AM Compiled Notes

KURSUS ASAS METEOROLOGY BAGI
PEGAWAI METEOROLOGI 2020/2021

AERONAUTICAL METEOROLOGY
AM1: Introduction to Factors That Affect Safe Operations

26 OKTOBER 2020
WAN AZLINA BINTI WAN AB AZIZ

PUSAT METEOROLOGI PENERBANGAN NASIONAL
Contents
 Introduction
 Factors that Affect Safe
Operation
 Pressure & Altimetry
 Temperature
 Humidity
 Atmosphere Turbulence
 Wind / Vertical Motion In
 Thunderstorms
Atmosphere
 Ice Accretion
 Cloud, Fog and Precipitation  Jet Streams
 Visibility and Atmospheric
Obscurity
 Atmopheric Turbulence
 Thunderstorms
INTRODUCTION
Commercial aircrafts fly in
this layer
TROPOSPHERE
• Contains almost all weather.

Almost all clouds in this
layer.
INTRODUCTION
 Safe flying involves basic theoretical understanding of meteorology,
the ability to assess the current weather situation, plan accordingly
and modify plans in-flight if circumstances change.
Cruise / En-route
Climb Descend &
Approach
Ta k e o f f Landing
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of meteorological service for aviation to
contribute towards the safety, regularity &
efficiency of international air navigation.
These services are provided within the technical

and regulatory framework of the International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO)
Factors That Affect
Safe Operations
PRESSURE
 The force exerted by air on any surface
 Pressure decrease with increasing altitude
 Measured by barometer
 The actual pressure at a given place and
time will differ with altitude, temperature
and density of the air
Affect aircraft performance,

especially with regard to
take-off, rate of climb, and
landings
ALTITUDE
 Altitude is height above sea level.
 An altimeter is an instrument used to measure the altitude, the distance

of a point above sea level. The measurement of altitude is
called altimetry. The most common types of altimeters are barometric.
Altitude determined by measuring air pressure.
 The density of air decreases with height because at higher altitudes:-

i. there is less air pushing down from above, and gravity is weaker
farther from Earth's centre.
ii. so air molecules can spread out more, and air density decreases.
Effect of Altitude on Atmospheric Pressure
 Higher altitudes -
decreased atmospheric
pressure
 During take off - lift is
developed around
wings. In higher altitude-
air is thin (less dense) -
more speed required to
obtain lift - hence
require longer take off
distance
What is standard atmosphere?
 The standard atmosphere is a hypothetical profile of

atmospheric temperature, pressure and density agreed
internationally.
 pressure - 1013.25 hPa

 density - 1.225 kg/m³
 temperature - 15°C
What are QFE, QNH and QNE
 In aviation, specify terms such as
QFE, QNH and QNE are used to
describe the air pressure according
to different applications.
 QFE is the pressure at the station
/aerodrome level (altimeter setting
reference to the airport).
 QNH is the pressure measured at
station then reduced down to mean
sea level pressure (local altimeter
setting).
 QNE the ISA Standard Pressure
setting of 1013.25 hPa. Referred to
as STANDARD in aviation (standard
atmospheric pressure).
Let's have a look at these terms
 Altitude - vertical distance between Mean Sea Level (MSL)

and aircraft when it is below the transition altitude.
 Flight level - vertical distance between Mean Sea Level (MSL)
and aircraft when it is above the transition level.
 Height - vertical distance between the ground and an aircraft
(AGL - Above Ground Level)
TYPES OF AIRCRAFT ELEVATION
EXAMPLE: ALTIMETER
The shortest hand indicates tens

of thousands of feet.
The middle length hand represents

thousands of feet and the longest
hand indicates hundreds of feet.
The shortest hand is just before

10,000'. The hands read 9,500'.
TEMPERATURE & HUMIDITY
 The relationship between dewpoint and temperature defines the concept of relative
humidity.
 The dewpoint, is the temperature at which the air can hold no more moisture. When
the temperature of the air is reduced to the dewpoint, the air is completely saturated
and moisture begins to condense out of the air in the form of fog, dew, frost, clouds,
rain, hail, or snow.
 On cool, calm nights, the temperature of the ground and objects on the surface can
cause temperatures of the surrounding air to drop below the dewpoint. When this
occurs, the moisture in the air condenses and deposits itself on the ground, buildings,
and other objects like cars and aircraft
 If the temperature is below freezing, the moisture will be deposited in the form of frost.
While dew poses no threat to an aircraft, frost poses a definite flight safety hazard.
Frost disrupts the flow of air over the wing and can drastically reduce the
production of lift. It also increases drag, which, when combined with
lowered lift production, can eliminate the ability to take off. An aircraft
must be thoroughly cleaned and free of frost prior to beginning a flight.
TEMPERATURE & HUMIDITY: ICING a: Airframe icing b: engine ic
 Icing may occur :

 In –flight or at the surface or
 Ground icing
 One might also categorize icing into:

 Airframe icing and
 Engine icing
 Airframe icing is
serious aviation hazard.
Examples of airframe icing are:
 Rime icing
 Clear (glaze) icing
 Mixed icing
 Freezing rain
TEMPERATURE & HUMIDITY: ICING
Affects on a aircraft
 Reduction in the aerodynamic properties
 Change in flight performance
 Increase in weight and uneven loading
 Engine intake become blocked
 Undercarriage retraction/ extension problems
 Control surface jam or become stiff
 Pitot tubes become blocked Aircraft that have ice, snow, or frost on their
surfaces must be carefully cleaned prior to
 Communications affected beginning a flight because of the possible
airflow disruption and loss of lift.
 Vision impaired
TEMPERATURE & HUMIDITY: ICING
Water phase changes in relation to falling temperature with height
To be continued by Puan Suhaily on
28th October 2020….
Thank you
SUHAILY SAHAT
Wind
• Wind is defined as moving air caused by
a pressure difference between two
regions, due to temperature variations.
Why Does Wind Blow?
• Wind blow because of differences in
pressure., variation of temperature and
rotation of the earth.
• And the bigger the difference between
the pressures, the faster the air will move
from the high to the low pressure. That
rush of air is the wind we experience.
Wind Type: Headwind (Bow Wind)
• Head wind is wind blowing toward
the aircraft.
• Why are Headwinds Good for Takeoff
and Landing?
Help to Increase lift - re a lower
ground speed and a shorter runway
distance for a aircraft to airborne TDZ
Aircraft B714 approaching
RWY 27 into headwind
180/10KT: This is the ideal
wind for landing Headwind
180/10KT
Effect of Headwind
The headwind is best suited for landing and take-off operations, compared to the tail
wind.
Operation against the wind generates some of the required lift, resulting in a lower ground
speed and less runway clearance. The headwind can also provide a higher climbing ratio.
Wind Type: Tailwind
• Tailwind is wind blowing directly towards the rear of the aircraft.
• In takeoff operation, tail wind is NOT GOOD wind for aircraft
performance
• BUT.. It is useful in flight. WHY?
• Tailwind is useful to travel faster and save on fuel as less power is
needed to drive the air aircraft in the directions it needs to go.
Effects of Tailwind
A takeoff with tailwind requires more runway and landing distance and higher speeds to
generate sufficient lift for the flight. The climb rate can also be affected by the tailwind.
Landing with tailwind can cause the aircraft to touch the lane at a higher speed.
Wind Type: Crosswind
• Crosswind is wind blowing in any direction than a headwind
or tailwind
• Crosswind effect dangerous situation for landing and take off
operations.
• WHY? Go to the next slide.
• How about during in flight?

A crosswind pushing to the side can cause you to drift off
course, so the planes direction must be adjust to keep it moving
along right path
Effects of Crosswind on Flight
Crosswind
During the takeoff run, the influence of the crosswind can cause a small aircraft to
drift to the right or left side of the landing runway.
Wind type: Wind Gust
• Wind gust is a sudden increase of the wind’s
speed that last no more than 20 seconds
• How it is happened?
The cause of wind gust to occur are:
a) Sudden shift from high pressure to low
pressure
Source:
b) Terrain ( examples: tall trees, mountain hills, https://www.monolitonimbus.com.br
man made infrastructures) /effects-of-vento-about-aircraft/
Burst winds may cause lift loss and
change in aircraft trajectory.
Do Strong Wind Effect Flight?
Effect of wind gust during landing
• Gust wind that change direction quickly
are one of the most dangerous wind
condition both in flight and on takeoff
and landing
• Sudden change in headwind or tailwind
causing rapid changes in lifting to the
aircraft (wind shear)
• Gusts of wind also pose a danger to small
aircraft that are parked in the airfield
yard. In the event of sudden changes in
wind direction and speed, these aircraft
may suffer structural damage
Wind type: Wind Shear
• Wind shear is a meteorological phenomenon that can be defined as a rapid
variation of current in the wind
• Wind shear is a rapid variation in direction and / or wind speed over a
given distance.
• It can occur at all flight levels, however, it is dangerous at low levels (from
the ground up to approximately 2,000 feet in height), in the approach,
landing and initial climb phases, due to the altitude limitation and time to
maneuver of aircraft’
• Intensity of wind shear:
a) Mild: 5- 8kt/100ft
b) Moderate: 9-11kt/100ft
c) Severe: >12kt/100ft
When and How the Wind Shear Can Happened?
WHEN? – In convective formation.

HOW? - convective formations produce strong and concentrated downstream currents,
called microbursts .
Effect of Wind Shear
• Wind shear can cause different effects on aircraft such as turbulence,
increased or decreased speed indicated, sharp variations in the
reasons for descent and / or ascent, altitude and bow.
• The main result of all these effects is loss of lift.
Effect of Wind Shear on Approach/Landing
1 Approach initially appeared normal

2 Increasing downdraft and tailwind
3 Airspeed of airplane decrease and combined with reduced visual of visibility
4 Airplane crashed at short approach end of runway

Effects of Wind Shear on Takeoff / Climb out
1 Airplane experiences increased performance caused by increasing of headwind
2 Airplane experiences a performance decreasing downdraft
3 Rapidly airplane experience increasing tailwind
4 Force the airplane to the ground short of runway due to the loss of lift
HOW DO WE IDENTIFY AND FORECAST WIND
SHEAR?
• Identify wind shear based on
• Pilot Reports (PIREP)
• Radiosonde observation data
• Aircraft Data
• Wind Profiler observation data on the runway
• Doppler weather radar
• LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging)
Cloud
• Cloud typically are classified based on their visual characteristics
such as height, shape and behavior
Tips
High Cloud Cirro
Medium
Cloud Alto
Low Cloud Strato
Significant Cumulonimbus
Cloud
Cloud Types and Where to find them
Courtesy of Lisa Gardiner/ UCAR

How pilot know the cloud condition?
 By Meteorological Report
(METAR, SPECI or MET REPORT,
SPECIAL)
Amount of clouds (FEW, SCT,
BKN and OVC)
Based height of clouds
Significant cloud type
Example: FEW005 FEW012CB
SCT020
 By radar and satellite image
FOG FORMATION
• Fog occurs when the atmosphere is saturated, or nearly saturated,
with moisture.
• This occurs when temperature and dew point are brought close
together.
• Fog results from either raising the dew point until it equals the
temperature, or lowering the temperature to the dew point.
• In meteorological report, fog is encode as FG
Fog versus Mist
• Fog is encoded as FG on METAR/SPECI and TAF report and reported

when visibility is less than 1000 m
• Mist is encoded as BR on METAR/SPECI and TAF reports and reported
when visibility is at least 1 000 m but not more than 5 000 m.
Fog Classifications
• Radiation Fog
• Advection Fog
• Upslope fog
• Frontal Fog
• Freezing Fog
Radiation Fog
• Caused by radiational cooling of the earth’s surface,
• This type of fog can significantly affect aviation
operations.
• Radiation fog develops only at night and over land.
• In most cases, radiation fog is nocturnal – becoming
thickest at night, right around sunrise, and dissipating
by late morning.
• It may redevelop again right after sunset.
Advection Fog
• This is generated by fog in motion
and develop in one region.
• This type of fog typically occurs
along coastlines or between a cold
wet surface and a warmer drier
surface.
• Advection fogs can persist for
days and has a greater impact on
aviation operations than radiation
fog.
Upslope Fog
• This fog occurs due to
adiabatic cooling of rising
air.
• Upslope fog is a type of
hill fog
• It occurs when warm
moist air is forced up a
slope by the wind.
Frontal Fog (Precipitation Fog)
• This type of fog occurs in conjunction with
the frontal surface in the colder air mass.
• It is precipitation-induced, due to the
evaporation of falling rain.
• Frontal fogs, warm frontal or stationary
fog has the greatest impact on aviation
operations.
• The frontal fog is usually short live and
dispersed within 1 to 2 hours as the front
passes
Freezing Fog (ice fog)
• If the fog is dense enough, it may produce ice
on aircraft surfaces.
• Occurs when the temperature is very cold,
less than -30⁰C (-22⁰F), and it’s composed of
ice crystals,
• If the fog is dense enough, it may produce ice
on aircraft surfaces.
• Ice fog occurs in very cold Arctic or Polar air
regions.
Effects of Low Visibility to Aviation
• Type of visibility
(a) Horizontal visibility - the furthest visibility obtained horizontally in a specific

direction by referencing objects or lights at known distances.
(b) Prevailing visibility - the ground level visibility which is common to one-half or
more of the horizon circle.
(c) Vertical visibility - the maximum visibility obtained by looking vertically
upwards into a surface-based obstruction such as fog or snow.
(d) Slant visibility - visibility observed by looking forward and downwards from the
cockpit of the aircraft.
(e) Flight visibility - the average range of visibility at any given time forward from
the cockpit of an aircraft in flight.
How do we know fog existed?
Horizontal Visibility
• From aerodrome meteorological report (METAR/SPECI ) issued by meteorological
station ( human observer)
Visibility is less than 1000m is observed
Example: METAR SBSP 202300Z 16004KT 110V200 800 FG SCT002 OVC005 14/12
Q1024
• From Local Report (MET REPORT/ SPECIAL) - measured by instrument

Example: MET REPORT SBPB 221630Z WIND 240/5MPS VIS 600M RVR RWY 12
TDZ 1000M FG CLD SCT 300M OVC 600M T17 DP16 QNG 1018HPA=
• The instrument to detect low visibility at runway is Runway Visual Range (RVR)
Precipitation type: Rain
 Rain is liquid water drop from cloud.
 The rains are usually caused by the
encounter between two air masses Source:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v
(one cold and one hot), due to a front =P3GRpWSRc5c
or an elevation of a cloud by
ascending currents .
 METAR code: RA
 Intensity of rain
light (-RA), moderate rain (RA) and
heavy rain (+RA)
Rain Effects for aviation
• Decreased visibility to values below

