habits? Does an adolescent feel comfortable during social interactions? Does he enjoy
exploring new interests and hobbies?

PREPARATION
Learning Activity #1
Making Inferences and Predictions

Case 1: Child – Emily, Age 6


Emily is a 6-year-old girl in the early stages of middle childhood. She lives with
her parents and younger brother. She is starting first grade and is interested in drawing
and storytelling.

Case 2: Adolescent – Jake, Age 15


Jake is a 15-year-old high school sophomore who lives with his single mother. He
is involved in sports and is passionate about music. He is starting to think about his future
and his identity.

After reading the cases provided, explain your understanding of Emily and Jake’s
situation and what you believe might happen to them.
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Case 1: Child – Emily, Age 6 Case 2: Adolescent – Jake, Age 15


What would you say about Emily? What would you say about Jake?
______________________________ ____________________________
______________________________ ____________________________

What do you believe might happen to What do you believe might happen to
Emily? Jake?
______________________________ ____________________________
______________________________ ____________________________
______________________________ ____________________________

PRESENTATION

Learning Activity #2

After listening to the inferences and predictions given, answer the following
questions:
1. Will 6-year-old Emily be able to do all that 15-year-old Jake can do? Why or why
not?
2. Will there be anything common in the development pattern of Emily and Jake? If
yes, what?
3. Will there be differences in their development, e.g. pace or rate of development?
If yes, what and why?
4. Will development happen quickly or gradually? Expound your answer.
5. Will development continue or stop once a person reaches adulthood?

• Definitions from UNESCO, UNICEF, and WHO

Let us start by defining the terms to gain a clearer understanding of child and
adolescent development.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) A child


is defined as every human being below the age of eighteen years unless under the law
applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier.

Adolescence, on the other hand, is a distinct stage that marks the transition between
childhood and adulthood (https://www.coursehero.com/file/118018847/DEFINITIONS-
OF-CHILD-AND-ADOLESCENTSdocx/).

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)


A child is any person under the age of 18, and that all children have all these
rights, no matter who they are, where they live, what language they speak, what their
religion is, what they think, what they look like, if they are a boy or girl, if they have a
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disability, if they are rich or poor, and no matter who their parents or families are or what
their parents or families believe or do.
Adolescence is a defining time in the development of a child that is characterized
by rapid physical growth and neurological sculpting, the onset of puberty and sexual
maturity. It is a critical period for individual identity development when young people are
figuring out who they want to be in the world; an opportunity for growth, exploration and
creativity (https://www.coursehero.com/file/118018847/DEFINITIONS-OF-CHILD-AND-
ADOLESCENTSdocx/).

World Health Organization (WHO)


Adopted by the Convention on the Rights of the Child, a child is defined as a
person under the age of 18 years. On the other hand, adolescents are between 10 and
19 years of age. Adolescence is a period of life with specific health and developmental
needs and rights. It is also a time to develop knowledge and skills, learn to manage
emotions and relationships and acquire attributes and abilities that will be important for
enjoying the adolescent years and assuming adult roles
(https://www.coursehero.com/file/118018847/DEFINITIONS-OF-CHILD-AND-
ADOLESCENTSdocx/).
.
Philippine Constitution
Republic Act No. 9344 defines "Child" as a person under the age of eighteen (18)
years. The State hereby declares under Republic Act No. 8044 that “Youth” is the critical
period in a person's growth and development from the onset of adolescence towards the
peak of mature, self-reliant and responsible adulthood comprising the considerable
sector of the population from the age of fifteen (15) to thirty (30) years.

Republic Act 7610 or the Special Protection of Children against Child Abuse,
Exploitation, and Discrimination Act defines children as persons below eighteen (18)
years of age or those over but are unable to fully take care of themselves from abuse,
neglect, exploitation or discrimination because of a physical or mental disability or
condition (https://library.pcw.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Filipiniana-Special-
Protection-of-Children-Against-Child-Abuse-Exploitation-and-Discrimination-Act-RA-
7610-Implementing-Rules-and-Regulations-January-1997.pdf).

