Note: Please reframe the answers as per your understanding

METEORLOGY

Meteorology is the study of the Earth’s atmosphere and the physical processes that occur
within it.

Q: Why meteorology is important?

A: Meteorology is vital for pilots as it helps them anticipate and navigate through
changing weather conditions, ensuring flight safety.
Pilots rely on meteorological forecasts to plan routes, avoid hazardous weather, and
make informed decisions during flight. Understanding meteorology enables pilots to
interpret weather-related data and optimize fuel efficiency and flight performance.
Overall, meteorology plays a crucial role in ensuring the safety and efficiency of
flight operations.

About atmosphere
**Q: What are the standard conditions for temperature, pressure, and density at Mean Sea
Level (MSL) in the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)?

A: The standard conditions at Mean Sea Level (MSL) in the International Standard
Atmosphere (ISA) are:
- Temperature: +15°C
- Pressure: 1013.25 hPa or millibars (or 29.92 inches of mercury)
- Density: 1.225 kilograms per cubic meter or 1225 grams / cubic metre,
• A lapse rate of 0.65°C/100 m (1.98°C/1000 ft) up to 11 km (36 090 ft),
• A constant temperature of -56.5°C from 11 km to 20 km (65 617 ft),
• g=9.81 m/sec2

*Q: At what elevation does the tropopause typically occur in the Earth's
atmosphere?
A: The tropopause typically occurs at an altitude of around 11 km
above the Earth's surface. But it varies from equator to pole, it higher
over equator (16-18 km) but lower over poles(8-10km).

*Q: What is the altitude range of the stratosphere within the Earth's atmosphere?
A: The stratosphere extends from approximately 11 to 50 kilometres above the Earth's
surface. Lower part of the stratosphere (11 to 20 kilometres) is tropopause where
temperature is constant after 20 km temperature starts increasing.
### Atmospheric Layers Relevant to Aviation:
1. Troposphere: Temp decreases - Extends from the Earth's surface up to about 36,000 feet
(11 km). Weather phenomena and most commercial airline operations occur in this layer.

2. Stratosphere: Temp increases due to presence of Ozone -–11 to 50 km. Commercial

supersonic flights and some weather balloons operate here.

3. Mesosphere: Temp decreases— 50 km to 85 km. Meteors burn up in this layer.

4. Thermosphere: Temp increases due to presence of ionised particles -- 80 to 700 km.

5. Exosphere: Temp decreases - above 700 km - Satellites orbit in this layer.

*Q: Define atmospheric pressure?

A: Atmospheric pressure is defined as the force
exerted per unit area by the weight of the air
above a given point in the Earth's atmosphere.

*Q: What causes a decrease in pressure with increasing altitude in the Earth's
atmosphere?
A: Pressure decreases with increasing altitude
due to the decreasing weight of the air column
above. As altitude increases, there is less air
above to exert less pressure downward,
resulting in lower atmospheric pressure.

**Q. Why do aircraft use cabin pressurization?

Commercial aircraft fly best at high altitudes – that is a fact. This enables them to
enhance fuel consumption efficiency and avoid potential severe weather and
turbulence factors. However, for humans the situation is precisely the opposite. The
higher we go, the less oxygen there is available to breathe.

This happens because air density decreases with altitude. Thus, air molecules
spread out more, decreasing their density and – with that – there is less oxygen
available for each breath of air. All this makes it increasingly harder to breathe for us.

At 18,000 feet, the amount of oxygen halves compared to what we normally

have at sea level.
 In fact, going much higher than 10,000 feet without the help of modern
technology can cause altitude sickness, also known as hypoxia. Hypoxia can lead to
dizziness, headache, difficulty thinking, unconsciousness and eventually death.

Thankfully, modern jet airliners are engineering miracles. Apart from getting us across
the world safely in a matter of hours, they also act as a flying pressure chamber,
controlling the air entering and exiting the pressurized cabin - air management
systems – maintaining the necessary pressure so that passenger and crew can breathe
comfortably.

Q. How high we can fly without a pressurised cabin?

Most modern aircraft employ a cabin pressure control mechanism to maintain a safe and
comfortable breathing environment for passengers & crew throughout the flight. The
general rule is that planes should have cabin pressurization when they go above
10,000.