5,000m.
• Runway contaminated with water –
loss of directional control of the aircraft.
• Mirroring phenomenon.- accumulation
of water on the surfaces of the landing Source: Mundo Aero
strip (green areas and taxiways) occur
after rainfall
Rain type: Freezing Rain
• Freezing rain is precipitation that exists in supercooled liquid
form below temperatures of 0°C and freezes on contact with
surfaces that have a temperature less than 0°C.
• The cloud type generally associated with freezing rain
is Nimbostratus.
• METAR code FZRA
• Effects on aviation:
1. cause significant accumulations of Clear ice on upper
surfaces which the aircraft anti/de-icing systems
2. airfield operating surfaces and runways will also be
affected
3. all aircraft movement on the ground may be severely
disrupted.
Precipitation Type: Hail
• Hail is formed in the up drought of convective (TCU or
CB) cloud
• Small hail (METAR code GS)- size: less than 5mm in
diameter, may formed from Towering Cumulus (TCU)
cloud
• Large hail (METAR code GR)- size: 5mm or more in
diameter, may formed from Cumulonimbus (CB ) cloud
• Effect to aircraft:
1. Damage to the structure of aircraft
2. May severe damage propeller blades and engine
blades
How to diagnose precipitation?
Satellite image
a cold front responsible for heavy rain in the southeastern Radar image
region of Brazil (photo of the Satellite GOES, from 18h UTC on
02/17/2010).
Precipitation type: Snow
• Snow is solid precipitation in the form of individual, usually
branched, ice crystals or an Agglomeration of those ice crystals.
• The precise nature will depend upon the temperature and conditions
in which they develop.
• At temperatures warmer than about -5° C the crystals tend to
agglomerate.
Effect on aircraft due to the snow
1. Slight rates of snowfall have a serious detrimental effect upon visibility.
2. On the ground, snowfall may accumulate on the airframe, disturbing the
aerodynamics
3. adding to the all up weight of the aircraft
4. Windscreens may become obscured with snow, with windscreen wipers
becoming ineffective (if fitted) and degrade visibility of the pilot
5. Pitot tubes may become blocked, with resultant errors in airspeed and
altitude indication.
6. Runway contamination by snow will significantly degrade braking action
How to diagnose snow?
1. By satellite image (visible image)
 Fresh snow has a very high albedo, thus it reflects almost all of the
sun light and appears very bright on visible imagery as long as it is
not covered by clouds
2. By radar image
 Detect by snow reflectivity ( 5 to 20 dBZ) but can be higher if it
melting
 Picture of snow reflectivity
How to forecast snow?
1. Empirical forecasting technique -Forecasters must be familiar with
the synoptic scenarios that lend themselves to surface snowfall.
(expert with the criteria and trend the snow formation).
2. Numerical weather prediction (NWP) generally provides good

guidance with regard to the general synoptic situation, and the
forecaster should therefore be able to assess the general likelihood, or
not, of snowfall.
3. Forecast tephigrams are extremely useful but again the limitations of

model data always need to be considered.
Visibility
• Visibility is a measure of the distance at which an object or light can
be clearly is discerned.
• Meteorological phenomenon affect visibility are: Haze, fog, cloud
and precipitation
• Units of visibility: meters or kilometers or statue miles (depending
on the country concerned)
• Visibility Reporting:
1. Routine and Special reports using abbreviated plain language (MET
REPORT and SPECIAL)
2. Aerodrome Meteorological Report (METAR or SPECI)
Horizontal visibility – how far can a ‘man’ see?
• Horizontal visibility is maximum distance along the horizontal up to
which prominent objects can be seen with naked eye and under
natural light
• The visibility reported by Met office is the lowest horizontal visibility
• How the visibility is estimate? by Visibility Land marks
1. Day time – seeing objects at pre-measured distances
2. Night time – use existing lights in and around the airfield at known
distances
RVR equipment
Runway Visual Range (RVR)
• RVR is the distance up to which the pilot
can see from the cockpit along the runway
• RVR is reported when the visibility is less
than 1500m.
• RVR equipment are installed along various
runways to measure RVR (close to landing
and takeoff areas)
• The equipment consists of a light source
and photo-electric receiver and generates
electric current to obscurities present.
Runway Visible Range (RVR) Display
Display
Real Time Display of Wind
Runway Visible Range
(WRVR) at Penang
International Airport .
50
Vertical Visibility – How far can a pilot see?
• Vertical visibility is the maximum height from which a pilot can
recognize ground features when the surface is obscured because of
the meteorological phenomenon.
• Picture of vertical visibility

Slant Visibility – How far can an aircraft see?
• Slant visibility is the visibility from air to ground as seen by aircraft
while approaching the airfield.
• Slant visibility range measured by Lidar
• Picture og slant visibility
SUHAILY SAHAT
TURBULENCE
 What is turbulence?
 Turbulence is due to irregular atmospheric motion or swirling which
results in jolting of the aircraft.
 At is simplest, turbulence will result in bumpiness in flight
What causes turbulence?

 There are many contributors to turbulence: typically its encountered
by:
 Jet Stream, upper air wind and direction changes (wind shear) and
weather fronts
Causes of Turbulence
1. Thermal(Convective) turbulence
2. Mechanical turbulence
3. Clear air turbulence (CAT)
4. Aircraft -produced
1. THERMAL (CONVECTIVE) TURBULENCE
 Due to convective up draughts
and downdraughts within most
convective clouds (CB Cloud)
 In dry thermals on hot, sunny days
 In downdraughts associated with
precipitation.
Turbulence in
convective cloud
 Convective turbulence form by
cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud.
 A more severe type of
convective turbulence
 Inside the clouds the air is
unstable
 The downdrafts and updrafts can
be strong enough to cause
structural damage.
Turbulence in dry
thermal
 Thermal create convective

turbulence.
 As the sun heats the ground, the
air above it is warmed and rises.
 This is most noticeable at low
altitude during summer months in
every warm and hot climate.
 Less severe than thunderstorms
(light to moderate turbulence)
2. MECHANICAL TURBULENCE
 Mechanical turbulence is
caused by mountains, hill,
buildings, or large
obstructions.
 When wind above 15 knots are
bent around the objects, this
create turbulence.
 Usually this isn’t a major
problem for most aviation, but
when the winds become above
25 knots and pass over a large
enough obstacle they can
create turbulence area as high
as 5000-10000 feet
Example of Mechanical Turbulence
CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE (CAT)
 Clear air turbulence (CAT) is originates from a strong shear

of the wind at medium – or high level area (20,000 feet,
around 6km or above)
 It typically occurs near Jet Streams ( narrow band of
strong winds)
AIRCRAFT-PRODUCED : WAKE TURBULENCE
 All aircraft produce wake turbulence (Turbulence
Mat)
 Wake turbulence is disturbance in the atmosphere
behind an aircraft a it passes through the air
How to avoid wake turbulence?
How to monitor and forecast turbulence?
Computer modelling
Satellite imageries of weather
monitoring Upper-air observation
analysis by radiosonde
and pilot balloon
 Pilot Report (PIREP)
 Significant weather Chart (SIGWX Charts)
THUNDERSTORMS
 Thunderstorms are formed by a process
called convection.
 Its associates with Cumulonimbus cloud (CB)
 Three things are needed for development of
thunderstorms:
1. moisture,
2. Lift (upward currents)
3. Instability
 During a thunderstorm, phenomena such as
strong winds, hail, hail, lightning,
turbulence, tornadoes, ice formation and
heavy rain can be seen.
Source: FAA Handbooks Manual

The life cycle of a CB cloud goes through three consecutive stages, whose
durability (from 20 to 180 minutes) and intensity will depend on the factors that
gave rise to the phenomenon.
Hazards Associated with Thunderstorm
 Lightning: can strike the ground aircraft body and can damage
communications and electronic navigational equipment
 Tornadoes: can effect suffer loss of control, error of altimeter
and structural damage
 Turbulence : can effect bumpiness to aircraft
 Wind shear: can change the performance of aircraft during
landing or take off phase
 Icing, hail: damage and blocked the aircraft engine, effect
flight performance
How to monitor and forecast thunderstorm?
 Satellite imageries
 Upper air observation data
 Doppler weather radar
 Numerical weather prediction (NWP) products
 Aircraft Data
 Pilot Reports (PIREP)
a: Airframe icing b: engine icing
ICING (IC)
 Icing may occur :
 In –flight or at the surface or
 Ground icing
 One might also categorize icing into:
 Airframe icing and
 Engine icing
 Airframe icing is serious aviation hazard.
 Examples of airframe icing are:
 Rime icing
 Clear (glaze) icing
 Mixed icing
 Freezing rain
ICING – Affects on a aircraft
 Carburetion system : reduces the engine's performance and consequently its
power.
 Engine Air Intake: can cause damage to the compressor or blades of the first
stage of the engine and changes in air flow, resulting in degraded
performance.
 Propellers : reduces the performance of the aircraft.
 Pitot Tube : If ice blocks the Pitot tube entrance or accumulates inside it,
instruments that depend on the static and dynamic pressures of atmospheric
air stop working,
 Antennas : Ice accumulating on radio antennas produces detrimental effects
on communications because it increases the cable diameter (film effect) and
decreases the insulation of the antenna relative to the aircraft casing.
 Windscreen : The accumulation of ice on the windscreen reduces visibility.
Skew –T diagram
Forecasting Icing
 Forecasting icing using:
1. Skew- T diagram : one of the thermodynamic diagrams
used in weather analysis and forecasting
2. Analysis of observational icing data from PIREP or AIREP –
looking for icing scenarios
Numerical weather
3. Numerical model outputs prediction (NWP)
model
PIREP or AIREP
What is the Jet Stream?
 Jet streams are bands of strong wind that generally

blow from west to east all across the globe.
 They impact weather, air travel and many other things

that take place in our atmosphere.
What cause the Jet Stream?

 Jet streams form when warm air masses meet cold air
masses in the atmosphere.
 This movement creates an air current, or wind.

How Do Jet
Streams Affect
Air Travel?
 Airplanes fly in the mid to upper troposphere.
 So, if an airplane flies in a powerful jet stream

and they are traveling in the same direction, the
airplane can get a boost.
 That’s why an airplane flying a route from

west to east can generally make the trip faster
than an airplane traveling the same route east to
west.
Effect to aviation
 Damage to aircraft -In the high atmosphere,
volcanic ash can cause engine malfunction,
damage turbine blades or Pitot electronic
probes.
 Effects for air traffic - According to the Flight

Safety Foundation - FSF (1993), during some
volcanic eruptions, pieces of rock and glass
that are released can exceed 30 thousand
meters of altitude Because of this, volcanic
ash can have a large-scale impact on
international air traffic.
Source: NASA
How to monitor the volcanic ash
 Volcanic ash reporting by Volcano Observatory

Station
 Satellite image
 Aircraft Report (AIREP)
 Volcanic ash advisories by Volcano Advisories
Centre
Dust Storms and Sand Storms
 Dust storms and sand storms are regions of raised dust

and sand.
 The dust and sand are essentially raised by the wind,

and are lofted to various heights dependent upon
turbulence and instability and persistency of the flow
that lifted the particles.
Effects on Aircraft
1. Drastic reductions in visibility.
2. Dust and sand ingestion into aircraft engines may cause reductions
in power to the extent of complete engine failure.
3. Should dust and sand find their way into cockpits, then problems
with electrical equipment may occur.
How to diagnose Dust storms/Sand storms?
1. By satellite image (visible and infrared image)
2. Empirical forecasting technique (analysis the

criteria and trend of the hazard)
3. Numerical weather prediction (NWP) products

SUHAILY SAHAT
OBJEKTIF KURSUS
• Objektif kursus Aeronautical Meteorology (AM) ini adalah seperti berikut :
i. Memberi kefahaman mengenai keperluan perkhidmatan meteorology kepada industri penerbangan.
ii. Memberi pendedahan mengenai perkhidmatan meteorologi penerbangan MetMalaysia.
iii. Memperkenalkan fungsi Pusat/Bahagian, MetMalaysia dalam membekalkan perkhidmatan
meteorologi penerbangan MetMalaysia.
iv. Memahami keperluan serta standard dalam penyediaan dan penyampaian maklumat/produk
meteorologi penerbangan.
v. Memperkenalkan jenis maklumat/produk meteorologi penerbangan.
vi. Memperkenalkan proses-proses bagi penghasilan maklumat/produk meteorologi penerbangan.
vii. Memperkenalkan sistem penyampaian dan dokumentasi maklumat/produk meteorologi
penerbangan.
AERONAUTICAL METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES
 The objective of the aeronautical meteorological services is to

contribute towards the safety, regularity and efficiency of
international aviation by providing to airline operators, flight crew,
air traffic services units, search and rescue units, airport operators
and others concerned with meteorological information necessary for
their functions.
 These services are provided within the technical and regulatory
framework of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).
WORLD
METEOROLOGY
ORGANIZATION
(WMO)
World Meteorology Organization (WMO)
 The WMO is a specialized agency of the United Nations. The World
Meteorological Convention, by which the WMO was created, was adopted at
the Twelfth Conference of Directors of the International Meteorological
Organization, which met in Washington in 1947.
 The purposes of WMO are to facilitate international cooperation in
1. the setting up of networks of stations for making meteorological, hydrological and other
observations;
2. to promote the rapid exchange of meteorological information,
3. the standardization of meteorological observations and the uniform publication of
observations and statistics.
4. It also furthers the application of meteorology to aviation, shipping, water problems,
agriculture and other human activities,
5. promotes operational hydrology and encourages research and training in meteorology.
World Meteorology Organization (WMO)
WMO role in aviation MET
• One of the purposes of the WMO is “…to further the

application of meteorology to aviation…” (WMO
Convention, Article 2..)
• WMO together with the International Civil Aviation

Organization (ICAO) establish the regulatory
framework for meteorological (MET) service for
international air navigation
INTERNATIONAL
CIVIL AVIATION
ORGANIZATION
(ICAO)
International Civil Aviation Organization,
(ICAO)
• International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO) is an agency that plays a role in
setting standards and international civil
aviation rules and functions as a forum for
cooperation among the Member countries.
Profile of Malaysia as a Council Member of the ICAO

 Malaysia has been a member of ICAO since May 7, 1958 and has been
continuously taking part in programs and activities organized by the
organization.
 Malaysia has been a Council Member of ICAO from 2007 and has since
maintains membership in the Council for three consecutive terms.
ICAO – General Information
Objectives of ICAO (Art. 44)

• Insure the safe and orderly growth of international civil
aviation throughout the world
• Encourage the development of airways, airports and air

navigation facilities for international air navigation
• Promote safety of flight in international air navigation
• Promote the development of all aspects of international

civil aeronautics
METEOROLOGICAL
WATCH OFFICE
(MWO)
METEOROLOGICAL WATCH OFFICES
(MWO)
 The MWOs are designated to provide met services for Air Traffic Services (ATS)
within an the Flight Information Region (FIR) or Control Terminal Area (CTA).
 Responsibilities of MWO are:
1. Maintain continuous watch over met conditions affecting flight operations within
its FIR.
2. Prepare, supply and disseminate SIGMET and AIRMET information to its FIR.
3. Provide meteorological forecast products for local region and FIR region.
4. Supply and disseminate meteorological forecast products provided by global
meteorological forecast centre.
5. Prepare and disseminate aeronautical meteorological warning (aerodrome, en –
route and FIR) to ATS.
6. Supply and disseminate advisory of Volcanic ash and Tropical cyclone
phenomenon
7. Provide meteorological consultation, briefing and flight documentation to ATS.
Products and services of MWO
1. Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) 12. Forecast of Upper Winds (Local area)
2. Landing Forecasts (Trend Forecast) 13. Domestic Significant Weather Chart (Local
3. Forecasts for Take Off area)
4. Area QNH 14. WAFS Products (Flight Plan & Flight Doc)
5. Aerodrome Warnings 15. WAFS Significant Weather Chart
6. Tropical Cyclone Advisory Bulletins 16. WAFS Wind & Temp Chart
7. Volcanic Ash Advisory Bulletins 17. Briefing & Consultation
8. SIGMET Info 18. Display of Met Info (Aviation Briefing

