INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Information Technology (IT) deals with computing, including hardware, software,

telecommunications and generally anything involved in the transmittal of
information or the systems that facilitates communication.
A computer generally means a programmable machine. The two principal
characteristics of a computer are: it responds to a specific set of instructions in a
well-defined manner and it can execute a prerecorded list of instructions (a
program).

Modern Computers Defined

Modern computers are electronic and digital. The actual machinery — wires,
transistors, and circuits — is called hardware; the instructions and data are called
software.

Computer Classification: By Size and Power

Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there
is considerable overlap:
Personal computer: a small, single-user computer based on a
microprocessor. In addition to the microprocessor, a personal computer has a
keyboard for entering data, a monitor for displaying information, and a storage
for saving data.
Workstation: a powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a
personal computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor and a higher-
quality monitor.
Minicomputer: a multi-user computer capable of supporting from 10 to
hundreds of users simultaneously.
Mainframe: a powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many
hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.
Supercomputer: an extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of
millions of instructions per second.
CPU (pronounced as separate letters) is the abbreviation for central processing
unit.
Sometimes referred to simply as the central processor, but more commonly called
processor, the CPU is the brains of the computer where most calculations take
place. In terms of computing power, the CPU is the most important element of a
computer system.
The CPU itself is an internal component of the computer. Modern CPUs are small
and square and contain multiple metallic connectors or pins on the underside.
The CPU is inserted directly into a CPU socket, pin side down, on the
motherboard.
Each motherboard will support only a specific type (or range) of CPU, so you must
check the motherboard manufacturer's specifications before attempting to
replace or upgrade a CPU in your computer. Modern CPUs also have an attached
heat sink and small fan that go directly on top of the CPU to help dissipate heat.
Components of a CPU
Two typical components of a CPU are the following:
The arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic and logical operations.
The control unit (CU), which extracts instructions from memory and decodes and
executes them, calling on the ALU when necessary.

Machine Cycle
Fetch Get data from Main memory
Decode Convert data to machine understandable language
Execute Perform calculation on data
Store Store the result in main memory.
Motherboard
The main circuit board of a microcomputer. The motherboard contains the
connectors for attaching additional boards. Typically, the motherboard contains
the CPU, BIOS, memory, mass storage interfaces, serial and parallel ports,
expansion slots, and all the controllers required to control standard peripheral
devices, such as the display screen, keyboard, and disk drive. Collectively, all these
chips that reside on the motherboard are known as the motherboard's chipset.

On most PCs, it is possible to add memory chips directly to the motherboard. You
may also be able to upgrade to a faster PC by replacing the CPU chip. To add
additional core features, you may need to replace the motherboard entirely.
Motherboard is sometimes abbreviated as mobo.
Primary Memory (RAM) RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY
Physical memory that is internal to the computer. The word main is used to
distinguish it from external mass storage devices such as disk drives. Another
term for main memory is RAM.
The computer can manipulate only data that is in main memory. Therefore, every
program you execute and every file you access must be copied from a storage
device into main memory.
The amount of main memory on a computer is crucial because it determines how
many programs can be executed at one time and how much data can be readily
available to a program

ROM
Pronounced ROM, acronym for read-only memory, computer memory on which
data has been prerecorded. Once data has been written onto a ROM chip, it
cannot be removed and can only be read.
Unlike main memory (RAM), ROM retains its contents even when the computer is
turned off. ROM is referred to as being nonvolatile, whereas RAM is volatile.
Most personal computers contain a small amount of ROM that stores critical
programs such as the program that boots the computer. In addition, ROMs are
used extensively in calculators and peripheral devices such as laser printers,
whose fonts are often stored in ROMs.
Short for programmable read-only memory, a memory chip on which data can be
written only once. Once a program has been written onto a PROM, it remains
there forever. Unlike RAM, PROMs retain their contents when the computer is
turned off.
The difference between a PROM and a ROM (read-only memory) is that a PROM
is manufactured as blank memory, whereas a ROM is programmed during the
manufacturing process. To write data onto a PROM chip, you need a special
device called a PROM programmer or PROM burner. The process of programming
a PROM is sometimes called burning the PROM.
An EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory) is a special type of PROM
that can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light. Once it is erased, it can be
reprogrammed.
An EEPROM is similar to a PROM, but requires only electricity to be erased.