*Q. What is the cabin pressure on a plane?

For most of airliner Cabin altitude is approximately 8,000 feet (760 hPa).
Actually, the cabin pressure varies as per the altitude as shown in diagram.

The cabin pressurization system of

the Airbus A320 is designed to
maintain a maximum cabin altitude
of 8,000ft (approximately 11.03psi)
when the aircraft is cruising at high
altitude by controlling the opening
and closing of an outflow valve.
Further, it is designed to limit the
differential pressure between the
cabin pressure and the ambient
pressure to a maximum of 8.06psi.

*Q. What happens if you lose cabin pressure?

In the unlikely event of a loss of cabin pressure, oxygen masks become available for
everyone onboard to help them breathe normally until the aircraft reaches a lower
altitude and cabin pressure is restored.
Q: Hypoxia

Q: What factors contribute to the temperature differences between the poles and the
equator?

A: The temperature differences between the

poles and the equator are primarily due to
variations in solar radiation received at different
latitudes. The equator receives more heating,
leading to warmer temperatures, while the
poles receive less direct heat resulting in colder
temperatures. (differential Heating by Sun)

Fog
**Q: How Radiation fog forms?

A: Radiation fog forms during night

and can be seen in early morning.
During the day, the sun heats the
Earth's surface, and after sun sets,
this heat escapes into the
atmosphere (i.e., nocturnal
cooling).
On clear nights with little wind (5-7
kts), the ground loses heat rapidly,
causing the air near the ground to
cool.
As the air cools, its moisture condenses into tiny water droplets, forming fog. This fog
covers the ground and reduces visibility, especially in valleys and low-lying areas.
 Ideal Conditions for radiation fog formation: Clear skies (no cloud), calm winds, and
high relative humidity are ideal conditions for radiation fog.

### Aviation hazard:

• Radiation fog significantly reduces visibility, affecting take-offs, landings, and
navigation. Pilots need to rely more on instruments for navigation and landing in
foggy conditions.
• Airports may implement low-visibility procedures, affecting traffic flow and requiring
specific pilot qualifications.
• Safety Precautions: Pilots must be trained to interpret weather forecasts and
reports, understand the local climatology of their flight routes, and be prepared to
alter plans as necessary.

Understanding the formation of radiation fog and its implications in climatology is

essential for pilots to ensure safe and efficient flight operations, especially in terms of
navigation and decision-making in response to weather conditions.

Q: How fog forms and what are the types of fog?

Fog is a surface-based cloud (restricting visibility) composed of either water droplets or
ice crystals. Fog may form by cooling the air to its dew point or by adding moisture to the
air near the ground. A small temperature/dew point spread is essential to the formation
of fog. An abundance of condensation nuclei from combustion products makes fog
prevalent in industrial areas.

Fog is classified by the way it is formed:

Radiation fog (ground fog) is formed when terrestrial radiation cools the ground, which
in turn cools the air in contact with it. When the air is cooled to its dew point (or within a
few degrees), fog will form. This fog will form most readily in warm, moist air over low,
flatland areas on clear, calm (no wind) nights.

Advection fog (sea fog) is formed when warm, moist air moves (wind is required) over
colder ground or water (e.g., an air mass moving inland from the coast in winter).

Upslope/orography fog is formed when moist, stable air is cooled to its dew point as it
moves (wind is required) upsloping terrain. Cooling will be at the dry adiabatic lapse rate
of approximately 3°C per 1,000 feet.

Precipitation (rain or drizzle)-induced fog is most commonly associated with frontal

activity and is formed by relatively warm drizzle or rain falling through cooler air.
Evaporation from the precipitation saturates the cool air and fog forms. This fog is
especially critical because it occurs in the proximity of precipitation and other possible
hazards such as icing, turbulence, and thunderstorms.

Steaming fog forms in the winter when cold, dry air passes from land areas over
comparatively warm ocean waters in specially in higher latitude & cold region.
Cloud

*Q: How cloud forms?