Terminal, ABT)
9. AIRMET Info
19. Radar Imageries
10. Wind Shear Alerts & Wind Shear Warnings
20. Satellite Imageries
11. Area Forecast (ARFOR) & Route Forecast
21. Meteorological Infomation for SAR
ROFOR
AERONAUTICAL
METOROLOGICAL
OFFICE
(AMO)
AERODROME METEOROLOGICAL OFFICE (AMO)
Designated to provide met service for aerodromes serving

international air navigation
May or may not be located at an aerodrome
Should be associated with an aerodrome control tower or
approach control (APP) unit for the provision of met info
AMO shall be the Meteorological Offices in Malaysia
provided by Malaysian Meteorological Department (MMD)
Products and services of AWO
1. Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) 7. Briefing & Consultation
2. Landing Forecasts (Trend 8. Display of Met Info (Aviation
Forecast) Briefing Terminal, ABT )
3. Forecasts for Take Off (Based on 9. Radar Imageries
request) 10. Satellite Imageries
4. Aerodrome Warnings
5. Wind Shear Alerts & Wind Shear
Warnings
6. Area Forecast (ARFOR) & Route
Forecast (ROFOR)
AERODROME METEOROLOGICAL OFFICE (AMO)
 Responsibilities of AMO are:
1. providing forecasts for aerodromes and en-route for low level flight
2. prepare relevant warnings for aerodromes and their vicinity
3. provide meteorological consultation, flight briefings and
documentation to flight crew members and/or other flight
operations personnel
4. supply operational meteorological (OPMET) information to
aeronautical users and exchange such information with other
aerodrome meteorological offices.
AERONAUTICAL
METOROLOGICAL
STATION (AMS)
AERONAUTICAL METEOROLOGICAL STATION
(AMS)
A station designated to make observations and meteorological
reports at aerodrome for use in international air navigation.
The specific types of observations and related reports are
disseminated either locally, or to other AMOs and AMS,
In the areas prone to volcanic eruptions, AMS and other
meteorological stations make observations regarding volcanic
activity and volcanic eruptions
Products and services of AMS
• Aerodrome Routine Meteorological Report (METAR)
• Aerodrome Special Meteorological Report (SPECI)
• Upper Air and Pilot Balloon observation
• Volcanic ash observation (currently none in Malaysia)
WORLD AREA FORECAST CENTRE (WAFC)
• A Met centre designated by ICAO to prepare and issue global forecasts in digital grid
point form for all required levels and in a standard format, to meet the needs of
meteorological authorities and other users
• Forecasts of en-route conditions, except forecasts for low-level flights issued by
aerodrome meteorological
• offices, are prepared by world area forecast centres (WAFCs)
• WAFC supported by two World Area Forecast Centre (WAFCS)
1. WAFC – Washington (NOAA, United State)
2. WAFC – London (UK MET Office , United Kingdom)
• The role of the WAFCs is to PROVIDE meteorological messages with worldwide

coverage for pilot briefing
WORLD AREA
FORECAST
CENTRE
(WAFC)
WAFC PRODUCTS
• WAFC provides various types of data, including
1. Global forecast of upper wind, upper air temperature and
humidity, flight level and temperatures level, cumulonimbus
cloud (CB), icing and turbulence in the GRIB code form
2. Global forecast of significant weather (SIGWX) phenomena in
the BUFR code form
BROADCAST SYSTEM OF WAFC
• Each of these two services operates its own satellite-based
broadcast system to distribute data to airports all over the world.
a) The UK Met Office is called SADIS (Satellite Distribution System)

and mainly covers Europe, Asia, Indian Ocean and Africa.
b) The U.S. NOAA broadcast system is the International Satellite
Communications System (ISCS) and mainly covers America and the
Pacific Ocean.
MALAYSIAN
METEOROLOGICAL
DEPARTMENT
(MET Malaysia)
PERKHIDMATAN METEOROLOGI PENERBANGAN DI
MALAYSIA
 Malaysia Meteorological Department (MET Malaysia) ialah agensi tunggal yang
menyediakan perkhidmatan meteorologi untuk Penerbangan di Malaysia
 Meteorologi penerbangan disediakan selaras dengan Annex 3 to The
Convention on International Civil Aviation – Meteorological Service For
International Air Navigation berdasarkan ketetapan International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) untuk Flight Information Region (FIR) yang telah
ditetapkan – Kuala Lumpur FIR & Kota Kinabalu FIR (MWO)
 Setiap negara bertanggungjawab tertakluk kepada piawaian ditetapkan oleh
ICAO untuk mewujudkan:
1. Aeronautical Meteorological Offices (AMO),
2. Meteorological Watch Office (MWO)
3. Aeronautical Meteorological Stations (AMS),
KETENTERAAN:
PENERBANGAN TUDM
AWAM MET Malaysia TLDM
ATM
AMO MWO AMS
PEJABAT PUSAT
METEOROLOGI PEJABAT
METEOROLOGI
NEGERI METEOROLOGI PEJABAT
PENERBANGAN
SABAH DI KOTA METEOROLOGI
NASIONAL (PMPN)
KINABALU NEGERI
DI KLIA
SEMENANJUNG: 28
SABAH: 6
SARAWAK: 8 2 FIR AERODROME NON
LABUAN:1 AERODROME
Kuala Lumpur FIR Kota Kinabalu FIR

SEMENANJUNG: 12
AERODROME
SABAH & SARAWAK
: 10
MWO, AMO and AMS in Malaysia
PENINSULAR MALAYSIA
No. Meteorological Office Aerodrome name Airport name
(ICAO codes)
1 Pusat Meteorologi Penerbangan WMKK (KLIA) KL International Airport (KLIA)
Nasional (PMPN): MWO KL International Airport 2 (KLIA2)
WMSA (Subang) Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport
WMKM (Melaka) Malacca International Airport
WMKJ (Senai) Senai International Airport
2. Pejabat Meteorologi Bayan Lepas WMKP (Bayan Lepas) Penang International Airport
WMKB (Butterworth) TUDM Butterworth
WMKL (Langkawi) Langkawi International Airport
3. Pejabat Meteorologi Perak WMKI (Ipoh) Sultan Azlan Shah Airport
4. Pejabat Meteorologi Kelantan WMKC (Kota Bharu) Sultan Ismail Petra Airport
5. Pejabat Meteorologi Terengganu WMKN (Kuala Terengganu) Sultan Mahmud Airport
WMKE (Kerteh) Kerteh Airport
6. Pejabat Meteorologi Pahang WMKD (Kuantan) Sultan Haji Ahmad Shah Airport
WMBT (Tioman) Tioman Airport
MWO, AMO and AMS in Malaysia
EAST PENINSULAR MALAYSIA
(ICAO codes)
1 Pejabat Meteorologi Kota WBKK (Kota Kinabalu) Kota Kinabalu International Airport
Kinabalu (WMO) WBKS (Sandakan) Sandakan Airport
WBKL (Labuan) Labuan Airport
WBKW (Tawau) Tawau Airport
WBKT (Kudat) Kudat Airport
2. Pejabat Meteorologi Kuching WBGG (Kuching) Kuching International Airport

WBGB (Bintulu) Bintulu Airport
WBGR (Miri) Miri Airport
WBGS (Sibu) Sibu Airport
WBGJ (Limbang) Limbang Airport
WBMU (Mulu) Mulu Airport
3. Pejabat Meteorologi Labuan WBKL (Labuan) Labuan Airport
TROPICAL
CYCLONE
ADVISORY
CENTRE
TROPICAL CYCLONE ADVISORY CENTRES
(TCAC)
• ICAO ANNEX 3 1.1
Tropical cyclone advisory centre (TCAC).
A meteorological centre designated by regional air navigation agreement to
provide advisory information to meteorological watch offices, world area
forecast centres and international OPMET databanks regarding the
position, forecast direction and speed of movement, central pressure and
maximum surface wind of tropical cyclones.
• in short:
A meteorological center providing advisory information for TC SIGMET
(Tropical Cyclone Advisories, or: TCAs) to Meteorological Watch Offices,
WAFCs and OPMET (Operational aeronautical Meteorological) Data Centers
Roles and responsibility of Tropical
Cyclone Advisory Centers (TCACS)
A Contracting State having accepted, by regional air navigation agreement, the
responsibility for providing a TCAC shall arrange for that centre to:
a) monitor the development of tropical cyclones in its area of responsibility, using

geostationary and polar-orbiting satellite data, radar data and other meteorological
information;
b) issue advisory information concerning the position of the cyclone centre, its direction
and speed of movement, central pressure and maximum surface wind near the centre,
in abbreviated plain language to:
1) meteorological watch offices in its area of responsibility;
2) other TCACs whose areas of responsibility may be affected; and
3) world area forecast centres, international OPMET databanks, and centres
designated by regional air navigation agreement for the operation of aeronautical
fixed service satellite distribution systems; and
c) issue updated advisory information to meteorological watch offices for each
tropical cyclone, as necessary, but at least every six (6) hours.
TCAC - Area of Responsibility
• These centers are responsible for the
warnings concerning tropical cyclone
locations, intensity and movement.
• They are composed of
1. Regional Specialized Meteorology Centers
(RSMC) which includes Miami, Honolulu,
New Delhi, La Reunion, Nadi, Tokyo and
2. Tropical Cyclone warnings Centers (TCWC)
which includes Perth, Darwin, Brisbane and
Wellington.
Regional Specialized Meteorology Centers (RSMC)
TCAC SERVING THE MWO WMKK AND WBKK
Issue updated advisory info to MWOs

for each tropical cyclone, as
necessary, but at least every six
hours. RSMC serving the MWO
WMKK & WBKK:-
i. RSMC TOKYO, JAPAN.
ii. RSMC NEW DELHI, INDIA.
• RSMC: Regional Specialized

Meteorology Centre

PRODUCTS OF TCAC
-Tropical Cyclone Advisory (Text and Graphic format)
Example of Tropical cyclone advisory by TCAC Tokyo Example of Tropical cyclone advisory by TCAC New Delhi
RSMC TOKYO - TCAC
RSMC NEW DELHI - TCAC
VOLCANIC
ASH ADVISORY
CENTRE
(VAAC)
VOLCANIC ASH ADVISORY CENTER (VAACS)
• VAACS are meteorological centers designated by RAN
agreement on device from WMO.
• The responsibility for providing a VAAC within the framework
of the international airways volcano watch, shall arrange for
that centre to respond to a notification that a volcano has
erupted, or is expected to erupt or volcanic ash is reported in
its area of responsibility
MAP OF AREA OF RESPONSIBILITY
VOLCANIC ASH ADVISORY CENTRES (VAACs)
 9 Volcanic Ash Advisory Centres

(VAAC) – detect VA clouds and
forecast their evolution.
 Issue updated advisory info to
MWOs for each tropical cyclone, as
hours. VAAC serving the MWO
WMKK & WBKK:-
i. VAAC DARWIN, AUSTRALIA
Roles and responsibility of Volcanic Advisory Centers
(VAAC)
• Monitor relevant geostationary and polar-orbiting satellite data to detect the existence and extent of
volcanic ash in the atmosphere in the area concerned;
• Activate the volcanic ash numerical trajectory/dispersion model in order to forecast the movement of any
ash “cloud” which has been detected or reported;
• Issue advisory information regarding the extent and forecast movement of the volcanic ash “cloud” to:
(i) Meteorological watch offices, area control centres and flight information centres
(ii) Other VAACs whose areas of responsibility may be affected;
(iii) World area forecast centres, international OPMET databanks, international NOTAM offices, and
centres designated by regional air navigation agreement for the operation of aeronautical fixed service
satellite distribution systems; and
(iv) Airlines requiring the advisory information through the AFTN address provided specifically for this
purpose
• Issue updated advisory information as necessary, but at least every six hours until such time as the volcanic
ash “cloud” is no longer identifiable from satellite data, no further reports of volcanic ash are received from
the area, and no further eruptions of the volcano are reported
PRODUCTS OF VAACS
1. Volcanic Ash Advisory(VAA) 2. Volcanic Ash Graphic(VAG)
 Information issued by a Volcanic Ash Advisory Center concerning the  A graphical depiction of the Volcanic Ash Advisory (VAA).
occurrence or expected occurrence of volcanic ash that may affect
the safety of aircraft operations.
 A VAA is a text message that identifies the volcano, time of eruption,
observed position of the ash cloud, and the forecasted position of
the ash.
 The VAA is not to be used as a warning message
Example of volcanic ash advisory by VAAC Darwin

STATE VOLCANO OBSERVATORIES
• State volcano observatories monitor active or potentially active volcanoes
within the State concerned.
• They provide information on:

a) significant pre-eruption volcanic activity, or a cessation thereof;
b) a volcanic eruption, or a cessation thereof; and/or
c) volcanic ash in the atmosphere
to the International Airways Volcano Watch (IAVW).
• shall send this information as quickly as practicable to their associated Area Control
Centre (ACC)/ Flight information Centre (FIC), MWO and VAAC.
• States volcano observatories monitor active volcanoes and notify of their status
through a color code
AIR TRAFFIC
SERVICE
ORGANIZATION
Units provide air traffic services
• Aerodrome Control Tower (TWR) - A unit established to
provide air traffic control service to aerodrome traffic.
• Approach control unit (APP) - A unit established to provide air
traffic control service to controlled flights arriving at or
departing from one or more aerodromes.
• Area control centre (ACC) - A unit established to provide air
traffic control service to controlled flights in control areas
under its jurisdiction.
Units provide air traffic services
• Flight information centre (FIC) - A unit established to provide flight
information service and alerting service.
• ATS reporting office - A unit established for the purpose of receiving
reports concerning ATS and flight plans submitted before departure.
• Air-ground control radio station - An aeronautical telecommunication
station having primary responsibility for handling communications
pertaining to the operation and control of aircraft in a given area.
• Rescue coordination centre (RCC) - A unit responsible for promoting
efficient organization of search and rescue services and for coordinating
the conduct of search and rescue operations within a search and rescue
region.
Source; Manual on Coordination between Air Traffic Services,
Aeronautical Information Services and Aeronautical Meteorological Services
Meteorological Information for ATS Units
• Please refer to MET INFO FOR ATS.pdf
ATS units in Malaysia
(General)
• ATS unit in Malaysia is Air Traffic Management, larger sector in
Civil Aviation Authority of Malaysia (CAAM)
• Function: responsible for the provision of air traffic service for
safe and efficient conduct of flight within Malaysia airspace
pursuant to the Chicago Convention 1947.
Legend
Malaysian Airspace Kuala Lumpur FIR
Kota Kinabalu FIR
South China Sea Corridor FL150/Sea
South China Sea Corridor FL200/Sea
Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP)
• AIP is publication issued by authority of a state and containing
aeronautical information of lasting character essential to air
navigation
Flight Information Region (FIR)

• FIR is an airspace of defined dimensions within Flight
Information Service and Alerting Service are provided.
Example of Flight Information Region (FIR)
WMO DOCUMENTS
 The WMO Technical Regulations (WMO-No.49) are presented in four
volumes:
 Volume I – General meteorological standerds and recommended practices.
 Volume II - Meteorological service for international air navigation
 Volume III - Hydrology
 Volume IV – Quality Management
 For aviation meteorology purposed, the Technical Regulations,
Basic Documents No. 2, Volume II – Meteorological Service for
International Air Navigation use as guideline for standard and
recommended practices and procedures in aeronautical meteorology.
 This publication is almost identical with the ICAO Annex 3 and is
subject to the same amendment cycle.
 In addition to the Technical Regulations, WMO develops and
publishes guidance material aimed at facilitating the implementation
of the standard and recommended practices by the Members.
The standard practices and procedures:
Shall be the practices and procedures which it is necessary that Members follow
or implement; and therefore
Shall have the status of requirements in a technical resolution in respect of which Article 9
(b) of the Convention is applicable; and
Shall invariably be distinguished by the use of the term shall in the English text, and by
suitable equivalent terms in the Arabic, Chinese, French, Russian and Spanish texts.
The recommended practices and procedures:

