INTERMEDIATE

SQL

CSE 4509
INSTRUCTOR: DR. F. A. FAISAL
OUTLINE
• Join Expressions
• Views
• Transactions
• Integrity Constraints
• SQL Data Types and Schemas
• Index Definition in SQL
• Authorization
JOINED RELATIONS
• Join operations take two relations and return as a result another
relation.
• A join operation is a Cartesian product which requires that tuples
in the two relations match (under some condition). It also
specifies the attributes that are present in the result of the join
• The join operations are typically used as subquery expressions
in the from clause
• Three types of joins:
• Natural join
• Inner join
• Outer join
NATURAL JOIN IN SQL
• Natural join matches tuples with the same values for all common
attributes, and retains only one copy of each common column.
• List the names of students along with the course ID of the courses
that they taught
• select name, course_id
from students, takes
where student.ID = takes.ID;
• Same query in SQL with “natural join” construct
• select name, course_id
from student natural join takes;
NATURAL JOIN IN SQL
(CONT.)
• The from clause can have multiple relations combined using natural
join:
select A1, A2, … An
from r1 natural join r2 natural join .. natural join rn
where P ;
STUDENT RELATION
TAKES RELATION
STUDENT NATURAL JOIN
TAKES
DANGEROUS IN NATURAL
JOIN
• Beware of unrelated attributes with same name which get equated
incorrectly
• Example -- List the names of students instructors along with the titles
of courses that they have taken
• Correct version
• select name, title
from student natural join takes, course
where takes.course_id = course.course_id;
• Incorrect version
• select name, title
from student natural join takes natural join course;
• This query omits all (student name, course title) pairs where the
student takes a course in a department other than the student's
own department.
• The correct version (above), correctly outputs such pairs.
NATURAL JOIN WITH USING
CLAUSE
To avoid the danger of equating attributes erroneously, we can use the
“using” construct that allows us to specify exactly which columns
should be equated.
Query example
select name, title
from (student natural join takes) join course using (course_id)
JOIN CONDITION
The on condition allows a general predicate over the relations being
joined
This predicate is written like a where clause predicate except for the use
of the keyword on
Query example
select *
from student join takes on student_ID = takes_ID
• The on condition above specifies that a tuple from student matches a
tuple from takes if their ID values are equal.
Equivalent to:
select *
from student , takes
where student_ID = takes_ID
JOIN CONDITION (CONT.)

The on condition allows a general predicate over the relations being

joined.
This predicate is written like a where clause predicate except for the use
of the keyword on.
Query example
select *
from student join takes on student_ID = takes_ID
• The on condition above specifies that a tuple from student matches a
tuple from takes if their ID values are equal.
Equivalent to:
select *
from student , takes
where student_ID = takes_ID
IMP
COURSE & PREREQ TABLE
OUTER JOIN
An extension of the join operation that avoids loss of information.
Computes the join and then adds tuples form one relation that does not
match tuples in the other relation to the result of the join.
Uses null values.
Three forms of outer join:
• left outer join
• right outer join
• full outer join
OUTER JOIN EXAMPLES
Relation course

Relation prereq

Observe that
course information is missing CS-347
prereq information is missing CS-315

• Write a query that returns all courses and their prerequisites.

• Write a query that returns all courses in prereq and their information.
LEFT OUTER JOIN
• course natural left outer join prereq

§ In relational algebra: course ⟕ prereq

RIGHT OUTER JOIN

course natural right outer join prereq

§ In relational algebra: course ⟖ prereq

FULL OUTER JOIN
course natural full outer join prereq

In relational algebra: course ⟗ prereq

JOINED TYPES AND
CONDITIONS
• Join operations take two relations and return as a result another
relation.
• These additional operations are typically used as subquery expressions
in the from clause
• Join condition – defines which tuples in the two relations match.
• Join type – defines how tuples in each relation that do not match any
tuple in the other relation (based on the join condition) are treated.
JOINED RELATIONS –
EXAMPLES
course natural right outer join prereq

course full outer join prereq using (course_id)

JOINED RELATIONS – EXAMPLES
course inner join prereq on
course.course_id = prereq.course_id

What is the difference between the above, and a natural join?

course left outer join prereq on
course.course_id = prereq.course_id
JOINED RELATIONS – EXAMPLES
course natural right outer join prereq

course full outer join prereq using (course_id)