Childhood – refers to the time or state of being a child, the early stage in the existence
or development of something. From a historical perspective, childhood can be defined
as an evolving series of steps, usually constant, towards adulthood shaped by an array
of forces and ideas ranging from ethnicity to class, from region to religion and from
gender to politics.

Adolescence – (Latin adolescentia, from adolescere, “to grow up”) is the period of
psychological and social transition between childhood and adulthood. In common usage
in English countries “adolescent” and “teenager” are synonymous. Adolescence is also
defined as the transitional stage of human development in which a juvenile matures into
an adult. The transition involves biological, social, and psychological changes. The onset
of adolescence sees children as having completed elementary school and are about to
enter secondary education. Between the early childhood and teenage years is preteen.
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Child development - includes the stages a child goes through from birth until he or she
becomes an adult. Children are first newborns, and they acquire the skills that allow them
to adapt and function during their growth
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK564386/). In other words, child development is
the sequential changes in the behavior, cognition, and physiology of children as they
grow from birth through adolescence (https://dictionary.apa.org/child-development).

Adolescent development – refers to the physical, cognitive, emotional, and social


changes that occur during adolescence
(https://open.maricopa.edu/devpsych/chapter/chapter-7-adolescence/).

Growth is defined as the quantitative changes that can be measured. It is the


progressive increase in the child’s size or body parts or the maturation of tissues or
organs. An example is the growth in height or weight.

Development is defined as changes which lead to qualitative reorganizations in the


structure of behavior, skill or ability.
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(https://elearning.reb.rw/course/view.php?id=1276&section=8)

Maturation - the biological unfolding of the individual according to a plan contained in


the genes, changes resulting from growth and not from training or practice as indicated by
the state of readiness to progress in a definite type of behavior.

Learning - the process through which one’s experiences produce relatively


permanent changes in one’s feelings thoughts and actions that entail careful instruction and
practice.

Difference between Maturation and Learning


Maturation Learning

• Based on heredity • Based on Environment

• Automatic • Planned

• Age-limited • No age limit

• Related to structure and • Related to experience


potential capacity

• Does not require training • Requires training and practice


and practice

• Instruction has no effect • Entails careful instruction

(https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/learning/learning-theory/difference-between-
maturation-and learning-psychology/2497)

Learning Principles - research-based guidelines that summarize the optimal conditions


to facilitate learning. Knowledge and application of the learning principles ensure that
teachers and students make the most out of the learning experience.

Principles of Child Development


The growth and development of a child follow three principles which include
cephalocaudal principle, proximodistal (proximal-distal) principle, and general to specific
principle.
Cephalocaudal principle – according to this principle, children develop from head
to toe. This also states that muscular control occurs from the head downward, starting
with the neck and upper body toward the arms, trunk, and legs. Initially, the head is larger
than other parts of the baby’s body, but as the baby develops, the body becomes more
proportionate and the baby develops skills in crawling, sitting, standing, walking, and
running.
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Proximodistal (proximal-distal) principle – this occurs when children develop


motor skills from the center of the body outward. This is shown by how babies learn to
control their heads and trunks before being able to manipulate their arms and legs.
General to specific principle – illustrates the pattern of development from being
able to use the whole body to being able to use specific body parts for specific tasks.