Shall be the practices and procedures which it is desirable that Members follow
or implement; and therefore
Shall have the status of recommendations to Members, to which Article 9 (b) of
the Convention shall not be applied;
Shall be distinguished by the use of the term should in the English text (except
where otherwise provided by decision of Congress) and by suitable equivalent terms in
the Arabic, Chinese, French, Russian and Spanish texts.
RELEVANT WMO DOCUMENTS OF A SPECIFICALLY Aeronautical meteorology
ICAO DOCUMENTS DETAILS
Facilities and The requirements for facilities and services (including meteorology) in
Services the various ICAO regions.
Implementation
Document
• Africa-Indian Ocean Region(Doc 7474)
(FASID) • Asia and Pacific Regions(Doc 9673)
• Caribbean and South American Regions(Doc 8733)
• European Region(Doc 7754)
• Middle East Region(Doc 9708)
• North Atlantic, North American and Pacific Regions(Doc 8755) (out
of date)
• North Atlantic Region(Doc 9634)
RELEVANT WMO DOCUMENTS OF A SPECIFICALLY Aeronautical meteorology
ICAO DETAILS
DOCUMENTS
Manuals • Manual on Codes (WMO-No. 306): contains details of all meteorological codes,
including those relevant to aviation.
• Manual on the Global Telecommunication System (WMO-No. 386): contains

practices and procedures to be used in the collection, exchange and distribution of
observational and processed information on a worldwide scale.
• Manual on the Global Data-processing and Forecasting System (WMO-No. 485):

contains practices and procedures to be used in the processing, storage and retrieval
of meteorological information. The manual, among others, includes regulations relating
to the provision of service by WMO RSMCs in response to a nuclear emergency.
• Manual on the Global Observing System (WMO-No. 544): contains practices and
procedures for methods, techniques and facilities to be used for making observations
on a worldwide scale.
RELEVANT WMO DOCUMENTS OF A SPECIFICALLY Aeronautical
meteorology
ICAO DETAILS
DOCUMENTS
Guides • Guide to Meteorological Instruments and Methods of Observation (WMO-No. 8):

outlines basic standards of instrument and observing practices.
• Guidelines for the Education and Training of Personnel in Meteorology and
Operational Hydrology (WMO-No. 258), Volume I— Meteorology.
• Guide on the Global Data-processing System (WMO-No. 305).
• Guide on the Global Observing System (WMO-No. 488).
• Guide on Meteorological Observation and Information Distribution Systems for
Aviation Weather Services (WMO-No. 731).
• Guide to Practices for Meteorological Offices Serving Aviation (WMO-No. 732).
ICAO DOCUMENTS
Annexes to the Convention

• Annex 1 – Personnel licensing
• Annex 2 – Rules of the Air
• Annex 3 – Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation
• Annex 4 – Aeronautical Charts
• Annex 5 – Units of Measurement to Be Used in Air and Ground Operations
• Annex 6 – Operation of Aircraft
• Annex 7 – Aircraft Nationality and Registration Marks
• Annex 8 – Airworthiness of Aircraft
• Annex 9 – Facilitation
ICAO DOCUMENTS
Annexes to the Convention
• Annex 10 – Aeronautical Telecommunications
• Annex 11 – Air Traffic Services
• Annex 12 – Search and Rescue
• Annex 13 – Aircraft Accident and Incident Investigation
• Annex 14 – Aerodromes
• Annex 15 – Aeronautical Information Services
• Annex 16 – Environmental Protection
• Annex 17 – Security: Safeguarding International Civil Aviation Against Acts
of Unlawful Interference
• Annex 18 – The Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air
ICAO DOCUMENTS
For aviation meteorology purposed ,the main ICAO
document is ANNEX 3, Meteorological Service for
International Air Navigation, Part I : Core SARPs and
Part II : Appendices and Attachments.
• The main ICAO document on the provisions of

meteorological (MET) service for international air
navigation.
• Contains the Standards and Recommended

Practices (SARPs) for the provision of MET service
– global requirements, to be followed by all
Contracting States.
• Current edition – Twentieth Edition, July 2018.
• Amendments to Annex 3 – three-year cycle.

RELEVANT ICAO DOCUMENTS OF A SPECIFICALLY METEOROLOGICAL
NATURE
ICAO DETAILS
DOCUMENTS
Facilities and The requirements for facilities and services (including meteorology) in the
Services various ICAO regions.
Implementati • Africa-Indian Ocean Region(Doc 7474)
on Document • Asia and Pacific Regions(Doc 9673)
(FASID) • Caribbean and South American Regions(Doc 8733)
• European Region(Doc 7754)
• Middle East Region(Doc 9708)
• North Atlantic, North American and Pacific Regions(Doc 8755) (out of date)
• North Atlantic Region(Doc 9634)
NATURE
ICAO DETAILS
DOCUMENTS
Manuals Doc 7488 -Manual of the ICAO Standard Atmosphere (extended to 80 kilometres (262 500 ft)
Doc 9328 -Manual of Runway Visual Range Observing and Reporting Practices
Doc 9377 -Manual on Coordination between Air Traffic Services, Aeronautical Information
Services and Aeronautical Meteorological Services
Doc 9691 - Manual on Volcanic Ash, Radioactive Material and Toxic Chemical Clouds
Doc 9817 - Manual on Low-level Wind Shear
Doc 9837 - Manual on Automatic Meteorological Observing Systems at Aerodromes
Doc 9873 -Manual on the Quality Management System for the Provision of Meteorological
Service for International Air Navigation (published jointly with WMO)
NATURE
ICAO DETAILS
DOCUMENTS
Regional Regional SIGMET guides; the ROBEX system; the AMBEX system;
Guides catalogue of information available in international OPMET
databanks etc.
Portal PMPN
• http://211.24.195.134/
RUMUSAN
 Meteorological Service for Air Navigation terdiri daripada komponen:
 AMOs
 MWOs
 AMSs
 WAFCs
 TCACs
 VAACs
 State volcano observatories
 Setiap komponen yang ditetapkan oleh ICAO dan tertakluk pada piawaian
WMO bertanggungjawan menyediakan perkhidmatan meteorologi untuk
operasi & perancangan bidang penerbangan.
SUHAILY SAHAT
References
-Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice,
Doc 8896, AN/893, Twelfth (12th) Edition, 2010.
-Annex 3 to the Convention on International Civil
Aviation, Meteorological Service for International Air
Navigation, twentieth (20th) Edition, July 2018.
-Aerodrome Reports and Forecasts, A Users’
Handbook to the Codes, WMO-No.782
-Technical Regulations, Basic Documents No.2,
Volume II-Meteorological Service for International
Air Navigation, WMO-No.49, 2016 edition
-ICAO Abbreviations and Codes, Doc 8400, Ninth
Edition,2016
- http://aip.dca.gov.my
AWOS REAL TIME DATA DISPLAY
METEOROLOGICAL
OBSERVATIONS AND REPORTS
• Meteorological observations are made by instruments
and visual estimation
• It is used for landing and takeoff, en-route navigation and
as basis for forecasting.
• Meteorological observation used for aircraft operation
are called “operational meteorological (OPMET)
information”.
• While it used for forecasting purpose are considered to
be “ basic meteorological data”
• Operational meteorological (OPMET) information
• Aerodrome reports (METAR, SPECI)
• Landing forecasts, (TREND Forecast)
• Aerodrome forecast, (TAF) used for aircraft
• Aircraft Reports, (AIREP SPECIAL) operations
• SIGMET and AIRMET information,
• Tropical cyclone and volcanic ach advisories
• WAFS forecast. (SIGWX Chart..)
• Basic meteorological data

• Synoptic surface and upper-air observations
• Satellite images used for
• Weather radar observations forecasting
• Routine aircraft observations
OPMET data types and its WMO Data Type Designator
Aerodrome Observation and Reports
Dissemination and used AT the
aerodrome of origin
 Local routine report (MET REPORT) For aircraft about to land or take off,
 Local special report (SPECIAL)
including requirement for automatic
terminal information service (ATIS)
Dissemination and used

BEYOND the aerodrome origin
• Aerodrome routine meteorological report (METAR) For flight planning and en-route flight
• Aerodrome special meteorological reports (SPECI) information service purposes,
Including requirements for

meteorological information for aircraft
in flight (VOLMET)
Aerodrome Observation and Reports
• Routine observations and reports (MET REPORT &

METAR) are made an issue at hourly or half hourly
intervals
• Special observations and reports (SPECIAL
& SPECI)
are made and issue whenever such changes occur
between routine observations.
Local Routine/Special Meteorological Report
(MET REPORT & SPECIAL REPORT)
MET REPORT - Code name for Local Routine Meteorological Report.
SPECIAL - Code name for Local Special Meteorological Report.
Both Reports may have a TREND forecast appended

Aerodrome Routine/Special Meteorological Report
(METAR & SPECI)
METAR - Code name for Aerodrome Routine

Meteorological Report.
SPECI - Code name for Aerodrome Special

Meteorological Report.
Both Reports may have a TREND forecast appended

METAR & SPECI Weather phenomena within 8 to 16km
• SPECI WMKJ 010935Z VRB02KT 2000 RA FEW006 FEW016CB SCT018 BKN280

28/26 Q1006 RMK 1 CB E AND SE-NW F92 R84 tlo SW AND NW=
• METAR WMKI 010900Z VRB02KT 9999 TS FEW017CB SCT140 BKN280 31/24
Q1006 RMK 1 CB S+NE F17 P0.0 R63 jtl NE, jp N=
• METAR WMSA 010900Z 30007KT 280V340 9999 FEW017CB SCT140 BKN270
32/24 Q1006 RMK 1 CB N-NE+E-SE F05 P0.0 R61=
• METAR WMKP 010900Z 08006KT 030V120 9999 TS FEW017CB SCT018 BKN280
29/26 Q1006 RMK 1 CB N AND S-SW AND NW F17 P0.0 R82 jtl S jp N AND S-SW
AND NW=
• SPECI WMKN 010847Z VRB02KT 9999 TS FEW017CB SCT140 BKN280 31/24
Q1007 RMK 1 CB NE-NW+SW F17 R64 jtl NE=
• SPECI WMAU 010840Z 05010KT 010V070 9999 TS FEW017CB SCT018 BKN280
30/26 Q1005 RMK 1 CB N AND S-SW AND NW F17 R79 jtl S jp N AND S-SW SND
NW=
• METAR WMKK 010500Z 27012KT 210V310 8000 FEW017CB SCT018 BKN280
29/24 Q1010 TEMPO 5000 TSRA RMK 1 CB SW-NNE F15 P0.0 R72 JP SW-N Z
A/R=
• SPECI WMKK 010508Z 28013KT 240V320 1500 +SHRA FEW017CB SCT018
BKN270 27/24 Q1011 TEMPO 3000 +TSRA RMK 1 CB SW-NNE F82 R78=
• METAR COR WMKK 010530Z 28007KT 230V340 5000 -SHRA FEW017CB
SCT018 BKN270 26/24 Q1010 RETSRA BECMG 8000 -RA=
 TREND forecast: forecast covering a period of 2hr from the time of observation, and this
information is the Forecaster’s best estimate of its likely occurrence.
DIFFERENCE FORMAT
OF LOCAL REPORT AND
AERODROME REPORT
Identification of the type report.
• MET REPORT – Local Routine Report
• METAR – Aerodrome Routine Report
• In the event of an error being dissemination in METAR should be issued

using the entry METAR COR in place of METAR.
Location indicator
• CCCC – ICAO four –letter location indicator for the aerodrome report are
made
• Note: The indicators are prescribed in Doc 7910 – Location indicators
• Example indicator: WMKK, WMKJ, WBKK, WBGG, WBKS, WMAP
Time of observation
• YYGGggZ – is the day and time of the report, day of the month and time in
hours and minute (in Coordinated Universal Time, UTC), use in both report.
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)
• Coordinated Universal Time (or UTC) is the primary time
standard by which the world regulates clocks and time.
UTC = 0000Z Local Time 0800 AM
UTC = 1200Z Local Time 0800 PM
For example= 1300UTC = 0900 PM

Identification of an automated or a
missing report
• AUTO or NIL
• NIL in METAR only.
• In the case of local routine reports and METAR from automatic systems with no
human intervention, the report is to be identified with “AUTO”.
• In the event of missing METAR, the abbreviation “NIL” should be used
Surface wind
• WIND 240/5MPS or WIND 240/10KT – Local routine report : Surface wind speed
and direction condition of the touchdown zone along the runway
• When wind observation are available from more than one runway in use, the indication of
the relevant runway should also be attached to the wind data in local routine reports. (refer
next Table 1)
• In local routine report, surface wind should be based an averaging periods of two
minutes
Direction of wind (in both reports)
TDZ
MID
POINT
END
POINT
TABLE 1
Runway Markings
Surface wind
• 24004MPS or 24010KT - METAR: Surface wind observations included in the
METAR should be representative of the whole runway complex at the aerodrome,
an no indication of the runway or runway sections should be included therein.
• In METAR, surface wind should be based on an averaging period of ten minutes.
Calm wind and wind above 100KT
• Calm wind is wind speed of less than o.5m/s (1kt) is observed.
• CALM – MET REPORT
• 00000KT - METAR
• When the wind speed is observed above 100KT,

• ABV49MPS or ABV99KT – MET REPORT
• 120P99 ( wind blow from east-southeast with wind speed of above 100KT) -
METAR
Significant speed and directional
variations
• When the wind direction varies by 60° or more and when:
1. The mean speed is 1.5m/s (3kt) or more and the wind direction varies by less than
180°:
2. The mean speed is less than 1.5m/s (3kt) and the wind direction varies by less than
180°:
3. The wind direction varies by 180° or more:

Format of direction variations
VRB BTN 020/

AND 250/05KT
250/05KT
VRB/02KT
250/08KT VRB/10KT
VRB02KT
25008KT VRB07KT
Format of speed variations
250/26KT
MAX35 MNM 10
250/12KT
25012KT 25012G30KT
Wind Gust
• In local routine reports: maximum and minimum values of the wind speed, after
indication of the mean wind direction and speed.
• In METAR :maximum value of the wind speed, after indication of the mean wind
direction and speed and preceded by the letter indicator G (for gusts).
Visibility
• Visibility may be purposed by a human observer or measured by instruments
• In local routine report used for:
• Departing aircraft, the visibility observation should be representative of the
conditions along the runway; and
• Arriving aircraft, the visibility observations should be representative of the
touchdown zone.
Departing Aircraft Arriving Aircraft

Visibility
Local routine report
• When instrument system are used, the averaging period should one minute for
local routine report.
• Visibility along the runway(s) is reported with the units of measurement.
“VIS 600M”
• When more than one runway in use and more than one location along
then runway. “VIS RWY 19 TDZ 6KM”
Visibility
METAR report
• In METAR, visibility observation should be representative of the aerodrome. In such
observations, special attention should be paid to significant directional variations in
visibility.
• VVVV indicates the prevailing visibility in meters
• 9999 would indicate a visibility of 10 KM or more.
• 0000 would indicate a visibility is less than 50 meter.
• In local routine and METAR, visibility is reported in steps of:
1. 50M when visibility is less than 800M;
2. 100M when visibility is 800M or more but less than 5km;
3. 1km when visibility is 5km or more but less than 10km;
4. When visibility is more than 10km, it is given as 10km.
5. Use of CAVOK:
a. Visibility is 10km or more;
b. There is no cloud below 1500m (5000ft) or below the highest minimum sector
altitude, whichever is greater and no cumulonimbus;
c. There is no significant weather phenomenon.
MET REPORT YUDO* 221630Z WIND 240/5MPS (240/10KT) VIS 600M RVR RWY 12 TDZ
1000M MOD DZ FG CLD SCT 300M OVC 600M T17 DP16 QNH 1018HPA
METAR YUDO* 221630Z 24004MPS (24010KT) 0800 R12/1000U DZ FG SCT010 OVC020

17/16 Q1018=
MET REPORT
• VIS 600M = visibility 600 metre along the runway
• RVR 12 TDZ 1000M = runway visual range of the touchdown zone for runway 12 is 1000M.
METAR
• 0800 R12/1000U = prevailing visibility 800M and runway visual range have shown an upward
tendency during the previous 10 minutes
RDRDR/VRVRVRVRi
i=U: when the runway visual range (RVR) has increased during the 10 min preceding the observation;
i=D: when the RVR has decreased;
i=N: no distinct change in RVR
When it is not possible to determine a tendency, i is omitted.
RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE (RVR)
Visibility sensor (KLIA &
klia2) located at 9 location
at R32R, R32L and RWY33
AWOS REAL TIME DATA DISPLAY
( RVR)
Visibility – Runway Visual Range (RVR)
Local routine report (MET REPORT) Aerodrome Report (METAR)
Should be reported whenever visibility or RVR is less than 1500M