CACHE MEMORY:
Pronounced cash, a special high-speed storage mechanism. It can be either a
reserved section of main memory or an independent high-speed storage device.
Two types of caching are commonly used in personal computers: memory caching
and disk caching.
A memory cache, sometimes called a cache store or RAM cache, is a portion of
memory made of high-speed static RAM (SRAM) instead of the slower and
cheaper dynamic RAM (DRAM) used for main memory. Memory caching is
effective because most programs access the same data or instructions over and
over. By keeping as much of this information as possible in SRAM, the computer
avoids accessing the slower DRAM.
Some memory caches are built into the architecture of microprocessors. The Intel
80486 microprocessor, for example, contains an 8K memory cache, and the
Pentium has a 16K cache. Such internal caches are often called Level 1 (L1)
caches. Most modern PCs also come with external cache memory, called Level 2
(L2) caches. These caches sit between the CPU and the DRAM. Like L1 caches, L2
caches are composed of SRAM but they are much larger.

VIRTUAL MEMORY
An imaginary memory area supported by some operating systems (for example,
Windows but not DOS) in conjunction with the hardware. You can think of virtual
memory as an alternate set of memory addresses. Programs use these virtual
addresses rather than real addresses to store instructions and data. When the
program is actually executed, the virtual addresses are converted into real
memory addresses.
The purpose of virtual memory is to enlarge the address space, the set of
addresses a program can utilize. For example, virtual memory might contain twice
as many addresses as main memory. A program using all of virtual memory,
therefore, would not be able to fit in main memory all at once. Nevertheless, the
computer could execute such a program by copying into main memory those
portions of the program needed at any given point during execution.
System Software
System software is software on a computer that is designed to control and work
with computer hardware. The two main types of system software are the
operating system and the software installed with the operating system, often
called utility software. The operating system and utility software typically depend
on each other to function properly.
What is an operating system?
An operating system (sometimes abbreviated as "OS") is the program that, after
being initially loaded into the computer by a boot program, manages all the other
programs in a computer. The other programs are called applications or
application programs. The application programs make use of the operating
system by making requests for services through a defined application program
interface (API). In addition, users can interact directly with the operating system
through a user interface such as a command language or a graphical user
interface (GUI).
DOS (Disk Operating System) Computer
Windows
Linux/Xenix/Unix
Ubuntu/Gbuntu
Mobile
• Android

An operating system performs these services for applications:

In a multitasking operating system where multiple programs can be running at the
same time, the operating system determines which applications should run in
what order and how much time should be allowed for each application before
giving another application a turn.
It manages the sharing of internal memory among multiple applications.
It handles input and output to and from attached hardware devices, such as hard
disks, printers, and dial-up ports.
It sends messages to each application or interactive user (or to a system operator)
about the status of operation and any errors that may have occurred.
It can offload the management of what are called batch jobs (for example,
printing) so that the initiating application is freed from this work.
Operating System Also Known as the Resource Manager Means Operating System
Will Manages all the Resources those are Attached to the System means all the
Resource like Memory and Processor and all the Input output Devices those are
Attached to the System are Known as the Resources of the Computer System and
the Operating system will Manage all the Resources of the System. The Operating
System will identify at which Time the CPU will perform which Operation and in
which Time the Memory is used by which Programs. And which Input Device will
respond to which Request of the user means When the Input and Output Devices
are used by the which Programs. So this will manage all the Resources those are
attached to the Computer System.