According to the National Association for the Education of Young Children (2006), the
principles of development include the following:
1. All areas of development and learning are important.
The different domains of child development are closely related to each other
where one domain influences the other whether it is physical, linguistic, aesthetic,
cognitive, emotional, or social. For instance, a child must learn how to ask for food when
he/she is hungry. This skill is as important as hugging a crying friend or standing on one
foot during a song exercise.
2. Learning and development follow sequences.
Development in the child occurs in a sequence with the acquired knowledge,
skills, and abilities added and incorporated into the old ones. Before an infant learns how
to walk, he/she needs to learn how to balance, turn on all fours, sit down, crawl, and
finally take that first step.
3. Development and learning proceed at varying rates.
Development varies from child to child and the rate at which they grow and
function. Although children go through typical milestones, there are still differences that
adults need to respect. Some four-year-olds, for instance, are adept at expressing
themselves in a clear manner, while others may find sentence construction somewhat a
bit challenging.
4. Development and learning result from an interaction of maturation and experience.
When the child can gain experiences continually and consistency, he/she is able
to develop, adapt, and learn from the experiences. An example of this is a child who may
come from a family of geniuses, but is not properly supported or is not provided proper
nutrition, that child may not be able to develop his/her full potential.
5. Early experiences have profound effects on development and learning.
The individual child’s development has both a cumulative and delayed effect from
the experiences earlier in life, resulting in a certain existing development and learning in
an optimal period. This is related to the second principle. This is common among children
who grew up in a poor family whose parents rely on irregular sources of income. The
children from the time of birth may not be fully given proper nutrition and, hence may
suffer stunted growth and delayed development.
6. Development proceeds toward greater complexity, self-regulation, and symbolic or
representational capacities.
Development in a child proceeds in a predictable manner directing to a greater
complexity, internationalization, and organization. This is somehow related to the second
principle. Children’s skills build up. Infants like grasping objects, and when they become
toddlers they can grasp a crayon and do scribbles. As the child masters holding the
crayon, he/she then can create simple drawings such as circles, which would then
eventually be a figure of a sun, a ball or a face.
7. Children develop best when they have secure relationships.
In the context of the community, children can function when they are able to learn
more and feel that they are safe, valued, and attended to. This is best explained by
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looking at children in temporary shelters and orphanages. Sometimes, because of a


number of children in a home, the caregivers are unable to provide quality time and
attention to each of the children. This may result in delays in emotional development, for
instance.

8. Development and learning occur in and are influenced by multiple social and cultural
contexts.
Children’s development and learning result from the different interactions they
have with both the social and physical environment they live in. One cannot compare the
development of a child who grew up in an indigenous community with a child who grew
up in urban areas.
9. Children learn in a variety of ways.
Children are such active learners and can construct their own understanding of
the world around them through the experiences they gain from social interaction and
infer cultural knowledge from their environment. For instance, children learn when
parents spend time with them. They may also learn when they play with their friends, but
they may also learn when they are all alone and are given time to ponder and be creative.
10. Play is an important vehicle for developing self-regulation and promoting language,
cognition, and social competence.
For children, play is their form of learning. Through it, they are able to practice
their social, emotional, physical and cognitive development. Play is a child’s work. When
they engage in pretend play, for example with their peers, they learn to communicate
their thoughts, they learn to take other people’s perspectives, and they learn the value
of cooperation.
11. Development and learning advance when children are challenged.
When children are presented the opportunity to practice, improve, and increase
their mastery, they are able to acquire new skills. Children like to show off their skills.
Notice how children experiment on almost everything they see.
12. Children’s experiences shape their motivation and approaches to learning.
Children’s method of learning is not singular. They can learn and comprehend
through different modes of learning and present them in different ways. An example of
this is the toddlers’ experience on the first day of daycare. When their experience is a
good one, they are likely to be motivated to go to daycare in the following days, hence
maximizing the opportunities for learning.