 Reported in meters with indication of unit,  Reported in meters with indication of unit,
and runway(s) and runway(s)
a) RVR RWY 20: 500M RVR RWY 26: 800M RDRDR/VRVRVRVR
Meaning: (RVR runway 20: 500 metres, RVR a) R12/1000
runway 26: 800 metres)
Meaning: (RVR runway 12: 1000 metres)
b) RVR RWY 16 TDZ 600M MID 500M END
400M b) R33/800 R32L/600
Meaning: (RVR runway 16 at the touchdown zone Meaning: (RVR runway 33: 800 metres, runway
600 metres, at the mid point 500 metres , at end 32 left : 600 metres)
point 400 metres)
Visibility – Runway Visual Range (RVR)
Local routine report (MET REPORT) Aerodrome Report (METAR)
Should be reported whenever visibility or RVR is less than 1500M
 When RVR is above the maximum value that  M and P indicates minimum and
can be determined by the system in use,it is maximum values
reported in the form:
a) R32/M0050
a) RVR RWY ABV 1200M
Meaning: 1200 metres the maximum value of that Meaning: RVR runway 32 is less than
system and below minimum (150M) for that 50 metres (the minimum value can be reported)
system
b)RVR RWY BLW 150M

Meaning: 150 metres is the below minimum for
that system
Format of Local routine report for visibility
Source: Manual
Aeronautical
Meteorological
Practices
Doc 8896
Present Weather
• As a minimum, the following weather phenomena are to be identified and reported.
a) Rain, drizzle or snow (and its intensity)
b) Freezing precipitation (and its intensity)
c) Haze, mist and fog
d) Freezing fog
e) Thunderstorms (also those occurring in the vicinity)
• In local routine reports, present weather information should be representative of conditions at

the aerodrome. (within radius of approximately 8 km of the aerodrome reference point).
• In METAR present weather -> representative conditions at the aerodrome AND certain specified
present weather phenomena in its VICINITY.
• METAR radius approximately 8km and 16 km of aerodrome reference point.
Present Weather
• Present weather phenomena are reported in terms of types and characteristics and are
qualified with respect to intensity.
• One or more, up to three (3) of the present weather can be reported.
LOCAL ROUTINE REPORT METAR
HVY TSRA +TSRA

Where two(2) different types of weather are
HVY DZ FG +DZ FG / -DZ VCFG observed, they are to be reported in two
separates groups
MOD TSRASN / FBL SNRA FG TSRASN / -SNRA FG Difference type of precipitation occurring at the
time of observation are to be reported as a
RED: intensity single group with the dominant type of
BLACK: characteristic precipitation reported first.
BLUE: type of weather phenomena
GREEN: when two (2) different types of weather are observed Preceded by only one intensity qualifier
which refers to the intensity of the
total precipitation.
Cloud
• In local routine reports -> representative of the runway threshold(s) in use.
• In METAR -> representative of the aerodrome within radius of approximately 16km.
• Height of cloud base is reported in steps 30m(100ft) up to 3000m(10 000ft)
• The first 3 indicate cloud amount with
 1/8 to 2/8 reported as FEW
 3/8 to 4/8 reported as SCT
 5/8 to 7/8 reported as BKN
 8/8 reported as OVC
• CB and/or TCU clouds independently of their heights of the cloud base, whenever observed
and not reported in previous parts of the report.
Air Temperature / Dew Point
• In Local routine report - Air temperature and dew point should representative the whole runway.
• Round up value to higher and lower temperature if involving 0.5°C.
• Example: T30 DP24
• For temperature below 0°C, the value is preceded by MS(minus), e.g. TMS8.
• In METAR - Air temperature and dew point should representative of the aerodrome
• T’T’/T’dTd
• T’T’ indicates the temperature rounded to the nearest whole degree Celsius.
• T’dT’d indicates the dew point temperature rounded to the nearest whole degree Celsius.
• Example: 31/25
• For temperature below 0°C, the value is preceded by M (Minus), e.g. 06/M02
Atmospheric Pressure
• QNH is altimeter showing aerodrome elevation when the aircraft is on the ground
and the QNH is set on the altimeter subscale
• QFE is the altimeter is showing zero elevation when the aircraft is on the ground
and QFE is set on the altimeter subscale.
• QFE is normally used in only at the aerodrome where it is provided on request or
by local agreement
• Only QNH is included in METAR, QFE is used only in local routine report
Pressure QNH
• In Local routine report
• The group starts with the letter Q followed by 4 figures
• Example:
QFE 995.6 = QFE 0995HPA or
QFE RWY 18 0995HPA
• In METAR
• Example: Q1011 = pressure QNH is 1011 hPa
Supplementary information
• Local routine may also include available supplementary information on significant
meteorological conditions, particularly those in the approach or climb-out area.
SUMMARY
METAR/SPECI MET REPORT
Surface Wind Representative of Representative of conditions along
conditions above the whole runway the Runway
Visibility Representative of the Representative of conditions along
aerodrome. the runway
RVR Representative of conditions along Representative of conditions along
the runway the runway
Present Weather Representative of conditions at the Representative of conditions at the
aerodrome aerodrome
Cloud Representative of the aerodrome Representative of the
and its vicinity runway threshold(s) in use.
Air Temperature & Dew- Representative of the whole runway complex
Point
Atmospheric Pressure -
-direction -improving/deteriorating, changes to,
-speed Wind Visibility or passes through one or more of
-gusts the following values
-changes through value *800M, 1500M or 3000M
of operational significant *5000M, in cases where significant
*change in runway(s) in use numbers of flights are operated in
*tailwind and crosswind accordance with visual flight rules
components
SPECI
criteria RVR
Others
-based on local aerodrome -improving/deteriorating, changes to,
operating minima, as agreed by the or passes through one or more of
meteorological authority and ATS the following values
authority *50M, 175M, 300M, 550M or 800M
Cloud
-changes in height of cloud base Weather

*(100,200,500 and 1000)ft
-changes of cloud below 1500ft
*SCT or less->BKN/OVC
*BKN/OVC-> SCT or less
Example of Local Routine Report (MET REPORT)
and Aerodrome Routine Report (METAR)
MET REPORT WBKK 020330Z WIND 240/8KT VIS 600M RVR RWY 02 TDZ
1000M MOD RA FG CLD SCT 300M OVC 600M T17 DP16 QNH 1018HPA
TREND BECMG TL1700 VIS 800M FG BECMG AT1800 VIS 10KM NSW
METAR WBKK 020330Z 24008KT 0600 R02/1000U RA FG SCT010 OVC020 17/16

Q1018 BECMG TL1700 0800 FG BECMG AT1800 9999 NSW
Routine report for Kota Kinabalu/International* issued on the 02nd of the month at 0330 UTC;
surface wind direction 240 degrees; wind speed 8 knot; visibility (along the runway(s) in the local routine report;
prevailing visibility in METAR) 600 metres; runway visual range representative of the touchdown zone for
runway 02 is 1 000 metres and the runway visual range values have shown an
upward tendency during previous 10 minutes (runway visual range tendency to be included in METAR only);
and moderate drizzle and fog; scattered cloud at 300 metres;
overcast at 600 metres; air temperature 17 degrees Celsius; dew-point temperature 16 degrees Celsius;
QNH 1 018 hectopascals; trend during next 2 hours, visibility (along the runway(s) in the local routine report;
prevailing visibility in METAR) becoming 800 metres in fog by 1700 UTC;
at 1800 UTC visibility (along the runway(s) in the local routine report; prevailing visibility in METAR)
becoming 10 kilometres or more and nil significant weather.
Example of Local special report (SPECIAL) and
Aerodrome special report (SPECI)
SPECIAL WMKK 010830Z WIND 050/25KT MAX37 MNM10 VIS 1200M RVR
RWY 14L ABV 1800M HVY TSRA CLD BKN CB 500FT T25 DP22 QNH
1008HPA TREND TEMPO TL1200 VIS 600M BECMG AT1200 VIS 8KM NSW
NSC
SPECI WMKK 010830Z 05025G37KT 3000 1200NE+TSRA BKN005CB 25/22 Q1008
TEMPO TL1200 0600 BECMG AT1200 8000 NSW NSC
Special report for Kuala Lumpur/International* issued on the 01st of the month at 0830 UTC; surface wind
direction 050 degrees; wind speed 25 knots gusting between 10 and 37 knots (minimum wind speed not
to be included in SPECI) visibility 1 200 metres (along the runway(s) in the local special report);
prevailing visibility 3 000 metres (in SPECI) with minimum visibility 1 200 metres to north east
(directional variations to be included in SPECI only); runway visual range above 1 800 metres on runway
05 (runway visual range not required in SPECI with prevailing visibility of 3 000 metres); thunderstorm
with heavy rain; broken cumulonimbus cloud at 500 feet;
air temperature 25 degrees Celsius; dew-point temperature 22 degrees Celsius; QNH 1 008 hectopascals;
trend during next 2 hours, visibility (along the runway(s) in the local special report; prevailing visibility in
SPECI)
temporarily 600 metres from 1115 to 1200, becoming at 1200 UTC visibility (along the runway(s) in the
local special report; prevailing visibility in SPECI) 8 kilometres, thunderstorm ceases and nil significant
weather and nil significant cloud.
End
SUHAILY SAHAT
OBJECTIVES OF THIS PRESENTATION
After this presentation you will be able to:
• Understand the TAF format
• Write a TAF in accordance with ICAO Annex 3, WMO-No.49,

regional and national formats, codes and technical regulations on
content, accuracy and timeliness.
• Focus on significant weather changes according to SPECI

conditions when writing your TAFs
• Asses whether a TAF needs to be amended while monitoring

current weather conditions
2
 TAF is the name of the code for an aerodrome forecast.
 TAF shall be prepared, in accordance with regional air navigation

agreement, by the aerodrome meteorological office designated by
the meteorological authority concerned.
 Note.— The aerodromes for which aerodrome forecasts are to be prepared

and the period of validity of these forecasts are listed in the relevant
facilities and services implementation document (FASID).
 TAF shall be issued at a specified time not earlier than one hour
prior to the beginning of its validity period and consist of a concise
statement of the expected meteorological conditions at an
aerodrome for a specified period.
C - Requirement for 9-hour validity aerodrome forecasts in TAF code (9H)
T - Requirement for 18/24-hour validity aerodrome forecasts in TAF code (18/24H)
X - Requirement for 30-hour validity aerodrome forecasts in TAF code (30H)
 TAF’s coding system is very similar with METAR’s coding
system. Many of the coding groups identical in both the
METAR and TAF.
 As basis, TAF reports can transmit in short and long period.
Aerodrome
Forecast (TAF) • Short period TAF (9 -12 hours)
are issued every 3 hours
• Long period TAF (18-30 hours)

Short Period TAF Long Period TAF
issued every 6 hours
Reports Reports
(9-12 hours) ( 12-30hours)
OPMET data types and its WMO Data Type Designator
 TAF shall be issued in accordance with the template shown in
Table A5-1(Annex III) and disseminated in the TAF code form
prescribed by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).
◦ Note.— The TAF code form is contained in the Manual on Codes(WMO-No. 306), Volume
I.1, Part A — Alphanumeric Codes.
 Key:
M = inclusion mandatory, part of every message;
C = inclusion conditional, dependent on meteorological conditions or
method of observation;
O = inclusion optional.
TAF FORMAT
Identification
Groups
T
H
E
A Body of
V Vertical
visibility
TAF
I
A
No Significant
Weather
(forecast)
T
I
O Probability and significant change groups
N
T
A
F
C
O Vertical
D visibility
No Significant
E Weather
FM 51-XV TAF (FM SYSTEM OF NUMBERING CODE FORMS by Manual on Codes Vol. I.1 WMO Technical Regulations
9
TAF contains specific information:
• IDENTIFICATION GROUPS (M)
1. TAF message indicator
2. Location indicator, (ICAO locator)
3. Time of issue
4. Time of validity
• FORECAST (BODY OF TAF)

5. Surface wind (M)
6. Prevailing visibility(M)
7. Weather (C)
8. Cloud (M)
9. Temperature (O)
10. Expected significant changes (C)
TAF FORMAT-EXAMPLE
TAF FAGG 150500Z 1506/1612 24008KT 9999 FEW017CB SCT025 TEMPO

1508/1512 20008G18KT 3000 TSRA FEW008 FEW017CB SCT030 BECMG
1511/1513 08005KT TX20/2312Z TN1/2307Z=
1) TAF Message indicator

2) ICAO LOCATOR
IDENDIFICATION GROUPS
3) Time of issue
4) Time of validity
5) Forecast (Body of TAF) which includes prevailing base conditions and
significant change/conditional change groups from the base conditions.
TAF FORMAT: IDENTIFICATION GROUP
3. Time of issue
4. Time of validity

5. Surface wind (M)
7. Weather (C)
8. Cloud (M)
9. Temperature (O)
Identification Group :
1. TAF Message Indicator
• A TAF can be either
a) routine Aerodrome forecast (TAF)
b) Amended Aerodrome forecast (TAF AMD) or
c) Correction Aerodrome forecast (TAF COR)
a) Routine TAF (TAF)

• As personal normal issuance
• validity of TAF not less than 6 hours and not more 30 hours
• TAF valid less than 12 hours should be issued every 3 hours
• TAF valid for 12 to 30 hours should be issued every 6 hours
TAF WMKK 150500Z 1506/1612 24008KT 9999 FEW017CB SCT025 TEMPO
1508/1512 20008G18KT 3000 TSRA FEW008 FEW017CB SCT030 BECMG 1511/1513
08005KT FEW020=
b) Amended TAF (TAF AMD)
• Issued if there is any change to the original TAF because the previous
version is no longer representative of the current or expected
weather
• Date and time will be updated as well
TAF AMD WMKK 150710Z 1507/1612 24008KT 9999 FEW017CB SCT025 TEMPO
1507/1511 20008G18KT 1000 +TSRA FEW008 FEW017CB SCT030 BECMG
1511/1513 08005KT FEW020=
C) Correction TAF (TAF COR)
• issued if there is a mistake in the original TAF , it is not a forecast
change.
• TAF COR should be sent immediately after an error.
1508/1512 20008G18KT 3000 TSRA FEW008 FEW017CN SCT030 BECMG 1511/1513
08005KT FEW020=
TAF COR WMKK 150518Z 1506/1612 24008KT 9999 FEW017CB SCT025 TEMPO
08005KT FEW020=
d) Cancellation of TAF (CNL)
• Is a cancelled TAF TAF WMKK 150500Z 1506/1612 CNL=
e) NIL
• That forecast of TAF will not be issued
TAF WMKK 150500Z 1506/1612 NIL=
• (Missing forecast)
f) Provision TAF (PROV TAF)
• Provisional forecast to be prepared when TAF is not available after trying
• various sources.
• There should be an indication to the flight crew that the TAF is provisional
3. Time of issue
4. Time of validity

5. Surface wind (M)
7. Weather (C)
8. Cloud (M)
9. Temperature (O)
2. Location Indicator
• CCCC – ICAO four –letter location indicator for the aerodrome
forecast are issue.
• When the same forecast in a TAF bulletin applies to more
than one aerodrome, a separate forecast shall be issued for
each aerodrome concerned. Only one indicator CCCC shall
prefix each coded forecast.
• e.g. FALE Location indicator for King Shaka Airport.
• TAF FALE 191000Z 1912/2018 CNL=
08005KT FEW020=
3. Time of issue
4. Time of validity

5. Surface wind (M)
7. Weather (C)
8. Cloud (M)
9. Temperature (O)
Identification Group:
3. Time of issue
• Group YYGGggZ
• YY - representing the day of the month
• GGgg – Time of issue in in UTC/Z time
• A routine aerodrome forecast shall be issued at a specified time not
earlier than one hour prior to the beginning of its validity period.
• For Example:
 TAF WMKD 022300Z …
 TAF WMKP 020500Z ….
 TAF WMKC 021100Z ….
 TAF AMD WBKK 030130Z …
 TAF COR WBGG 022330Z ….
08005KT FEW020=
3. Time of issue
4. Time of validity