VIEWS
• In some cases, it is not desirable for all users to see the entire logical
model (that is, all the actual relations stored in the database.)
• Consider a person who needs to know an instructors name and
department, but not the salary. This person should see a relation
described, in SQL, by

select ID, name, dept_name

from instructor

• A view provides a mechanism to hide certain data from the view of

certain users.
• Any relation that is not of the conceptual model but is made visible
to a user as a “virtual relation” is called a view.
VIEW DEFINITION

A view is defined using the create view statement which has the form

create view v as < query expression >

where <query expression> is any legal SQL expression. The view
name is represented by v.
Once a view is defined, the view name can be used to refer to the
virtual relation that the view generates.
View definition is not the same as creating a new relation by evaluating
the query expression
• Rather, a view definition causes the saving of an expression; the
expression is substituted into queries using the view.
VIEW DEFINITION AND USE

A view of instructors without their salary

create view faculty as

select ID, name, dept_name
from instructor
Find all instructors in the Biology department

select name
from faculty
where dept_name = 'Biology'
Create a view of department salary totals

create view departments_total_salary(dept_name, total_salary) as

select dept_name, sum (salary)
from instructor
group by dept_name;
VIEWS DEFINED USING
OTHER VIEWS
• One view may be used in the expression defining another
view
• A view relation v1 is said to depend directly on a view
relation v2 if v2 is used in the expression defining v1
• A view relation v1 is said to depend on view relation v2 if
either v1 depends directly to v2 or there is a path of
dependencies from v1 to v2
• A view relation v is said to be recursive if it depends on
itself.
VIEWS DEFINED USING
OTHER VIEWS
create view physics_fall_2017 as
select course.course_id, sec_id, building, room_number
from course, section
where course.course_id = section.course_id
and course.dept_name = 'Physics'
and section.semester = 'Fall'
and section.year = '2017’;

create view physics_fall_2017_watson as

select course_id, room_number
from physics_fall_2017
where building= 'Watson';
VIEW EXPANSION
Expand the view :
create view physics_fall_2017_watson as
select course_id, room_number
from physics_fall_2017
where building= 'Watson'
To: create view physics_fall_2017_watson as
select course_id, room_number
from (select course.course_id, building, room_number
from course, section
where course.course_id = section.course_id
and course.dept_name = 'Physics'
and section.semester = 'Fall'
and section.year = '2017')
where building= 'Watson';
VIEW EXPANSION (CONT.)
A way to define the meaning of views defined in terms of other views.
Let view v1 be defined by an expression e1 that may itself contain uses
of view relations.
View expansion of an expression repeats the following replacement
step:
repeat
Find any view relation vi in e1
Replace the view relation vi by the expression defining vi
until no more view relations are present in e1
As long as the view definitions are not recursive, this loop will terminate
MATERIALIZED VIEWS
Certain database systems allow view relations to be physically stored.
• Physical copy created when the view is defined.
• Such views are called Materialized view:
If relations used in the query are updated, the materialized view result
becomes out of date
• Need to maintain the view, by updating the view whenever the
underlying relations are updated.
UPDATE OF A VIEW

Add a new tuple to faculty view which we defined earlier

insert into faculty
values ('30765', 'Green', 'Music');
This insertion must be represented by the insertion into the instructor
relation
• Must have a value for salary.
Two approaches
• Reject the insert
• Inset the tuple
('30765', 'Green', 'Music', null)
into the instructor relation
SOME UPDATES CANNOT BE TRANSLATED
UNIQUELY
create view instructor_info as
select ID, name, building
from instructor, department
where instructor.dept_name= department.dept_name;
insert into instructor_info
values ('69987', 'White', 'Taylor');
Issues
• Which department, if multiple departments in Taylor?
• What if no department is in Taylor?
AND SOME NOT AT ALL
create view history_instructors as
select *
from instructor
where dept_name= 'History';
What happens if we insert
('25566', 'Brown', 'Biology', 100000)
into history_instructors?
VIEW UPDATES IN SQL
Most SQL implementations allow updates only on simple views
• The from clause has only one database relation.
• The select clause contains only attribute names of the relation, and
does not have any expressions, aggregates, or distinct specification.
• Any attribute not listed in the select clause can be set to null
• The query does not have a group by or having clause.
TRANSACTIONS
A transaction consists of a sequence of query and/or update
statements and is a “unit” of work
The SQL standard specifies that a transaction begins implicitly when
an SQL statement is executed.
The transaction must end with one of the following statements:
• Commit work. The updates performed by the transaction become
permanent in the database.
• Rollback work. All the updates performed by the SQL statements in
the transaction are undone.
Atomic transaction
• either fully executed or rolled back as if it never occurred
Isolation from concurrent transactions
INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS
Integrity constraints guard against accidental damage to the database,
by ensuring that authorized changes to the database do not result in a
loss of data consistency.
• A checking account must have a balance greater than $10,000.00
• A salary of a bank employee must be at least $4.00 an hour
• A customer must have a (non-null) phone number
CONSTRAINTS ON A SINGLE RELATION
not null
primary key
unique
check (P), where P is a predicate
NOT NULL CONSTRAINTS