A: Cloud formation begins when warm air rises and cools as it ascends through the
atmosphere. As the air cools, it reaches its dew point—the temperature at which it
becomes saturated with water vapor. At this point, the water vapor condenses onto tiny
particles in the air, such as dust or aerosols, forming tiny droplets. These droplets cluster
together to form visible clouds.

The process of cloud formation is crucial for pilots, as clouds can indicate weather
conditions and affect flight visibility and turbulence. Understanding cloud formation
helps pilots anticipate and navigate through different atmospheric conditions for safe
flying.

**Q: Types of cloud?

Stability determines which of two types of clouds will be formed: cumuliform or

stratiform.
Airframe Icing
The two primary types of icing are airframe icing and engine icing.

Airframe icing occurs on an aircraft, whenever supercooled water droplets (0 to -40 C) makes
contact with any part of the aircraft that at temperature below freezing temp (Zero).

*Q: What are the type of airframe icing and how it affects the aircraft?

Rime Ice:

• Temperature Range: Typically forms at temperatures

between -15 to -40°C.
• Formation: Occurs due to the rapid freezing of small
water droplets.
• Location: Commonly found on the leading surfaces or
inlet of the engine.
• Characteristics: Rime ice is granular, resembling
rough sandpaper. It’s brittle and generally easier to
remove than clear ice.
• Appearance: Has a milky white appearance due to
trapped air.

Glaze Ice (Clear Ice):

• Temperature Range: Forms at temperatures ranging

from 0 to -20°C.
• Formation: Results from the slow freezing of large
water droplets.
• Characteristics: Clear ice is hard, heavy, and
tenacious, making its removal by de-icing equipment
particularly difficult.
• Appearance: Transparent and smooth, which makes it
difficult to detect and a hazard in aviation.

Both types of ice pose significant risks to aircraft, but they

differ mainly in their formation process, appearance, and the
impact they have on the surfaces they form on.

Hoar frost
A deposit of white ice crystals resembling ground frost, occurring in
clear air when the airframe temperature is below 0°C and the ambient
air reaches saturation, causing water vapor to sublimate directly into
ice without becoming liquid.
It can form on the ground, often overnight, and must be cleared prior
to take-off to avoid increased take-off run due to skin friction,
obscured windscreens, and radio interference from ice on aerials.
In flight, hoar frost can form during rapid descents from cold to warm
moist air or when climbing through an inversion from below freezing
temperatures.
The Hoarfrost is usually not severe and can be mitigated by flying into warmer air or increasing speed for
kinetic heating, and it dissipates as the aircraft skins warms up due to frictional heating.

**Effect of Airframe Icing on Aircraft

• Increases weight.
• Increases stalling speed.
• Increases fuel consumption.
• Ice formation disrupts aerodynamic shape,
particularly at leading edges, Reduces lift. Increases
drag.
• Can obstruct pressure heads, leading to erroneous
Pressure instrument readings.
• Uneven ice on propeller blades can induce severe
engine vibration. Ice shedding from propellers can
damage aircraft skin.

Thunderstorm
Condition for formation of thunderstorm.
Thunderstorms occur in well-developed Cumulonimbus (Cb), though not all Cb’s
produce thunderstorms. They
are most likely to occur when
there is:
1. A lapse rate greater than the
SALR (unstable conditions)
through a layer at least
10,000 ft thick and
extending above the freezing
level.
2. Sufficient water vapour to
form and maintain the
cloud.
3. Trigger action to produce early saturation, thus enhancing instability. Which are
Convection Upward movement of air that is warmer than its surroundings.
Orographic Uplift Air is lifted as it moves over rising terrain, such as hills or mountains.
Convergence Air flows coming from different directions meet, forcing the air upward.
Frontal Uplift Air is forced upward at the boundary between two different air masses.
Thunderstorms are classified as:

Heat, or airmass type Frontal type

more common in summer afternoon over Most frequent in winters
land Forms over land or sea, day or night
Formed by day, clear by night. Usually formed in a line at a cold front or Cold
occlusion

Life cycle of thunderstorm

Aviation Hazards:
I. Gust Fronts:

⎯ Cold air mass from thunderstorm downdraft.

⎯ Can extend 24-32 km and reach 6,000 ft high.
⎯ Causes windshear, often invisible on radar.