Learning Principles

Theory and Research-based Principles of Learning


The following list presents the basic principles that underlie effective learning.
These principles are distilled from research from a variety of disciplines.
1. Students’ prior knowledge can help or hinder learning.
Students come into our courses with knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes gained in
other courses and through daily life. As students bring this knowledge to bear in our
classrooms, it influences how they filter and interpret what they are learning. If students’
prior knowledge is robust and accurate and activated at the appropriate time, it provides
a strong foundation for building new knowledge. However, when knowledge is inert,
insufficient for the task, activated inappropriately, or inaccurate, it can interfere with or
impede new learning.
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2. How students organize knowledge influences how they learn and apply what they
know.
Students naturally make connections between pieces of knowledge. When those
connections form knowledge structures that are accurately and meaningfully organized,
students are better able to retrieve and apply their knowledge effectively and efficiently.
In contrast, when knowledge is connected in inaccurate or random ways, students can
fail to retrieve or apply it appropriately.
3. Students’ motivation determines, directs, and sustains what they do to learn.
As students enter college and gain greater autonomy over what, when, and how
they study and learn, motivation plays a critical role in guiding the direction, intensity,
persistence, and quality of the learning behaviors in which they engage. When students
find positive value in a learning goal or activity, expect to successfully achieve a desired
learning outcome, and perceive support from their environment, they are likely to be
strongly motivated to learn.
4. To develop mastery, students must acquire component skills, practice integrating
them, and know when to apply what they have learned.
Students must develop not only the component skills and knowledge necessary
to perform complex tasks, they must also practice combining and integrating them to
develop greater fluency and automaticity. Finally, students must learn when and how to
apply the skills and knowledge they learn. As instructors, it is important that we develop
conscious awareness of these elements of mastery so as to help our students learn more
effectively.
5. Goal-directed practice coupled with targeted feedback enhances the quality of
students’ learning.
Learning and performance are best fostered when students engage in practice
that focuses on a specific goal or criterion, targets an appropriate level of challenge, and
is of sufficient quantity and frequency to meet the performance criteria. Practice must be
coupled with feedback that explicitly communicates about some aspect(s) of students’
performance relative to specific target criteria, provides information to help students
progress in meeting those criteria, and is given at a time and frequency that allows it to
be useful.
6. Students’ current level of development interacts with the social, emotional, and
intellectual climate of the course to impact learning.
Students are not only intellectual but also social and emotional beings, and they
are still developing the full range of intellectual, social, and emotional skills. While we
cannot control the developmental process, we can shape the intellectual, social,
emotional, and physical aspects of classroom climate in developmentally appropriate
ways. Many studies have shown that the climate we create has implications for our
students. A negative climate may impede learning and performance, but a positive
climate can energize students’ learning.
7. To become self-directed learners, students must learn to monitor and adjust their
approaches to learning.
Learners may engage in a variety of metacognitive processes to monitor and
control their learning—assessing the task at hand, evaluating their own strengths and
weaknesses, planning their approach, applying and monitoring various strategies, and
reflecting on the degree to which their current approach is working. Unfortunately,
students tend not to engage in these processes naturally. When students develop the
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skills to engage these processes, they gain intellectual habits that not only improve their
performance but also their effectiveness as learners.

• Periods or Stages of Development


Pre-natal period – refers to pre-natal development. During this period, conception
occurs and development begins. All of the major structures of the body are forming and
the health of the mother is of primary concern. Understanding nutrition, teratogens (or
environmental factors that can lead to birth defects), and labor and delivery are primary
concerns.
Infancy and Toddlerhood - The first year and a half to two years of life are ones
of dramatic growth and change. A newborn, with a keen sense of hearing but very poor
vision is transformed into a walking, talking toddler within a relatively short
period. Caregivers are also transformed from someone who manages feeding and sleep
schedules to a constantly moving guide and safety inspector for a mobile, energetic child.
Early Childhood - Early childhood is also referred to as the preschool years
consisting of the years which follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling. As a
three to five-year-old, the child is busy learning language, is gaining a sense of self and
greater independence, and is beginning to learn the workings of the physical world. This
knowledge does not come quickly, however, and preschoolers may have initially have
interesting conceptions of size, time, space and distance such as fearing that they may
go down the drain if they sit at the front of the bathtub or by demonstrating how long
something will take by holding out their two index fingers several inches apart. A toddler’s
fierce determination to do something may give way to a four-year-old’s sense of guilt for
doing something that brings the disapproval of others.
Middle Childhood - The ages of six through twelve comprise middle childhood and
much of what children experience at this age is connected to their involvement in the
early grades of school. Now the world becomes one of learning and testing new
academic skills and by assessing one’s abilities and accomplishments by making
comparisons between self and others. Schools compare students and make these
comparisons public through team sports, test scores, and other forms of
recognition. Growth rates slow down and children are able to refine their motor skills at
this point in life. And children begin to learn about social relationships beyond the family
through interaction with friends and fellow students.
Adolescence - is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall
physical growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as puberty. It is also a time of
cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities and to consider
abstract concepts such as love, fear, and freedom. Ironically, adolescents have a sense
of invincibility that puts them at greater risk of dying from accidents or contracting
sexually transmitted infections that can have lifelong consequences.