Storage Management
Operating System also Controls the all the Storage Operations means how the
data or files will be Stored into the computers and how the Files will be Accessed
by the users etc. All the Operations those are Responsible for Storing and
Accessing the Files is determined by the Operating System Operating System also
Allows us Creation of Files, Creation of Directories and Reading and Writing the
Data of Files and Directories and also Copy the contents of the Files and the
Directories from One Place to Another Place.
Memory Management:
Operating System also Manages the Memory of the Computer System means
Provide the Memory to the Process and Also De-allocate the Memory from the
Process. And also defines that if a Process gets completed then this will de-
allocate the Memory from the Processes.
Windows 3.0
Windows 3.1,3.11 or 3.12 Workgroup
Windows 95
Windows 98, Windows NT Server 4.0
Windows 2000 Professional, Server
Windows Xp, Windows Vista, Windows 7 and Windows 8
Windows 10 Beta

TRANSLATOR
COMPILER
Compile is the process of creating an executable program from code written in a
compiled programming language. Compiling allows the computer to run and
understand the program without the need of the programming software used to
create it. When a program is compiled, it is often compiled for a specific platform.

Interpreter
A program that executes instructions written in a high-level language. There are
two ways to run programs written in a high-level language. The most common is
to compile the program; the other method is to pass the program through an
interpreter.
An interpreter translates high-level instructions into an intermediate form, which
it then executes. In contrast, a compiler translates high-level instructions directly
into machine language. Compiled programs generally run faster than interpreted
programs.
The advantage of an interpreter, however, is that it does not need to go through
the compilation stage during which machine instructions are generated. This
process can be time-consuming if the program is long. The interpreter, on the
other hand, can immediately execute high-level programs. For this reason,
interpreters are sometimes used during the development of a program, when a
programmer wants to add small sections at a time and test them quickly

Assembler
computer language assembler Program used to convert or translate programs
written in assembly code to machine code. Some users may also refer to assembly
language or assembler language as assembler.
UTILITY PROGRAMS
A program that performs a very specific task, usually related to managing system
resources. Operating systems contain a number of utilities for managing disk
drives, printers, and other devices.
Utilities differ from applications mostly in terms of size, complexity and function.
For example, word processors, spreadsheet programs, and database applications
are considered applications because they are large programs that perform a
variety of functions not directly related to managing computer resources.
Utilities are sometimes installed as memory-resident programs. On DOS systems,
such utilities are called TSRs.
An application is a program, or group of programs, that is designed for the end
user. Application software can be divided into two general classes: systems
software and applications software. Applications software (also called end-user
programs) include such things as database programs, word processors, Web
browsers and spreadsheets.