II. Turbulence & Wind Shear:

⎯ Moderate to severe turbulence near clouds.

⎯ Hazardous during take-off and landing.
⎯ Can cause airframe stress and unreliable instrument readings.

III. Microburst:

⎯ Strong downdrafts from CB clouds.

⎯ Speeds up to 60 kt, <5 km across, last 1-5
minutes.
IV. Hail:

⎯ Damages aircraft structure.

⎯ Likely in or near cloud anvils.
⎯ Hail size increases with stronger updrafts.

V. Icing:

⎯ Airframe icing from 0°C to -40°C.

⎯ Severe icing near cloud bases (-7°C).
⎯ Carburetor icing from -10°C to +30°C.

VI. Static:

⎯ Interferes with radio equipment.

⎯ St. Elmo's Fire indicates charged atmosphere.

VII. Lightning:

⎯ Occurs ±10°C of freezing level.

⎯ Causes temporary blindness, instrument
interference, and airframe damage.

VIII. Water Ingestion:

⎯ High water concentration can damage engines.

⎯ Affects pitot heads.

IX. Tornados:

⎯ Arise from intense convergence.

⎯ Characterized by rotating air column.
⎯ Avoidance criteria include maintaining
vertical separation and distance from storm
clouds.

General Guidelines:
⎯ Maintain 5,000 ft vertical separation from storm clouds.
⎯ Keep 10nm distance from tall, rapidly growing clouds.
⎯ Avoid flying beneath cumulonimbus cloud overhangs.
**Q: Explain the phenomenon of wind shear and its impact on flight operations.
Wind shear refers to a sudden change in wind speed and/or direction over a short distance,
either horizontally or vertically.
1. Types of Wind Shear:
• Vertical Wind Shear: Changes in wind speed or direction with altitude.
• Horizontal Wind Shear: Changes in wind speed or direction over a horizontal
distance.

2. Causes:
• Frontal Systems: Wind direction and speed can change dramatically around
weather fronts.
• Thunderstorms: Downbursts and microbursts from thunderstorms can create
strong wind shears.
• Temperature Inversions: Can cause changes in wind speed and direction near
the ground.
• Jet Streams: High-altitude, fast-flowing air currents can cause wind shear.

### Impact on Flight Operations:

• Turbulence: Wind shear can create turbulence, affecting passenger comfort and
aircraft control.
• Take-off and Landing: A sudden windshear (may be due to microburst, Subsidence)
when aircraft is closer to the ground can be hazardous. just after the take-off climb
may be supressed and aircraft may start sinking altitude or approach can be
hazardous.
• Altitude Changes: Rapid changes in wind speed/direction can cause airspeed
fluctuations, potentially leading to loss of control.
• Flight Path Deviations: Pilots may need to adjust their flight paths to avoid areas of
known or suspected wind shear.
### Mitigation and Safety Measures:
• Training: Pilots receive training on recognizing and reacting to wind shear conditions.
• Technology: Aircraft are equipped with wind shear detection systems.
• Communication: Air traffic control and pilots share information about wind shear
reports.
Understanding wind shear is crucial for pilots as it directly affects aircraft performance,
safety, and decision-making during critical phases of flight. Proper training, technology, and
communication are essential to mitigate the risks associated with wind shear.
Seasons in India

**Q: which all seasons we experience in India

On the basis of climate, the period of year has been divided into four seasons in India.
N.E MONSOON (Winter) – December to February
PRE-MONSOON (Summer) – March to May
S.W MONSOON (Rainy season) – June to September
POST MONSOON (Transition) – October to November
N.E MONSOON (Winter) – December to February
⎯ High pressure (1012-1019 hPa) over North India (Rajasthan, Delhi, Punjab, Pakistan)
and Low pressure over the Indian ocean.

⎯ Low-temperature Low humidity (cold air is less humid)

⎯ Cold waves are common in Jan -Feb in J&K, Rajasthan, Gujrat, and Punjab.

⎯ Fog, mist and haze are common all over the country.

⎯ Poor visibility is main aviation hazard, due Widespread Radiation fog and cold waves
mainly in N India.
⎯ Advection fog occurs over the coastal area.