• Developmental Tasks during the Lifespan


In each stage of development, a certain task or tasks are expected of every individual.
Robert Havighurst defines a developmental task as one that “arises at a certain period
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in our life, the achievement of which leads to happiness and success with later tasks
while failure leads to unhappiness, social disapproval, and difficulty with later tasks”
(Corpuz et al., 2018).

Developmental stages
There are eight (8) developmental stages given by Santrock. The eight developmental
stages cited by Santrock are the same as Havighurst’s six (6) developmental stages only
that Havighurst did not include the prenatal period. Havighurst combined infancy and
early childhood while Santrock mentioned them as two (2) separate stages.

The developmental tasks (Santrock, 2002)


1. Prenatal period (from conception to birth) – it involves tremendous growth from a
single cell to an organism complete with brain and behavioral capabilities.

2. Infancy (from birth to 18-24 months) – a time of extreme dependence on adults. Many
psychological activities are just beginning – language, symbolic thought, sensorimotor
coordination and social learning.
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3. Early childhood (end of infancy to 5-6 years) – these are the preschool years. Young
children learn to become more self-sufficient and to care for themselves, develop school
readiness skills and spend many hours in play with peers.

4. Middle and late childhood (6-11 years of age, the elementary school years) – the
fundamental skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic are mastered. The child is formally
exposed to the larger world and its culture. Achievement becomes a more central theme
of the child’s world and self-control increases.

5. Adolescence (10-12 years of age ending up to 18-22 years of age) – dramatic gains
in height and weight, changes in body contour, and the development of sexual
characteristics such as enlargement of the breasts, development of pubic and facial hair,
and deepening of the voice. The pursuit of independence and identity is prominent.
Thought is more logical, abstract and idealistic. More time is spent outside of the family.

6. Early adulthood (from late teens or early 20s lasting through the 30s) – it is a time of
establishing personal and economic independence, career development, selecting a
mate, learning to live with someone in an intimate way, starting a family and rearing
children.

7. Middle adulthood (40 to 60 years of age) – It is a time of expanding personal and


social involvement and responsibility; of assisting the next generation in becoming
competent and mature individuals; and of reaching and maintaining satisfaction in a
career.

8. Late adulthood (60s and above) – It is a time for adjustment to decreasing strength
and health, life review, retirement, and adjustment to new social roles.

• Domains of Development
1. Physical Domain: Changes in body size, proportions, appearance, functioning of
body systems, perceptual and motor capacities, and physical health.
* Provide opportunities to support learners’ physical functioning such as acquisition of
new physical skills and performance of physical activities.

2. Socio-emotional (Social and Emotional) Domain: Changes in emotional


communication, self-understanding, knowledge about other people, interpersonal skills,
friendships, intimate relationships, and moral reasoning and behavior.
*Provide opportunities for learners to increase their capacity for self-acceptance, self-
reliance, self-confidence, and identity formation.
*Provide opportunities for learners to enhance their abilities to build healthy
relationships.