5. Surface wind (M)
7. Weather (C)
8. Cloud (M)
9. Temperature (O)
Identification Group:
4. Time of validity
• The forecast shall cover the period Y1Y1G1G1 to Y2Y2G2G2.
• Y1Y1G1G1 indicates a day of the month and the time of the beginning of the forecast
period.
• G2G2 indicates the end of the period of validity.
• Remember to include the day of the month as well as the time in UTC/Z.
• Validity period is per regional air navigation agreement but must be between 6 and 30
hours inclusive.
• Routine TAF valid for less than 12 hours should be issued every 3 hours and those valid
for 12 to 30 hours should be issued every 6 hours.
Long term (FT TAFS, 24hour-30hour)
 Short term (FC TAF, 6 to 11 hours)
• In Malaysia, AMO issue 2 types of TAF
a. 30 hours validity TAF (WMKK)
b. 24 hours validity TAF ( other AMO)
Examples:
30 hours validity period 24 hours validity period
TAF WMKK 022300Z 0300/0406 TAF WMKD 022300Z 0300/0400
TAF WMKK 030500Z 0306/0412 TAF WMKP 030500Z 0306/0406
TAF WMKK 031100Z 0312/0417 TAF WMKC 031100Z 0312/0412
TAF WMKK 031700Z 0318/0500 TAF WBGG 031700Z 0318/0418
TAF AMD WMKK 030330Z 0304/0406

TAF AMD WBKK 030325Z 0303/0324
TAF COR WBGG 022330Z 0300/0400
TAF Format:
Forecast (Body of TAF)
Forecast (Body of TAF)
• The description of forecast conditions shall contain at least
information about wind, visibility, weather and cloud or vertical
visibility.
• Additional information included in the aerodrome forecast in
accordance with regional air navigation agreement is the maximum and
minimum temperatures expected to occur during period of validity of the
forecast
• Change Groups and Conditional change groups (This is the forecast
part of the TAF where NWP/RADAR/SAT and experience provide
guidance)
08005KT FEW020=
3. Time of issue
4. Time of validity

5. Surface wind (M)
7. Weather (C)
8. Cloud (M)
9. Temperature (O)
Forecast :
5. Surface Wind
• Wind direction and speed.
• WMO code form: dddffKT- The mean direction and speed
of the forecast wind shall be indicated by dddff
immediately followed, without a space, by one of the letter code
indicators KT or MPS, as the case may be.
-ddd: mean wind direction
- ff: mean wind speed
• Examples: 31010KT, 12005KT, 13005MPS
-TAF WMKK 150500Z 1506/1612 24008KT 9999 FEW017CB SCT025 TEMPO
08005KT FEW020=
Forecast :
5. Surface Wind
• Wind direction speed and maximum speed
• WMO code form: dddffGfmfmKT or MPS
• Examples: 27010G25KT , 26006G10MPS)
- if the wind is expected to be gusty and the maximum gust speed
likely to exceed the mean speed by 20 km/h (10 kt, 5 m/s) or more,
this gust must be indicated using the letter G directly after the
mean speed, followed by the gust speed.
08005KT FEW020=
Forecast :
5. Surface Wind
• Variable wind (VRB) is used only when the mean wind speed is
less than 6 km/h (3 kt, 2 m/s).
• WMO code form: VRBffKT or MPS (e.g. VRB02KT
Example: VRB02KT
• VRB for higher wind speeds shall be used only when the variation of
wind direction is 180° or more, or when it is impossible to forecast a
single wind direction, for example during a thunderstorm
Examples: VRB10KT,
• Wind Calm – 00000KT or MPS
08005KT FEW020=
3. Time of issue
4. Time of validity

5. Surface wind (M)
7. Weather (C)
8. Cloud (M)
9. Temperature (O)
Forecast :
6. Visibility
Forecast prevailing visibility is encoded as a four-figure group.
 Note: The coding of visibility is based on the use of the metre and kilometre, in accordance with
the units specified in ICAO Annex 5.
WMO code form: VVVV

As with the METAR code, the figures are the expected values in metres, except
that 9999 indicates a prevailing visibility of 10 km or greater.
Example: A forecast prevailing visibility of 8 km is indicated as 8000.
When the prevailing visibility cannot be forecast, the lowest forecast
visibility shall be used.

08005KT FEW020=
Forecast :
6. Visibility
The code word CAVOK (WMO code form) is used to replace the
visibility, present weather and cloud groups when the three following
conditions are simultaneously met:
i. Visibility is 10 km or more;
ii. There is no cloud below 1 500 m (5 000 ft) or below the highest minimum
sector altitude, whichever is greater, and no CB and TCU;
iii. There is no significant weather phenomenon as contained in code table 4678
of the Manual on Codes (WMO-No. 306), Volume I.1, Part A

08005KT FEW020=
3. Time of issue
4. Time of validity

5. Surface wind (M)
7. Weather (C)
8. Cloud (M)
9. Temperature (O)
Forecast :
7. Weather Phenomena
• WMO code form: w’w’ or NSW
• Note 1.— Table A1-2, Forecast weather (w'w') decoding and phraseology, applies.
• Note 2.— Up to a maximum of three groups of forecast weather from the table, or suitable
combinations thereof, including relevant characteristics and intensities may be forecast.
• One group of w'w' includes:
1. a forecast weather phenomenon or a suitable combination of weather phenomena in
terms of types of precipitation;
2. a characteristic of a relevant forecast weather phenomena,as appropriate; and
3. an intensity, if appropriate.
• Using the appropriate abbreviations given in code table 4678.

Manual on Codes (WMO-No. 306),
Volume I.1
Forecast :
7. Weather Phenomena
• NSW- used to indicate the expected end of the occurrence of a

aspecific forecast weather when CAVOK forecast condition do not
apply
NSW = Nil Significant Weather
TAF WMKK 150500Z 1506/1612 24008KT 3000 TSRA FEW010 FEW017CB SCT025
BECMG 1511/1513 9999 NSW FEW020=
Examples: Weather Phenomena
Sources: Manual on Coordination
between Air Traffic Services,
Aeronautical Information
Services and Aeronautical
Meteorological Services, Doc 9377
3. Time of issue
4. Time of validity

5. Surface wind (M)
7. Weather (C)
8. Cloud (M)
9. Temperature (O)
Forecast :
8. Cloud
• WMO code form: NsNsNshshshs or VVhshshs or NSC
• Cloud amount and cloud height NsNsNshshshs
• The cloud amount NsNsNsshall be given as
FEW : Few - 1/8 to 2/8
SCT : Scattered – 3/8 to 4/8
BKN : Broken – 5/8 to 7/8
OVC : Overcast – 8/8
• The selection of forecast layers or masses of cloud to be included shall be made in
accordance with the following criteria:
a) 1st group: the lowest individual layer (mass) of any amount, to be indicated as FEW, SCT, BKN or OVC;
b) 2nd group: the next individual layer (mass) covering more than two oktas, to be indicated as SCT, BKN or OVC;
c) 3rd group: the next higher individual layer (mass) covering more than four oktas, to be indicated as BKN or
OVC;
d) Additional groups: Cumulonimbus clouds (CB) and/or towering cumulus clouds when forecast, if not already
included in one of the three groups above.
e) The order of inclusion of the groups shall be from lower to higher levels.

08005KT FEW020=
Forecast :
8. Cloud
• The height of the base of forecast cloud layer (mass) shall be coded in
units of 30 metres (100 ft) in the form hshshs.
• Note.1.— Up to a maximum of three layers of clouds and/or one “layer” of

cumulonimbus (CB for cc) clouds may be forecast in a TAF.
• Note 2.— The cloud information should be limited to clouds of operational
significance, i.e. the clouds below 1 500 m (5 000 ft) or the highest minimum
sector altitude, whichever is greater and CB
• Examples: SCT010 OVC020 , FEW005 FEW010CB SCT018 BKN025
3. Time of issue
4. Time of validity

5. Surface wind (M)
7. Weather (C)
8. Cloud (M)
9. Temperature (O)
Forecast: Temperature
• It gives the expected maximum temperature (TX) and minimum
temperature (TN) and the date and time of occurrence
• Example: TX23/1912ZTN18/1918Z=
• Recommendation.— When forecast temperatures are included in

accordance with regional air navigation agreement, the maximum and
minimum temperatures expected to occur during the period of validity of
the TAF should be given, together with their corresponding times of
occurrence.
• Remember temperature is important because it effects air density and

consequently the length of the runway needed for take off.
44
3. Time of issue
4. Time of validity

5. Surface wind (M)
7. Weather (C)
8. Cloud (M)
9. Temperature (O)
10. Expected significant changes (C) – BECMG, TEMPO, FM AND PROB
Change Groups : Becoming (BECMG)
• The change indicator “BECMG” (becoming) and the associated time
group should be used to describe changes where the
meteorological conditions are expected to reach or pass through
specified threshold values at a regular or irregular rate and at an
unspecified time during the time period.
• The time period should normally not exceed 2 hours but in any case
should not exceed 4 hours.
• e.g. BECMG 1909/1911 BKN030: Condition is expected to change

at some time between the 09Z and 11Z to a broken cloud at 3000ft
and this condition will prevail until any further change expected and
this will be indicated by another set of change group or again
BECMG.
46
EXAMPLE
• TAF LTBA 130500Z 1306/1406 31015KT 8000 –SHRA SCT010
BKN018 BECMG 1309/1311 5000 –RA=
• Meaning: TAF indicates that at some time between the 0900 UTC
and 1100 UTC, but definitely by 1100 UTC on the 13th of the month
the prevailing conditions will give 5000 meters visibility, in light rain.
There is no new wind information after BECMG, so the implication is
that the wind will be as previously forecast: 310 degree at 15 knots.
• The code BECMG, marks a permanent change in the forecast

weather, but which will establish itself more gradually than weather
conditions introduced by the code FM.
Change Group : From (FM)
• FM (abbreviation for ‘from’) is used to indicate self-contained time
period within the overall validity periods during which certain
condition prevail.
• Using the abbreviation “FM” followed immediately by date and a four-
figure time group in whole hours and minutes UTC indicating
• Example: FM0230 13010KT 9999 BKN020
• The FM indicator introduces what is effectively a new forecast.

• When FM is used the TAF starts all over again and the order of a TAF
should be followed
48
EXAMPLE
BKN018 FM131220 27017KT 4000 BKN010=
• Meaning:
-we read that from 1220Z on the 13th of the month until the end of
the TAF period, the wind will change to be 270 degree at 17
knots, with a prevailing visibility of 4000 metres, and broken
cloud at 1000 feet.
Conditional Change Group Terms: TEMPO
• The code TEMPO introduces a temporary change in weather conditions,
expected to last for less than one hour.
• Changes will occur at any time within the specified time period, but it is
expected to less than one hour each time, and, in aggregate, will last no
longer than half time the time period of complete forecast.
• The TEMPO indicator is followed by a 4-digit time group indicating the
hours between which the temporary conditions are expected to begin and
end.
• It is therefore advisable that all convective precipitation be put under TEMPO
(Showers and thundershowers) since it is temporary except for continuous rain
resulting from Nimbostratus cloud.
• Example: TEMPO 2115/2118 250G45KT, TEMPO 0518/0520 1000 +TSRA
50
EXAMPLE
• TAF LTBA 130600Z 1307/1316 31015KT 8000 KT –SHRA
SCT010 BKN018 TEMPO 1312/1314 4000 TSRA BKN010CB=
• At this example, TAF tells us that sometime between 1200 UTC
and 1400 UTC, the visibility will fall 4000 metres, with the
weather being thunderstorms and moderate rain. There will be
5 – 7 oktas of cumulonimbus cloud at 1000 feet. However, after
1400 UTC, the weather will return to the conditions specified in
the first part of message.
Change Group: Probability (PROB)
• The code PROB in a TAF indicates the probability of the occurrence of specified weather
phenomena.
• There is a two type of PROB;
1. PROB30 indicates a low probability of a change occurring.
2. PROB40 indicates a high probability of a change occurring. •
• e.g. PROB40 TEMPO 1915/1918
• The code PROB can be followed by a time group of its own, and/or by an indicator, such
as BECMG or TEMPO.
• Options are PROB30 TEMPO, PROB40 TEMPO, PROB30 BECMG
• A probability of an alternative value or change of 50 per cent or more, for aviation

purposes should not be considered a probability but instead should be indicated, as
necessary, by use of the change indicators “BECMG” or “TEMPO”.
52
EXAMPLES
• TAF WMKK 150500Z 1506/1612 24008KT 9999 FEW017CB
SCT020 TEMPO 1508/1512 20008G18KT 3000 TSRA FEW008
FEW017CB SCT020 PROB30 1520/1522 0800 FG OVC005=
• Meaning: a low probability that, between 2000 UTC and 2200 UTC,
there will be fog with visibility 800 metres, cloud amount 8 okta of low
cloud ( lower clod based 500 ft(150m))

BKN018 PROB40 TEMPO 1014 +TSRAGR SCT005CB=
• Meaning: a high probability that, between 1000 UTC and 1400 UTC,
there will be thunderstorms with heavy rain and hail, and from 3 to 4
oktas of cumulonimbus clouds at 500 feet.
Forecasting significant changes in Surface
Wind and Direction – use BECMG or FM
1. When the mean surface wind direction is forecast to change by 60 degrees or more, the mean
speed before and/or after the change being 5 m/s (10 kt) or more;
2. When the mean surface wind speed is forecast to change by 5 m/s (10 kt) or more;
3. When the variation from the mean surface wind speed (gusts) is forecast to change by 5 m/s
(10 kt) or more, the mean speed before and/or after the change being 7.5 m/s (15 kt) or
more;
4. When the surface wind is forecast to change through values of operational significance, for
example:
• changes that require changes in the runway(s) in use; and
• changes in runway tailwind/crosswind component through values representative of operating limits
of typical aircraft using the aerodrome
Remember surface direction and speed is important because it determines which
runway is used
When these significant changes in wind occur change the wind using BECMG
or FM in the TAF
54
Forecasting significant changes in Visibility
1. When the visibility is forecast to improve and change to, or pass through, one or more
of the following values; or
2. When the visibility is forecast to deteriorate and pass through one or more of the
following values:
150, 350, 600, 800, 1 500 or 3 000 m.
When these significant changes in visibility using TEMPO, BECMG or FM in

the TAF
55
Forecasting significant changes in Weather
1. When any of the following weather phenomena or combinations thereof are forecast to
begin or end or change in intensity:
• freezing fog
• freezing precipitation
• moderate or heavy precipitation (including showers)
• duststorm
• sandstorm
• thunderstorm.
2. When any of the following weather phenomena are forecast to begin or end:
• low drifting dust, sand or snow •
• blowing dust, sand or snow
• squall
• funnel cloud (tornado or waterspout).
When these significant changes in weather change using TEMPO, BECMG or

FM in the TAF 56
Forecasting significant changes in Clouds
1. When the height of base of the lowest layer or mass of cloud of BKN or OVC
extent is forecast to lift and change to, or pass through, one or more of the
following values; or
2. When the height of base of the lowest layer or mass of cloud of BKN or OVC
extent is forecast to lower and pass through one or more of the following values:
30, 60, 150 or 300 m (100, 200, 500 or 1 000 ft).
3. When the amount of a layer or mass of cloud below 450 m (1 500 ft) is forecast
to change:
• from NSC, FEW or SCT to BKN or OVC; or
• from BKN or OVC to NSC, FEW or SCT.
When these significant changes in Cloud change using TEMPO, BECMG or