not null
• Declare name and budget to be not null
name varchar(20) not null
budget numeric(12,2) not null
UNIQUE CONSTRAINTS
unique ( A1, A2, …, Am)
• The unique specification states that the attributes A1, A2, …, Am
form a candidate key.
• Candidate keys are permitted to be null (in contrast to primary
keys).
THE CHECK CLAUSE

The check (P) clause specifies a predicate P that must be satisfied by

every tuple in a relation.
Example: ensure that semester is one of fall, winter, spring or summer

create table section

(course_id varchar (8),
sec_id varchar (8),
semester varchar (6),
year numeric (4,0),
building varchar (15),
room_number varchar (7),
time slot id varchar (4),
primary key (course_id, sec_id, semester, year),
check (semester in ('Fall', 'Winter', 'Spring', 'Summer')))
REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY

• Ensures that a value that appears in one relation for a given set of
attributes also appears for a certain set of attributes in another
relation.
• Example: If “Biology” is a department name appearing in one of the
tuples in the instructor relation, then there exists a tuple in the
department relation for “Biology”.
• Let A be a set of attributes. Let R and S be two relations that contain
attributes A and where A is the primary key of S. A is said to be a
foreign key of R if for any values of A appearing in R these values
also appear in S.
REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY
(CONT.)

Foreign keys can be specified as part of the SQL create table

statement
foreign key (dept_name) references department
By default, a foreign key references the primary-key attributes of the
referenced table.
SQL allows a list of attributes of the referenced relation to be
specified explicitly.
foreign key (dept_name) references department (dept_name)
CASCADING ACTIONS IN REFERENTIAL
INTEGRITY
When a referential-integrity constraint is violated, the normal procedure is
to reject the action that caused the violation.
An alternative, in case of delete or update is to cascade
create table course (
(…
dept_name varchar(20),
foreign key (dept_name) references department
on delete cascade
on update cascade,
. . .)
Instead of cascade we can use :
• set null,
• set default
INTEGRITY CONSTRAINT VIOLATION DURING
TRANSACTIONS

Consider:
create table person (
ID char(10),
name char(40),
mother char(10),
father char(10),
primary key ID,
foreign key father references person,
foreign key mother references person)
How to insert a tuple without causing constraint violation?
• Insert father and mother of a person before inserting person
• OR, set father and mother to null initially, update after inserting all
persons (not possible if father and mother attributes declared to be not
null)
• OR defer constraint checking
COMPLEX CHECK
CONDITIONS
The predicate in the check clause can be an arbitrary predicate that can
include a subquery.
check (time_slot_id in (select time_slot_id from time_slot))
The check condition states that the time_slot_id in each tuple in
the section relation is actually the identifier of a time slot in the
time_slot relation.
• The condition has to be checked not only when a tuple is inserted or
modified in section , but also when the relation time_slot changes
ASSERTIONS

• An assertion is a predicate expressing a condition that we wish the

database always to satisfy.
• The following constraints, can be expressed using assertions:
• For each tuple in the student relation, the value of the attribute
tot_cred must equal the sum of credits of courses that the student
has completed successfully.
• An instructor cannot teach in two different classrooms in a semester
in the same time slot
• An assertion in SQL takes the form:
create assertion <assertion-name> check (<predicate>);
 BUILT-IN DATA TYPES IN SQL

date: Dates, containing a (4 digit) year, month and date

• Example: date '2005-7-27'
time: Time of day, in hours, minutes and seconds.
• Example: time '09:00:30' time '09:00:30.75'
timestamp: date plus time of day
• Example: timestamp '2005-7-27 09:00:30.75'
interval: period of time
• Example: interval '1' day
• Subtracting a date/time/timestamp value from another gives an interval
value
• Interval values can be added to date/time/timestamp values
LARGE-OBJECT TYPES
Large objects (photos, videos, CAD files, etc.) are stored as a large
object:
• blob: binary large object -- object is a large collection of uninterpreted
binary data (whose interpretation is left to an application outside of the
database system)
• clob: character large object -- object is a large collection of character
data
When a query returns a large object, a pointer is returned rather than the
large object itself.
USER-DEFINED TYPES