3. Cognitive Domain: Changes in intellectual abilities, including attention, memory,


academic and everyday knowledge, problem-solving, imagination, creativity, and
language.
*Provide learners the opportunities to enhance their ability to think, set goals, solve
problems and work with focused attention.
*Provide learners the opportunity to develop their receptive and expressive skills.
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• Context of Development
Knowing the child’s context provides a more vivid picture in assessing the
circumstances the child is growing under. Also, the rights of and policies on children
affect them on the level of exposure to different factors that either endanger or protect
them.

1. Family context – is the primary context of the child at birth. The family context
encompasses the structure of the family, the resources available in the home, health and
well-being, and the relationship between the members.
2. Neighborhood context – it is where children can be found in their next immediate social
setting where they interact with other people outside the family. this can include the
school or any educational system, community and culture. This can include the school
or any educational system, community and culture.
3. Socio-demographic context – this refers to the income a family makes to meet the
needs of all the members. This also pertains to parents’ educational attainment, degree
of knowledge on child-rearing, family planning, discipline, health practices, and others.

F. CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE (Santrock, 2016)


1. Development is lifelong. It is continuing through life. No age period dominates
development.

2. Development is multidimensional. It consists of biological, cognitive and socio-


emotional dimensions. Each dimension has several components. Changes in one
dimension also affect development in the other dimensions.
Ex. A seven-year-old child was hospitalized with a severe allergic reaction. His parents
rarely visited him. After his hospital stay, he was never the same happy baby. He
became withdrawn and unresponsive.
3. Development is multidirectional. Throughout life, some dimensions or components
of a dimension expand while others shrink. For example, when one reaches
adolescence, his/her romantic relationship is established while relationship with
friends decreases.
4. Development is plastic. The capacity to change. A ten-year-old shy child may
improve his social skills through exposure to group activities.
5. Development is contextual. All development occurs in a context or setting. Contexts
include families, schools, peer groups, churches, cities, neighborhood, university
laboratories, countries and so on. Each of these settings is influenced by historical,
economic, social and cultural factors. Context changes like individuals.
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Three types of Influences as a result of change


a. Normative age-graded influences - are similar for individuals in a particular
age group. These include biological processes such as puberty and
menopause. They also include socio-cultural, environmental process such as
beginning of formal education (usually at about 6 in most cultures).
b. Normative history-graded influences - are common to people of a particular
generation because of historical circumstances. Include economic, political and
social upheavals such as civil rights and women’s rights movements of the
1960’s and 1970’s.
c. Non-normative life events. These are unusual occurrences that have a major
impact on the individual’s life. Examples include the death of a parent when a
child is young, and pregnancy in early adolescence.
6. Developmental science is multidisciplinary. Psychologists, sociologists,
anthropologists, neurologists and medical researchers all share an interest in
unlocking the mysteries of development through the life span.

REFERENCES
• Acero, V., Javier, E., and Castro, H. (2011). Child and Adolescent Development. Rex
Book Store Inc. Manila.
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• Corpuz, B., Lucas, MR, Borabo, HG., and Lucido, P. (2018). The child and adolescent
learners and learning principles. Lorimar Publishing Inc.
• Del Rosario, K., and Albor, RG. (2021). A Course Module for Child Development. Rex
Book Store Inc. Manila.
• Santrock, J.W. (2016). Essentials of Life-span Development, Fourth Edition. New
• York, NY;McGraw-Hill Education.
• https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-lifespandevelopment2/chapter/periods-of-
development/
• https://dictionary.apa.org/child-development
• https://elearning.reb.rw/course/view.php?id=1276&section=8
• https://open.maricopa.edu/devpsych/chapter/chapter-7-adolescence/
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/principles-of-learning-overview-examples.html
• https://www.cmu.edu/teaching/principles/learning.html
• https://www.coursehero.com/file/118018847/DEFINITIONS-OF-CHILD-AND-
ADOLESCENTSdocx/
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK564386/
• https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/learning/learning-theory/difference-
between-maturation-and learning-psychology/2497

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