FM in the TAF 57
AM9: LANDING AND TAKE OFF FORECAST

2 NOVEMBER 2020

Landing Forecast (TREND forecast)
 A landing forecast shall be prepared by the aerodrome meteorological
office.
 Landing forecast shall be prepared in the format of a TREND forecast.
 A TREND forecast consist of a concise statement of the expected significant
changes in the meteorological conditions at that aerodrome to be appended
to a routine or special report (METAR or SPECI).
 The period of validity is 2 hours from the time of the report.
 The significant changes of weather element listed below, when expected
to effect the aerodrome, call for the issuance of TREND forecast;
a. Surface wind
b. Surface visibility
c. weather
d. cloud
Inclusion mandatory, part
Change indicator of every message; Number of
change indicators to be kept
to a minimum, normally not
Period of change exceeding three groups.
Wind
Prevailing visibility
Weather phenomenon: intensity Inclusion conditional,
Weather phenomenon: dependent on
characteristics and meteorological conditions
or method of observation;
 type be included whenever
Cloud amount and height of cloud applicable.
base or vertical visibility
Cloud type
Change indicators in trend forecasts
EXAMPLE : MANDATORY
o (....) NOSIG part of every
message; Number
o (....) BECMG (...) of change indicators
o (....) TEMPO (...) to be kept to a
minimum, normally
not exceeding three
groups.
The following change indicators are appended to METAR or
SPECI :-
NOSIG (No Significant Change)

• Used when no significant changes are expected to occur to the existing
conditions (as per the METAR/SPECI) are expected for the during the TREND
forecast period (following two hours or validity of the METAR/SPECI)
• NOSIG does not mean no significant weather.
Example :
METAR WMKK 060500Z 23003KT 3000 TSRA FEW008 FEW017CB
SCT024 OVC260 24/24 Q1011 NOSIG RMK F95 P34.2 R98 1CB E tlo=
BECMG (BECOMING)
 shall be used to describe forecast changes where the
meteorological conditions are expected to reach or pass through
specified values at a regular or irregular rate.
EXAMPLE :
(....) BECMG FEW020
(....) BECMG 03005KT
(....) BECMG 3000 TSRA
(....) BECMG AT1630 NSW (The cessation of significant
weather at 1630UTC)
TEMPO (Temporary)
 Used to describe forecast temporary fluctuations in the

meteorological conditions which reach or pass specified values and
last for a period of less than 1hr in each instance and in total for
less than half of the forecast period during which the fluctuation are
forecast to occur
 If the temporary fluctuation is expected to last one hour or longer,

the change group “BECMG” should be used or the validity period
should be subdivided
EXAMPLE :
(....) TEMPO 1000 +TSRA
(….) TEMPO FM1030 TL1130
Change indicators, time indicator & period in trend forecasts
The period during

which, or the time at
which, the change is
forecast to occur shall
be indicated, using the
abbreviations “FM”,
“TL” or “AT”, as
appropriate, each by a
time group in hours
and minutes.
Note –
2. To be included whenever
applicable.
BECMG FMnnnn TLnnnn
When a change is forecast both to begin and end within

the TREND forecast period, the beginning and end of
change are indicated by using the abbreviations FM and
TL, respectively, with the associated time groups, for
example, for a TREND forecast period from 1000 to
1200 UTC in the form:
BECMG FM1030 TL1130

BECMG TLnnnn
When the change is forecast to start at the beginning of
the TREND period but to be completed before the end
of that period, only the abbreviation TL and its
associated time group is used to indicate the end of the
change.
Example: The prevailing visibility at observation time is

6 km and is expected to decrease, becoming 3 000 m
in mist until 1100 UTC.
BECMG FMnnnn
When the change is forecast to begin during the TREND

forecast period and to be completed at the end of that
period, the abbreviation FM and its associated time group is
used to indicate the beginning of the change.
BECMG FM1100
BECMG ATnnnn
When the change is forecast to occur at a specific

time during the TREND forecast period, the
abbreviation AT followed by the associated time
group is used to indicate the time of the change.
BECMG AT1100
Becoming (BECMG)
Example 1:
Wind 070° at 5kts, becoming 230° at 10kts:
BECMG 23010KT
Example 2:
Wind 070° at 5kts. From 0110Z, becoming 230° at 10kts:
BECMG FM0110 23010KT
Example 3:
Wind 070° at 5kts. From 0110Z until 0230, becoming
230° at 10kts:
BECMG FM0110 TL0230 23010KT
Example 4: SPECI 0245 4000 TSRA ….
BECMG TL0315 23015G25KT 1500 +TSRA BECMG FM0400 NSW
TEMPO FMnnnn TLnnnn
When the period of temporary fluctuations is forecast to

begin and end within the TREND forecast period, the
beginning and end are indicated by using the
abbreviations FM and TL, respectively, with their
associated time groups, for example, for a TREND
forecast period from 1000 to 1200 UTC, in the form:
TEMPO FM1030 TL1130

TEMPO TLnnnn
When the period of temporary fluctuations is

forecast to start at the beginning of the TREND
period but to finish before the end of that period,
only TL and its time group is used to indicate the
end of the fluctuations.
TEMPO TL1130
TEMPO FMnnnn
When the period of temporary fluctuations is

forecast to begin during the TREND period and to
continue throughout the remainder of the period,
the abbreviation FM and its associated time group
only is used to indicate the beginning of the fl
uctuations.
TEMPO FM1030
TEMPO
Example:
Temporarily from 0115Z to 0245Z, visibility drops to 1500m
due to thunderstorm:
TEMPO FM0115 TL0245 1500 TSRA
This means if a pilot is staying at the airport for the whole

period. He may experience several times of tempo weather
whereby the total time he experiences the change should
not be longer than 45 minutes.
4 Elements – Wind, Vis, Wx, Cloud
NSW NSC
Element 1 - Wind
The trend forecast shall indicate changes in the surface wind which
involve:
a) a change in the mean wind direction of 60° or more, the mean
speed before and/or after the change being 10 kt or more;
b) a change in mean wind speed of 10 kt or more; and
c) A change of wind through values of operational significance.
These values are established following consultation between the air
traffic services authority, the meteorological authority and the
operators concerned.
Example 1:
An expected increase in the wind speed to 35kt with a maximum gust of 50kt sometime during the TREND period
is indicated by:
BECMG 25035G50KT
Example 2: Forecast surface wind 250° 35kt with gusts to 50kt from 1100UTC
BECMG FM1100 25035G50KT
Element 2 - Visibility
Change indicators are used when the prevailing visibility is
expected:
a) To improve and change to or pass through one or more of the
following values:
150, 350, 600, 800, 1 500 and 3 000 m;
b) To deteriorate (become worse) and pass through one or more of
the following values: 150, 350, 600, 800, 1 500 and 3 000 m.
**Depending upon the number of flights conducted in accordance with the visual flight rules, an
additional value of 5000m may be added to the list.
Example 1:
Temporary reductions throughout the TREND forecast period of the prevailing visibility to 740 m
in fog is rounded down to 700 m and indicated by:
TEMPO 0700
Example 2: Becoming after 1100 UTC, surface wind 250° 35kt,gust to 50kt, visibility of 6km
BECMG FM1100 25035G50KT 6000
Significant forecast weather, using the abbreviations as Element 3 –
indicated in Code table 4678, is restricted to the onset,
cessation or change in intensity of the following weather
phenomena:
Weather Phenomena
Example 1:
For a TREND forecast period 0300 and
– Freezing (FZ) precipitation;
0500, a thunderstorm with rain expected
– Freezing fog; between 0300 and 0430 UTC is indicated
– Moderate or heavy precipitation (including showers — by:
SH); TEMPO TL0430 TSRA
– Low drifting (DR) dust, sand or snow;
– Blowing (BL) dust, sand or snow; Example 2:
– Duststorm (DS); No significant weather expected
– Sandstorm (SS);
– Thunderstorm (TS) (with or without precipitation); BECMG FM1100 25035G50KT 6000
NSW
– Squall (SQ);
– Funnel cloud (tornado or waterspout — FC); Example 3:
– Other weather phenomena given in code table 4678
which are expected to cause a significant change in The cessation of significant weather at
visibility. 1630 UTC is indicated by:
BECMG AT1630 NSW
**To indicate the end of the occurrence of significant
weather phenomena, the abbreviation NSW (Nil Significant
Element 4 – Cloud or Vertical Visibility
Significant changes in cloud are indicated when one or more of the following four conditions are expected:
(a) The height of the base of a cloud layer of BKN or OVC extent is below or expected to fall below 1 500 ft
and is forecast to change to or pass any one of the following values:
100, 200, 300, 500, 1 000 and 1 500 ft
Example: A forecast of a lowering of the cloud base to 500 ft starting at the beginning of the TREND period
and ending by 1130 UTC is indicated by:
BECMG TL1130 OVC005
(b) The height of the base of the cloud layer is below, or is expected to fall below 1 500 ft, and the cloud
amount is forecast to change from:
SCT or FEW increasing to BKN or OVC
or
BKN or OVC decreasing to SCT or FEW
Example: A forecast of a rapid increase in stratus cloud at 1130 UTC from SCT to OVC is indicated by:
BECMG AT1130 OVC010
(c) The sky is expected to remain or become obscured, vertical visibility observations are available, and
the forecast indicates changes in vertical visibility to, or passing, any one of the following values:
100, 200 or 500 ft
(d) No significant change in the clouds is expected during the period of the TREND, the cloud groups are
not repeated and therefore no cloud details are given.
Element 4 – Clouds
Note –
2. To be included whenever
applicable.
EXAMPLE OF TREND FORECAST
• METAR WMKK 121200Z 04005KT 350V080 6000 -RA
FEW010 SCT028 BKN270 26/25 Q1008 BECMG 9999
NSW RMK F61 P0.2 R91=
• METAR FAOR 120700Z 01015KT 5000 BR 0VC002 14/13
Q1023 TEMPO 3000=
• METAR WMKK 130730Z VRB05KT 7000 TS VCSH
FEW015CB SCT016 BKN280 31/25 Q1005 TEMPO
FM0810 5000 TSRA RMK 1 CB NW-E F17 R67 JTL N JP
NW-E Z A/R=
Operationally Desirable Accuracy of Forecasts
FORECAST for TAKE OFF
Take off Forecast
 A forecast for take-off shall be prepared by the
AMO/MWO designated by the met authority
concerned as agreed between the met authority &
the operators concerned
 Should contain info on expected conditions over the

runway complex in regard to:
i. Surface Wind Direction and Speed and any
variations thereof
ii. Temperature
iii. Pressure (QNH),
iv. Other elements as agreed locally
 Should be supplied to operators and flight crew MWO Kuala Lumpur issues Take Off Forecasts every
members on request within the 3 hours before the 3hours with added Dew Point Temperature element.
expected time of departure **Updated at 0100UTC, 0400UTC, 0700UTC & etc
Take off Forecast
Surface Wind Surface Temperature

a) Analysis of upper air wind chart & a) Maximum temp. at 0600UTC & Minimum
METARs at 2000-2300UTC
b) Take into account occurrence of b) Take into account occurrence of
precipitation (VRB wind & higher precipitation (lower temp. value) & cloud
wind speed accordingly) cover
Dew Point Temperature

a) Larger range during day (22-24ºC)
compared to night (24-25ºC)
b) Lower during SW monsoon
c) Occurrence of TSRA/SHRA increases
value & cloud cover
Take off Forecast
QNH
a) Day time
i. Max value (0200-0300Z)
ii. Min value (0800-1000Z)
b) Night time
i. Max value (1500-1600Z)
ii. Min value (2000-2200Z)
c) Day’s Max value ≥ Night’s Max value
d) Day’s Min value ≤ Night’s Min value
e) Occurrence of TSRA/SHRA with rain may effect value of QNH
Operationally Desirable Accuracy of Forecasts
QNH is a pressure setting used by pilot, & ATC.
AREA QNH
The barometric altimeter setting which will
cause the altimeter to read altitude above mean
sea level within a certain defined region.
The lowest forecast value of QNH for an

altimeter setting region may be used to ensure
safe terrain separation when cruising at lower
altitudes.
Area QNH is issue 4 times daily every 6 hours

(0300UTC, 0900UTC, 1500UTC, 2100UTC)
Validity of area QNH is six hours.
Area QNH is issued by WMO (e.g. WMKK and

WBKK)
Thank You
AM10: METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES FOR AVIATION:

AREA FORECAST, ROUTE FORECAST & SEARCH AND RESCUE
2 NOVEMBER 2020

ARFOR (AREA FORECAST)
Low level area forecast (ARFOR)
provides a forecast of weather
conditions for the specified area from
the surface to 10,000 feet above mean
sea level(AMSL).
ARFOR contains various information as

below:
 date and time of forecast
 aerodrome ICAO code/area for
which the forecast is made
 direction and speed of the wind of
different level
 temperature/dew point
 weather forecast
 surface visibility
 cloud amount and types
 freezingArea Forecast (ARFOR) Route Forecast (ROFOR)
Example of ARFOR
ROFOR (ROUTE FORECAST)
Route forecast (ROFOR)
is a route forecast of wind, temperature and
significant weather for a specific route and flight
levels.
ROFOR contains various information as below:
 date and time of forecast
 aerodrome ICAO code for which the forecast
is made
 direction and speed of the wind of different
level
 temperature/dew point
 weather forecast
 surface visibility
 cloud amount and types
 freezing levels/turbulence(moderate/severe)
Area Forecast (ARFOR) Route Forecast (ROFOR)
Example of ROFOR
ROFOR (ROUTE FORECAST)
Area Forecast (ARFOR) Example of ROFOR from

Routeother country(ROFOR)
Forecast
http://www.adrc.asia/management/MYS/Direc
tives_National_Security_Council.html?Fr
references
http://ideas.met.gov.my/marine.html
INTRODUCTION
SEARCH AND RESCUE (SAR) DEFINITION:
“THE EMPLOYMENT OF AVAILABLE PERSONNEL AND FACILITIES

IN RENDERING AID TO PERSON IN POTENTIAL OR ACTUAL DISTRESS”
…. ANNEX 12 & International Aeronautical & Maritime SAR Manual 1998
Which requires contracting states….
“TO PROVIDE A SAR SERVICE ON A 24 HOURS BASIS WITHIN THE SEARCH

AND RESCUE REGIONS (SRR)”
SAR REGIONS (SRR), ARSC & ARCC
SAR Manuals & References\106891.pdf
ROLES AND FUNCTIONS OF Meteorology IN SAR
MWOs designated by the meteorological authority in accordance with RAN
Agreement shall supply SAR services units with the meteorological information
they require in a form established by mutual agreement.
For that purpose, the designated MWO shall maintain liaison with the SAR
services unit throughout a SAR operation.
The meteorological authority, in coordination with the appropriate civil aviation

authority, shall arrange for the supply of up-to-date meteorological information
to relevant aeronautical information services units, as necessary, for the
conduct of their functions.
 Rescue Coordination Centre (RCC) - Aeronautical Rescue

Coordination Centre (ARCC) or/and the Maritime Rescue Coordination
Centre (MRCC) shall liaise with relevant MWO to provide meteorological
information when required.
ROLES AND FUNCTIONS OF METEOROLOGY IN SAR
To facilitate SAR operations, the designated MWO should, on request,

supply:
 Complete and detailed information on the current and forecast
meteorological conditions in the search area; and
 Current and forecast conditions en-route, covering flights by search
aircraft from, and returning to, the aerodrome from which the search is
being conducted.
On request from the RCC, the designated MWO should supply or arrange
for the supply of meteorological information required by ships undertaking
SAR operations.
Annex 3
What are RCC & RSC?
Rescue coordination centre (RCC)
 A unit responsible for promoting efficient organization of
SAR services and for coordinating the conduct of SAR
operations within a SAR region.
Rescue subcentre (RSC)