create type construct in SQL creates user-defined type

create type Dollars as numeric (12,2) final

Example:
create table department
(dept_name varchar (20),
building varchar (15),
budget Dollars);
DOMAINS
create domain construct in SQL-92 creates user-defined domain
types

create domain person_name char(20) not null

Types and domains are similar. Domains can have constraints,

such as not null, specified on them.
Example:
create domain degree_level varchar(10)
constraint degree_level_test
check (value in ('Bachelors', 'Masters', 'Doctorate'));
INDEX CREATION
• Many queries reference only a small proportion of the records in a
table.
• It is inefficient for the system to read every record to find a record
with particular value
• An index on an attribute of a relation is a data structure that allows
the database system to find those tuples in the relation that have a
specified value for that attribute efficiently, without scanning through
all the tuples of the relation.
• We create an index with the create index command
create index <name> on <relation-name> (attribute);
INDEX CREATION EXAMPLE

create table student

(ID varchar (5),
name varchar (20) not null,
dept_name varchar (20),
tot_cred numeric (3,0) default 0,
primary key (ID))
create index studentID_index on student(ID)
The query:
select *
from student
where ID = '12345'
can be executed by using the index to find the required record,
without looking at all records of student
AUTHORIZATION
We may assign a user several forms of authorizations on parts of the
database.

• Read - allows reading, but not modification of data.

• Insert - allows insertion of new data, but not modification of existing
data.
• Update - allows modification, but not deletion of data.
• Delete - allows deletion of data.
Each of these types of authorizations is called a privilege. We may
authorize the user all, none, or a combination of these types of
privileges on specified parts of a database, such as a relation or a view.
AUTHORIZATION (CONT.)
Forms of authorization to modify the database schema
• Index - allows creation and deletion of indices.
• Resources - allows creation of new relations.
• Alteration - allows addition or deletion of attributes in a relation.
• Drop - allows deletion of relations.
AUTHORIZATION
SPECIFICATION IN SQL

The grant statement is used to confer authorization

grant <privilege list> on <relation or view > to <user list>
<user list> is:
• a user-id
• public, which allows all valid users the privilege granted
• A role (more on this later)
Example:
• grant select on department to Amit, Satoshi
Granting a privilege on a view does not imply granting any privileges on
the underlying relations.
The grantor of the privilege must already hold the privilege on the
specified item (or be the database administrator).
PRIVILEGES IN SQL

select: allows read access to relation, or the ability to query using the
view
• Example: grant users U1, U2, and U3 select authorization on the
instructor relation:
grant select on instructor to U1, U2, U3
insert: the ability to insert tuples
update: the ability to update using the SQL update statement
delete: the ability to delete tuples.
all privileges: used as a short form for all the allowable privileges
REVOKING AUTHORIZATION
IN SQL

The revoke statement is used to revoke authorization.

revoke <privilege list> on <relation or view> from <user list>
Example:
revoke select on student from U1, U2, U3
<privilege-list> may be all to revoke all privileges the revokee may hold.
If <revokee-list> includes public, all users lose the privilege except
those granted it explicitly.
If the same privilege was granted twice to the same user by different
grantees, the user may retain the privilege after the revocation.
All privileges that depend on the privilege being revoked are also
revoked.
ROLES
A role is a way to distinguish among various users as far as what these
users can access/update in the database.
To create a role we use:
create a role <name>
Example:
• create role instructor
Once a role is created we can assign “users” to the role using:
• grant <role> to <users>
ROLES EXAMPLE
create role instructor;
grant instructor to Amit;
Privileges can be granted to roles:
• grant select on takes to instructor;
Roles can be granted to users, as well as to other roles
• create role teaching_assistant
• grant teaching_assistant to instructor;
• Instructor inherits all privileges of teaching_assistant
Chain of roles
• create role dean;
• grant instructor to dean;
• grant dean to Satoshi;
AUTHORIZATION ON VIEWS
create view geo_instructor as
(select *
from instructor
where dept_name = 'Geology');
grant select on geo_instructor to geo_staff
Suppose that a geo_staff member issues
• select *
from geo_instructor;
What if
• geo_staff does not have permissions on instructor?
• Creator of view did not have some permissions on instructor?
OTHER AUTHORIZATION
FEATURES
references privilege to create foreign key
• grant reference (dept_name) on department to Mariano;
• Why is this required?
transfer of privileges
• grant select on department to Amit with grant option;
• revoke select on department from Amit, Satoshi cascade;
• revoke select on department from Amit, Satoshi restrict;
• And more!
THANKS!!!