Word Processing
Using a computer to create, edit, and print documents. Of all computer
applications, word processing is the most common. To perform word processing,
you need a computer, a special program called a word processor, and a printer. A
word processor enables you to create a document, store it electronically on a
disk, display it on a screen, modify it by entering commands and characters from
the keyboard, and print it on a printer.
Spreadsheet applications (sometimes referred to simply as spreadsheets) are
computer programs that let you create and manipulate spreadsheets
electronically. In a spreadsheet application, each value sits in a cell. You can
define what type of data is in each cell and how different cells depend on one
another. The relationships between cells are called formulas, and the names of
the cells are called labels.
DATABASE
Often abbreviated DB, a database is basically a collection of information
organized in such a way that a computer program can quickly select desired
pieces of data. You can think of a database as an electronic filing system.
Traditional databases are organized by fields, records, and files. A field is a single
piece of information; a record is one complete set of fields; and a file is a
collection of records. For example, a telephone book is analogous to a file. It
contains a list of records, each of which consists of three fields: name, address,
and telephone number.
DBMS
A database management system (DBMS) is a collection of programs that enables
you to store, modify, and extract information from a database. There are many
different types of database management systems, ranging from small systems
that run on personal computers to huge systems that run on mainframes.
RDBMS
An important feature of relational systems is that a single database can be spread
across several tables. This differs from flat-file databases, in which each database
is self-contained in a single table.
Almost all full-scale database systems are RDBMS's. Small database systems,
however, use other designs that provide less flexibility in posing queries.
SQL (Structured Query Language)
SQL (Structured Query Language) is a standardized programming language used
for managing relational databases and performing various operations on the data
in them. Initially created in the 1970s, SQL is regularly used by database
administrators, as well as by developers writing data integration scripts and data
analysts looking to set up and run analytical queries.
AIS
An accounting information system (AIS) is a structure that a business uses to
collect, store, manage, process, retrieve and report its financial data so that it can
be used by accountants, consultants, business analysts, managers, chief financial
officers (CFOs), auditors and regulatory and tax agencies.
A high-level language is a programming language such as C, FORTRAN, or Pascal
that enables a programmer to write programs that are more or less independent
of a particular type of computer. Such languages are considered high-level
because they are closer to human languages and further from machine languages.
In contrast, assembly languages are considered low-level because they are very
close to machine languages.
FORTRAN, COBOL, BASIC,
C LANGUAGE (INTERMEDIATE LANGUAGE)
A low-level language is a programming language that provides little or no
abstraction of programming concepts, and is very close to writing actual machine
instructions. Two good examples of low-level languages are assembly and
machine code.
A direct-access storage device (DASD) is another name for secondary storage
devices that store data in discrete locations with a unique address, such as hard
disk drives, optical drives and most magnetic storage devices.
Sequential-Access Storage Device
Its acronym is SASD. A computer storage device whose content is accessed
sequentially, as opposed to directly. For example, a tape drive is a SASD, while a
disk drive is a direct access storage device.
Real time processing
Real time processing is usually found in systems that use computer control.
This processing method is used when it is essential that the input request is dealt
with quickly enough so as to be able to control an output properly. The is called
the 'latency ‘.
Batch Processing (Off Line Processing)
Executing a series of non-interactive jobs all at one time. The term originated in
the days when users entered programs on punch cards. They would give a batch
of these programmed cards to the system operator, who would feed them into
the computer.
Batch jobs can be stored up during working hours and then executed during the
evening or whenever the computer is idle. Batch processing is particularly useful
for operations that require the computer or a peripheral device for an extended
period of time. Once a batch job begins, it continues until it is done or until an
error occurs. Note that batch processing implies that there is no interaction with
the user while the program is being executed.
A floppy disk is a magnetic storage medium for computer systems. The floppy
disk is composed of a thin, flexible magnetic disk sealed in a square plastic carrier.
In order to read and write data from a floppy disk, a computer system must have
a floppy disk drive (FDD). A floppy disk is also referred to simply as a floppy
A compact disc [sometimes spelled disk] (CD) is a small, portable, round medium
made of molded polymer (close in size to the floppy disk) for electronically
recording, storing, and playing back audio, video, text, and other information in
digital form. Tape cartridges and CDs generally replaced the phonograph record
for playing back music. At home, CDs have tended to replace the tape cartridge
although the latter is still widely used in cars and portable playback devices.
A USB flash drive, also known under a variety of other names, [a] is a data storage
device that includes flash memory with an integrated USB interface. USB flash
drives are typically removable and rewritable, and physically much smaller than
an optical disc.
A magnetic disk on which you can store computer data. The term hard is used to
distinguish it from a soft, or floppy, disk. Hard disks hold more data and are faster
than floppy disks. A hard disk, for example, can store anywhere from 10 to more
than 100 gigabytes, whereas most floppies have a maximum storage capacity of
1.4 megabytes.
Short for programmable read-only memory, a memory chip on which data can be
written only once. Once a program has been written onto a PROM, it remains
there forever. Unlike RAM, PROMs retain their contents when the computer is
turned off.
An HD-DVD format that uses a 405nm-wavelength blue-violet laser technology, in
contrast to the 650nm-wavelength red laser technology used in traditional DVD
formats. The rewritable Blu-ray disc, with a data transfer rate of 36Mbps, can hold
up to 27GB of data on a single-sided single layer disc (compared to the traditional
DVD??s 4.7GB capacity), which amounts to about 12 hours of standard video or
more than 2 hours of high-definition video.
The Blu-ray format was developed jointly by Sony, Samsung, Sharp, Thomson,
Hitachi, Matsushita, Pioneer and Philips, Mitsubishi and LG Electronics.