⎯ CAT in the vicinity of Subtropical Jet stream and Mountain waves over higher terrain
areas.

⎯ The freezing level gets lower in winter so Icing can be experienced at a low level.

⎯ Rainfall is very less all over India, except in J&K.

⎯ Rainfall over northern part of India (Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh,
Rajasthan, West Uttar Pradesh) occurs in association with the passage of western
disturbances and induced systems, sometimes extending in Northeastern states till
Assam-Arunachal Pradesh.

⎯ Rainfall in the south peninsula due to the movement of easterly waves.

⎯ The STWJ is generally observed over North India from October to May and is strongest
during the winter.
PRE-MONSOON (Summer) – March to May
This is the transition phase when the winter pattern starts to change in the monsoon pattern.
⎯ The temperature starts rising, pressure falling. Weak pressure gradient over the country
(1006 and 1008 hPa)

⎯ Weak low over Pakistan Rajasthan and exceeding trough line over East UP-Bihar.

⎯ Shallow high pressure in Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal.

⎯ Heat wave & ANDHI (Blinding DUST Storm) in NW part of India over plain (i.e., Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan) and adjoining West Uttar Pradesh.

⎯ Thunderstorms over NE India (i.e., Assam and adjacent states, West Bengal and Sikkim,
Odisha and Bihar).

⎯ Thunderstorms over NE India are known as ‘Norwesters’ (moving from NW direction) or

‘Kal-baishakhi (Highly destructive local storms in the month of Baishakh).

⎯ Tropical Revolving Storm forms in the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal

⎯ Bay of Bengal is more prone to depressions and storms than the Arabian Sea in the pre-
monsoon season Peak storm activity normally occurs during the month of May. Also,
during this month most of the storms attain severe intensity.
⎯ The major rainfall areas during the season are Assam and adjacent states, Kashmir (20-40 cm), Himachal Pradesh and south Kerala
(10-20 cm). In the northeastern states the rainfall amount is higher (100 cm or more) in the southern parts of Meghalaya.
S.W MONSOON (Rainy season) – June to September
July may be taken as the representative month of the monsoon season.

SW monsoon or summer Monsoon can be considered as sea breeze but larger scale.
⎯ An intense seasonal low-pressure (994hPa) is over Pakistan and adjoining Rajasthan.
An anticyclone appears at 500 hPa and aloft over the Tibetan Plateau.

⎯ High pressure will be near Madagascar and Australia. (Mascarenes High)

⎯ Pressure Gradient is maximum during this season & the country receives 80% of
annual rainfall during this season.

⎯ SW monsoon is the principal rainy season in India except in Jammu and Kashmir and
Tamil Nadu ( TN gets rainfall in Oct and Nov).
monsoon advances over the country in two branches.

The Arabian Sea branch which normally sets in monsoon rainfall

over Kerala on June 1 advances rapidly northward along the
west coast and reaches Gujarat by June 15. This branch brings
monsoon rainfall over the entire Peninsula and central India.
Simultaneously the Bay branch for monsoon advances
northward and enters Bangladesh, Assam and adjacent states
by June 5. The topography and orientation of the hills of Assam
and Meghalaya obstruct the current in the north and east
resulting the deflection of the current towards west under the
influence of the Himalayas.

The bay branch thus enters over the Gangetic plains of

north India as a Souutheasterly/Easterly current. Both the
branches meet over north India around longitude 80º E.

The withdrawal of monsoon commences from western

parts of west Rajasthan by Sept 1. It withdraws from NW India by
Sept 15 and the withdrawal is complete from the country outside
Tamil Nadu and Kerala by Oct 15 when NE monsoon normally
sets in over Tamil Nadu; Southern part of India and Kerala
experience rainfall during post monsoon season.

⎯ Precipitation during the monsoon could be

in the form of thundershowers, showers, or rain. Orography around India influence monsoon
circulation and thus the spatial distribution of rainfall in the season.

Hills and mountains get more rainfall than the neighbouring plains. Mawsynram (1401 m) in Meghalaya experience the
season’s highest rainfall followed by Cherrapunji (835 cm), also in Meghalaya. over western ghats and adjoining west coast
between 13 N and 20 N where it is 250 cm or more. Coastal Karnataka rainfall during the season exceeds 300 cm. Around 250
cm rainfall occurs in the southern parts of Meghalaya and in Mizoram. 100 – 150 cm over NE India, Madhya Pradesh, Vidarbha,
Hills of West U.P. HP and Telangana.