Keyboard
A computer keyboard is defined as the set of typewriter-like keys that enables
you to enter data into a computer or other devices. Computer keyboards are
similar to electric-typewriters but contain additional typing keys.
Standard Classification
The standard selection of keys typically found on computer keyboards can be
classified as follows:
Alphanumeric keys: The standard letters and numbers.
Punctuation keys: The comma, period, semicolon, and similar keys.
Special keys: This includes the function keys, control keys, arrow keys, caps Lock
key, and so on.
Trackball
A trackball is a computer cursor control device used in many notebook and laptop
computers. The trackball is usually located in front of the keyboard toward the
user. Essentially, the trackball is an upside-down mouse that rotates in place
within a socket. The user rolls the ball to direct the cursor to the desired place on
the screen and can click one of two buttons (identical to mouse buttons) near the
trackball to select desktop objects or position the cursor for text entry.
IBM's ThinkPad series of notebook computers uses a "pointing stick", called a
TrackPoint, that is integrated into the middle of the keyboard keys.

MOUSE
A device that controls the movement of the cursor or pointer on a display screen.
A mouse is a small object you can roll along a hard, flat surface. Its name is
derived from its shape, which looks a bit like a mouse, its connecting wire that
one can imagine to be the mouse's tail, and the fact that one must make it scurry
along a surface. As you move the mouse, the pointer on the display screen moves
in the same direction. Mice contain at least one button and sometimes as many
as three, which have different functions depending on what program is running.
Some newer mice also include a scroll wheel for scrolling through long
documents.

SCANNER
A scanner is a device that captures images from photographic prints, posters,
magazine pages, and similar sources for computer editing and display. Scanners
come in hand-held, feed-in, and flatbed types and for scanning black-and-white
only, or color. Very high resolution scanners are used for scanning for high-
resolution printing, but lower resolution scanners are adequate for capturing
images for computer display. Scanners usually come with software, such as
Adobe's Photoshop product, that lets you resize and otherwise modify a captured
image.
Joystick
Joystick is a lever that moves in all directions and controls the movement of a
pointer or some other display symbol. A joystick is similar to a mouse, except that
with a mouse the cursor stops moving as soon as you stop moving the mouse.
With a joystick, the pointer continues moving in the direction the joystick is
pointing. To stop the pointer, you must return the joystick to its upright position.
Most joysticks include two buttons called triggers. Joysticks are used mostly for
computer games, but they are also used occasionally for CAD/CAM systems and
other applications.

Webcam
A webcam is a video camera that feeds or streams its image in real time to or
through a computer-to-computer network. When "captured" by the computer,
the video stream may be saved, viewed or sent on to other networks via systems
such as the internet, and email as an attachment

Barcode reader
A barcode reader, also called a price scanner or point-of-sale (POS) scanner, is a
hand-held or stationary input device used to capture and read information
contained in a bar code. A barcode reader consists of a scanner, a decoder (either
built-in or external), and a cable used to connect the reader with a computer.
Because a barcode reader merely captures and translates the barcode into
numbers and/or letters, the data must be sent to a computer so that a software
application can make sense of the data. Barcode scanners can be connected to a
computer through a serial port, keyboard port, or an interface device called a
wedge.
There are five basic kinds of barcode readers -- pen wands, slot scanners, Charge-
Couple Device ( CCD ) scanners, image scanners, and laser scanners.
Short for Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition, MICR is a font capable of
recognition using magnetically charged ink. Computers equipped with the right
hardware and software can print or read the character printed in such ink.
MICR font is commonly used to print checks, deposit slips, mortgage coupons,
etc. There are several MICR fonts, the MICR E-13B font is used in the Canada,
Panama, Puerto Rico, UK, and the United States. The MICR CRC-7 was created
according to the ISO standards and is a font used in France, Mexico, Spain, and
most other Spanish speaking countries.
Bio Metric Input Device
Physiological Behavioral
Face Voice
Finger Print Signature
Hand (Palm, Print) Gait
Eye ( Iris)
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
Ear Recognition

CRT
Short for Cathode-Ray Tube, a CRT is the electron beams within a monitor that
move across your screen either interlaced or non-interlaced hitting phosphor dots
on the inside glass tube. The picture is an example of the inside of a computer
monitor that shows the CRT connected to the screen.
Within the CRT are three electron guns, red, green, and blue. Each of these guns
streams a steady flow of electrons, left to right, for each line of your monitor. As
the electrons hit the phosphors on the CRT, the phosphor will glow certain
intensities. As a new line begins, the guns will then begin at the left and continue
right; these guns will repeat this process sometimes thousands of times until the
screen has been completely drawn line by line.
LCD
Short for Liquid-Crystal Display, LCD is a flat display technology used in laptops,
cell phones, calculators, digital cameras, and flat screen displays. The LCD is made
of two sheets of a flexible polarizing material and a layer of liquid crystal solution
between the two. An LCD is available as an active matrix, dual-scan, or passive-
matrix display and are most common with laptop computers.
An LCD does not refresh like a CRT monitor, instead, a picture is created from
electricity sent to a liquid crystal that untwists at the rate of electricity applied, to
create 64 shades.

LED
An LED monitor (short for Light Emitting Diode) or LED display is a flat screen, flat
panel computer monitors or television. It has a very short depth and is light in
terms of weight. The actual difference between this and a typical LCD monitor is
the backlighting. The first LCD monitors used CCFL instead of LEDs to illuminate
the screen.

Printer
An impact printer is a class of printers that functions by making physical contact
with an ink ribbon before striking the page. Daisy wheel, dot matrix and line
printers are all examples of impact printers.
DAISY wheel printer
A DAISY wheel printer is an early type of impact Printer invented in 1969 by David
S. Lee at Diablo Data Systems. The printer uses a metal or plastic disk containing
each of the letters, numbers, and other characters it supports. When something is
printed, the printer rotates the disk to each character and then using a hammer
strike each character into an ink ribbon to create the character on paper.
Dot matrix printers
The term Dot matrix refers to the process of using dots to form an image. In a dot
matrix image, the image quality is determined by the number of dots per inch.
Alternatively referred to as a pin printer, Dot matrix printers were first introduced
by Centronics in 1970. Dot matrix printers use print heads to shoot ink or strike an
ink ribbon to place hundreds to thousands of little dots to form text and images.
Today, Dot matrix printers are rarely used or found because of the low-quality
print compared to ink jet printers and laser printers.
Non-impact printer
Short for Non-Impact Printer, an NIP prints without making contact with the
paper. They are generally quieter and more efficient than their impact
counterparts. Laser and Inkjet printers are both good examples of a non-impact
printer.
INK JET
The most popular printer for home computer users that prints by spraying
streams of quick-drying ink on paper. The ink is stored in disposable ink
cartridges, often a separate cartridge is used for each of the major colors. These
colors are usually Black, Red/Magenta, Green/Cyan, and Yellow (CMYK). The
picture is an example of a computer inkjet printer.
Although inkjet printers themselves are often relatively inexpensive, the ink
cartridges used in the printers can increase the overall cost of the printer.
Laser printers
The laser (“Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) printer was
first developed at Xerox PARC by Gary Stark weather and released in 1971 that
utilizes laser technology to print images on the paper. Laser printers are often
used for corporate, school, and other environments that require print jobs to be
completed quickly and in large quantities.
Plotter
A plotter is a computer hardware device much like a printer that is used for
printing vector graphics. Instead of toner, plotters use a pen, pencil, marker, or
another writing tool to draw multiple, continuous lines onto paper rather than a
series of dots like a traditional printer. Though once widely used for computer-
aided design, these devices have more or less been phased out by wide-format
printers. Plotters are used to produce a hard copy of schematics and other similar
applications.