The rainfall gradually decreases from the east to the west It is less than 20 cm over western parts of West Rajasthan.

⎯ The distribution of rainfall in India also depends on the position of the monsoon
trough, when the monsoon trough gets stuck to the north of its original position i.e.
the foothills of the Himalayas, resulting in a drastic reduction in rainfall over the
mainland part of the country except for the foothills. this condition is called Break
Monsoon.

⎯ During Break, monsoon pressure rises over most parts of the country. During this
period heavy rainfall occurs in the foothills of the Himalayas, mainly in West Bengal,
Nepal, and Bhutan resulting in floods over NE and Bihar. Surface wind becomes
strong in this region.
⎯ Flying condition: Relatively smooth in the stratiform cloud but turbulent in the CU/CB
cloud. Visibility is good except during precipitation.

⎯ Tropical Easterly Jet stream lies between 10o to 15o N i.e., close to Bangalore &
Hyderabad, at a height of 15-16km (100 hPa) with a wind speed of 70-80 kts.
POST MONSOON (Transition) – October to November
Post monsoon season is the transition period from summer monsoon circulation to winter
circulation. The temperature starts decreasing & Pressure starts Increasing, and the Pressure
gradient starts decreasing.

⎯ Post monsoon is also known as Retreating Monsoon season. The SW monsoon starts
withdrawing from N.W India by September, withdraws south of peninsula till 15 Oct.
Southern part of India and Kerala experience rainfall during post monsoon season.

⎯ The pressure pattern is defused and ill-defined. Only 1 to 2 isobars can be drawn over
entire India. The monsoon trough shifts to the Bay of Bengal along 13N. A weak low
form over the Bay of Bengal adjoining the Chennai coast and another low is over
Baluchistan.

⎯ Rainfall activity over Andhra Pradesh coast and Tamil Nadu due to Thunderstorm
activity over the Bay of Bengal.

⎯ In the post monsoon season precipitation is highest (30 – 100 cm) in the south
peninsula. East coast, Assam and adjacent states and Kashmir also receive
considerable precipitation (15-20 cm) during the season. There is hardly any rainfall
over Rajasthan, Haryana and Saurashtra and Kutch during the season.

⎯ The month of October has more number of storms and depressions and the
December has the least. Maximum number of storms develops during the month of
November. The number of cyclonic storm and severe cyclonic storms is more in the
first half of November than in the later half. Thus, earlier half of the post monsoon
season constitutes major storm season for India.
⎯ October is the month of more frequent cyclonic storms in the Bay of Bengal & mainly
hit Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Orissa coast on a westerly track. Some of the
storms move in a north or north-easterly direction.

⎯ Maximum thunderstorm activity occurs in India during Post monsoon.

⎯ The sub-tropical jet stream starts to appear over J&K, CAT may be experienced in
north India.
El Niño and La Niña
Pacific Ocean is this large pool of water that exists on the western side of the American continent
and eastern side of the Asian and Australian continent this large pool of water gets intensely
warm due to the fact that it exists right at the equator and we all know that the equatorial region
received great amount of sun rays all throughout the year.

⎯ ENSO stands for El Niño-Southern Oscillation, primarily occurring in the southern

hemisphere, particularly in the Pacific Ocean.
⎯ It involves the oscillation of ocean temperatures, shifting between warm and cool
temperatures, affecting weather patterns globally.
⎯ The process involves two main phases: El Niño, and La Niña, each characterized by
specific oceanic and atmospheric conditions.

⎯ During El Niño, weakened trade

winds allow warm ocean currents to
move towards the central and
eastern Pacific, disrupting weather
patterns and causing phenomena
like droughts and floods.

⎯ La Niña, on the other hand, is

marked by strong trade winds,
pushing warm ocean currents
towards the western Pacific, leading
to cooler ocean temperatures and
distinct weather patterns,
particularly affecting countries like
Australia, Indonesia, and New
Zealand.