 A unit subordinate to a RCC, established to complement
the latter according to particular provisions of the
responsible authorities.
RCC and RSCs promote the efficient organization of SAR,

prepare plans for the conduct of SAR operations within their
SAR regions and, when necessary, initiate and coordinate
action by SAR units in accordance with these plans.
 The Aviation Search and Rescue (A-SAR) Service in Malaysia is provided by the
Civil Aviation Authority of Malaysia (CAAM), in collaboration with the Royal
Malaysian Air Force, Royal Malaysian Navy, Royal Malaysian Police, Malaysian
Maritime Enforcement Agency, Fire and Rescue Department and Marine
Department.
 When SAR operations involving civil aircraft are needed, the RCC / RSC will be
activated within the Kuala Lumpur or Kota Kinabalu SRR, the boundaries (GEN
3.6-7) of which coincide with the Kuala Lumpur and Kota Kinabalu FIRs.
 Civil Aviation Authority of Malaysia maintains air droppable survival equipment
for maritime situations at the following locations:
a) Butterworth.
b) Subang.
c) Kuantan.
d) Kuching.
e) Labuan.
~ AIP GEN 3.6 Search And Rescue

mRSC & mRCC
Meteorological Information for SAR
1. Ditching Report / Forecast
2. Aerodrome Forecast (TAF)
3. Search Area Computation Forecast (48Hrs Wind History)
4. Search Area Forecast (ARFOR)
5. Route Forecast (ROFOR)
6. Satellite Images
7. Radar Images
8. Other Info.:
i. Meteorological Reports / Observations:
METAR, SPECI, UPPER AIR WIND DATA
ii. Advisories:
TCAC & VAAC
iii. Warnings:
SIGMET, AIRMET, AD WRNG
iv. Tidal Forecast, Wind & Sea Warning
MET INFO FOR SAR WORK FLOW
REQUEST
By :Official letter Have to mention SAR location
Fax/Email/by hand (coordinate) and validity time
ACTION TAKEN BY DUTY FORECASTER

Refers to WMO and ICAO Complete the “Met. Information
guidelines supplied for SAR Operations” forms
DISSEMINATION
30 minutes from validity time By Fax /Email
Note : If no specific requirement ,

usually Met. Information for SAR is
TERMINATION issued by six (6) hourly intervals i.e
0000, 0600, 1200,1800 UTC
By : Phone /Official letter - Fax/Email
SAR REQUESTS
MRSC JB
MRCC Putrajaya
DCA
Met. Information For SAR (met-sar forms_
MET – SAR 0 : Met. Information Supplied for SAR Operations
MET – SAR 1 : Surface Wind History for Search Area Computation
Forecast
MET – SAR 2 : Ditching Forecast for SAR Operations
MET – SAR 3 : Search Area Forecast (ARFOR)
MET – SAR 4 : Route Forecast (ROFOR)
MET-SAR MET-SAR
MET-SAR 4
MET-SAR 3
2
1
Ditching
Report/Forecast
Other
TAFOR
Information
Radar METEOROLOGICAL
Images INFORMATION FOR
SAR ROFOR
ARFOR
Surface Wind History for Search Area Computation

MET INFO & SURFACE WIND HISTORY FOR SEARCH AREA
COMPUTATION FORECAST
Surface Wind
History for
Search Area
Computation
Forecast
MET-SAR 1
METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION
SUPPLIED FOR SAR OPERATIONS
DITCHING REPORT/FORECAST
DITCHING - the forced

landing of an aircraft on
water
Ditching
Report/Forecast
MET – SAR 2
SEARCH AREA FORECAST (ARFOR)
ARFOR
MET-SAR 3
ROUTE FORECAST (ROFOR)
ROFOR
MET-SAR 4
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
1.Observation Data for the surface wind histrory
• METAR report from the nearest station with the SAR location
• Upper Air Observation (0000UTC & 1200UTC)
2.Upper air Chart for Forecast Wind&Temperature for different level

• Asean Wind and Temperature Chart by WAFS Washington
• Tabular Forecast of Upper wind (SPOTWIND CHART)
3.Numerical Weather Product (NWP) for current, surface wind,sea

condition (sea wave and swell)-Marine Model Product (IDEAS website)
4.Tide Forecast from JUPEM website
etc....
 Level Reported by Upper Air Observation:
• 1000ft (~950hPa)
• 3000ft (900hPa)
• 5000ft (850hPa)
• 7000ft (800hPa)
• 10,000ft (700hPa)
• 14,000ft (600hPa)
• 19,000ft (500hPa)
• 25,000 (400hPa)
• 32,000ft (300hPa)
• 36,000ft (250hPa)
• 39,000ft (200hPa)
WIND & TEMPERATURE FORECAST CHART
SPOTWIND CHART: TABULAR FORECAST OF UPPER WIND (KT)
NUMERICAL WEATHER PRODUCTs
Maklumat ramalan surface wind, sea wave dan swell boleh rujuk website
http://ideas.met.gov.my/index.html seperti model Significant Wave Height dan
Swell Wave Height.
Waves vs swells
Waves Swell
Waves are raised by winds blowing locally; the Swells are caused by winds far away, winds that
stronger the winds, the higher the waves generate waves in a distant region. When these waves
propagate to reach a certain location, they are called
swells.
Swell marches in longer lines and appears less steep
and more ‘stretched’ than waves.
Waves will break in open water Swell will not normally break in open water
Waves always travel in the same direction as the Swell continues to move under winds and waves that
wind is blowing have long since changed direction and it can even head
in the opposite direction as the wind and waves.
 Swell Wave Height
 Mean Wave Period
 Swell Direction
 Significant Wave Height
 Mean Wave Period
 Wave Direction
SATELLITE IMAGES
KLIA PPI IMAGE
RADAR IMAGES
KLIA CAPPI IMAGE
KLIA RADAR
KLIA ROSHEAR IMAGE
SUBANG CAPPI IMAGE
SUBANG WINDSHEAR IMAGE
SUBANG
RADAR
Other information…
AIRMET&SIGMET
WIND &SEA warning
tidal forecast
Source: JUPEM
https://www.jupem.gov.my
/v1/my/jadual-ramalan-air-
pasang-surut-malaysia-
2017/
The differences
between the
high & low tides
of Bay of Fundy
Thank You
AM11: WORLD AREA FORECAST CENTRE (WAFC)

PRODUCTS
26 NOVEMBER 2020

WORLD AREA FORECAST SYSTEM (WAFS)
The WAFS is defined in ICAO Annex 3, Meteorological

Service for International Air Navigation, as “…a worldwide
system by which world area forecast centers provide
aeronautical meteorological enroute forecasts in uniform
standardized formats.”
A WAFC is “…a meteorological center designated to prepare

and issue significant weather forecasts and upper-air
forecasts in digital form on a global basis.”
WORLD AREA FORECAST SYSTEM (WAFS)
 to provide the worldwide aviation community with operational
meteorological forecasts and information about meteorological
phenomena required for flight planning and safe, economic,
and efficient air navigation.
 comprises two Provider States, these being the United
Kingdom Meteorological Office (UKMO) and the United States
National Weather Service (US NWS).
 The WAFS Provider States each operate a World Area
Forecast Centre (WAFC) known as WAFC London and WAFC
Washington
 The official distribution mechanism for WAFS data is via
a) UK’s SAtellite DIStribution (SADIS) system, and
b) USA’s WAFS Internet File Service (WIFS)
 The UK also operates Internet based distribution systems

known as Secure SADIS FTP in parallel.
Note :
The US NWS provides a service known as WAFS Internet File Service (WIFS) which
allows users to retrieve data via HTTPS protocol. WIFS replaced the International
Satellite Communication System (ISCS-G2 and ISCS FTP service) on 1 July 2012.
The older SADIS FTP service remain in service in parallel with the Secure SADIS
FTP until 30 November 2012, when it (SADIS FTP) withdrawn.
Implementation Timeline of ISCS & SADIS:
ROLES & RESPONSIBILITIES, PRODUCTS & SERVICES
PROVIDED BY WAFC
a) to prepare gridded global forecasts of:
1. upper wind;
2. upper-air temperature and humidity;
3. geopotential altitude of flight levels;
4. flight level and temperature of tropopause;
5. direction, speed and flight level of maximum wind;
6. cumulonimbus clouds;
7. icing; and
8. turbulence;
 Shall be prepared four times a day (0000, 0600, 1200, 1800UTC).

 Issued in Gridded Binary (GRIB) Coded Data prescribed by WMO
ROLES & RESPONSIBILITIES, PRODUCTS & SERVICES
PROVIDED BY WAFC
b) to prepare global forecasts of significant weather (SIGWX) phenomena and
issue 4 times a day (0000, 0600, 1200,1800UTC) in binary code form using
BUFR code form prescribed by WMO.
c) to issue the forecasts referred to in a) and b) in digital form to meteorological
authorities and other users, as approved by the Contracting State on advice
from the meteorological authority;
d) to receive information concerning the release of radioactive materials into the
atmosphere from its associated World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
regional specialized meteorological centre (RSMC) for the provision of transport
model products for radiological environmental emergency response, in order to
include the information in SIGWX forecasts; and
e) to establish and maintain contact with volcanic ash advisory centres (VAACs)
are provided in PNG format (produced by the nine Volcanic Ash Advisory
Centers across the world) for the exchange of information on volcanic activity
in order to coordinate the inclusion of information on volcanic eruptions in
SIGWX forecasts.
Products provided by WAFC
1. Significant Weather (SIGWX) Forecast Charts
 Forecast charts of significant en-route weather
phenomena
 The significant weather phenomena include:
a. Tropical cyclone
b. Severe squall line
c. Moderate or severe turbulence (in cloud or clear air)
d. Moderate or severe icing
e. Widespread sandstorms/dustorms
f. CB clouds associated with thunderstorms and with a) to e)
above
g. Flight level of tropopoause
h. Jet streams
i. Location of volcanic ash and radioactive material
 The WAFCs provide the High-level SIGWX (SWH) and Medium-level
SIGWX (SWM) products as both coded data and charts, in BUFR and
PNG formats, respectively.
 SWH products covering FL250-630 and SWM products covering

FL100-450 for limited geographic areas as defined in the regional air
navigation agreements.
 This data allows users to generate SIGWX charts for standard ICAO
areas or user defined domains.
Note :
• BUFR stands for Binary Universal Form for the Representation of meteorological
data.
• The PNG (Portable Network Graphics (PNG)) format is provided for back-up
purposes and is only available for the areas defined in ICAO Annex 3 Figures A8-1,
A8-2 and A8-3.
• It is anticipated that Users will generate charts for their region from the BUFR data
and that the PNG charts are made available as a backup.
The two WAFCs run global meteorological models which run
four times daily.
SIGWX products are manually generated by forecasters.
The forecasters generate these SIGWX datasets by drawing

each feature based on an analysis of satellite imagery,
meteorological models and a range of other forms of
guidance.
The generated SIGWX products are in accordance with the

Standards and Recommended Practices of ICAO Annex 3
SIGWX products are generated for a single validity time.
The SIGWX products are produced every 6 hours, valid

for 00Z, 06Z, 12Z or 18Z and are available 17 hours
before validity under normal conditions, ( it takes some
time to produce a forecast, and as such WAFC SIGWX
forecasts are issued 7 hours after the 'analysis' time),15
hours under backup conditions.
The SIGWX charts are valid for use within a period

starting 3 hours before, until 3 hours after validity
time.(ICAO Doc 8896 – Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice.)
Fixed Areas of Coverage of WAFS Forecasts in Chart Form
Mercator Projection
Polar Stereographic
– Northern
Hemisphere
Polar Stereographic
– Southern
Hemisphere
Examples of SIGWX Forecast Chart
High level SIGWX forecast

chart for Area E
Examples of SIGWX Forecast Chart
Medium - level SIGWX forecast

chart for Australian
Legend box indicating
that a WAFC is an
issuer of the source
data, and the provider of
the generated chart.
How to interpret SIGWX Forecast Chart
JET STREAM REPRESENTATION
A jet core of 130 knots at 35,000
Example of jet stream over northern feet. The location of the max wind
hemisphere gives a speed of 130 knots at speed (the wind speed is 80 knots
35,000 feet. or greater between 25,000 and
41,000 feet.
Example of jet stream over southern

hemisphere gives a speed of 130 knots
at 40,000 feet.
The additional information displayed on both these examples relates to the

jet depth. The format of the jet depth information is as follows: JL/JU where;
JL= the flight level of the 80kt isotach below the maximum wind speed level,
and
JU= the flight level of the 80kt isotach above the maximum wind speed level.
Only jet streams with a speed of 120 knots or more will contain vertical jet
depth information.
CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE REPRESENTATION
Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) is represented on a
SIGWX chart by a dashed area and a number
ISOL EMBD CB (50% coverage)
CLOUD REPRESENTATION OCNL EMBED CB (50%-75% coverage)
OCNL CB (as distinct and separate from
OCNL EMBD CB)
Cloud shown on the charts FRQ CB (>75% coverage)
as a scalloped area and an
information-box, sometimes
shown with an arrow if the
box is not inside the area.
TROPOPAUSE Representation
Three different types of tropopause (TROP)
labels are used on SIGWX charts. Namely,
TROP highs, lows and spot values.
TROPOPAUSE
 Surface boundary layer in the Earth's atmosphere
separating the troposphere from the stratosphere
 Height of tropopause is higher in equatorial region

and decreases poleward
Tropopause height in:-
Equator > Pole
Summer > Winter
 The location of the tropopause is important in

aviation because it indicates the altitude at which
temperature becomes constant with increasing
altitude, which is an import factor in performance
and fuel calculations.
 Indication on location of jet streams and the high

winds and turbulence associated with them. In
Overshooting cumulonimbus tops shown above are deep
some regions, tropopause breaks (mix of
tropical convective systems that have break through the
tropospheric & stratospheric air) – marks the jet
tropopause, especially over land.
stream location and possible area of CAT)
 In general, clouds and weather occur below the
tropopause in the troposphere
EXAMPLE EUROPEAN SIGWX CHART (EUR):
Frontal
Systems
Jetstreams
In-cloud
icing and
turbulence
TROP Volcanic ash
CAT
DOMESTIC SIGWX CHART
Products provided by WAFC
2. Upper- air forecast
 Forecast charts of upper-air wind and upper air temperature (from FL050 –
FL530)
 Additional information include:
a. forecast of flight level and temperature of tropopause,
b. Direction, speed and flight level of maximum wind,
c. Geopotential altitude data of flight levels
d. Upper-air humidity
 using GRIB2 encoding on a 1.25 x 1.25 degree which is this data can be used in
flight planning systems to optimise flights routes or to generate a range of charts.
 Issued 4 times daily by WAFC (0000UTC, 0600UTC, 1200UTC and 1800UTC)
 Validity of forecast (6,9,12,15,18,21…..and 36 hours after the issuance time)
Note :
GRIB stands for GRIdded Binary. GRIB is a mathematically concise data format commonly used in meteorology to store
gridded data. It is standardized by the WMO Commission for Basic Systems, known under number GRIB FM 92-IX.
ABT Display of Wind & Temp Charts:
WIND &
TEMP
CHARTS
Show the forecast of
the direction and
intensity of the wind
and temperature in a
given altitude.
This map is valid for Area
E
(Asia – Australia /New
Zealand Flight Route)
and forecast Wind and
Temperature in the FL300
from 1800UTC of
September 24th. The
information from WAFC
Washington was
compiled at 1200Z of 24
Sep.
How to interpret Upper-air wind / temperature
Forecast Chart
Wind Speed and direction
Temperature
Positive Celsius Negative Celsius
Sign : + Sign : no sign
Example: +27 means 27°C Example: 42 means -42°C
Legend box indicating the issuer of the
source data as WAFC London, and
the provider of the generated chart is
National Aviation Meteorological
Centre (NAMC)/PMPN
DOMESTIC FORECAST OF UPPER WIND CHART
Thank You
AM12: AERODROME WARNING AND METEOROLOGICAL

WARNING (MET WARNING)
26 NOVEMBER 2020

AERODROME
WARNING
INTRODUCTION
Aerodrome warning
• shall be issued by the aerodrome meteorological
office (AMO).
• shall give concise information on the observed or
expected occurrence of meteorological conditions
which could adversely effect aircraft on the ground,
including parked aircraft, aerodrome facilities and
services.
Aerodrome Warning provided by MMD

(ICAO codes)
1 Pusat Meteorologi Penerbangan WMKK KL International Airport (KLIA)
Nasional (PMPN) WMSA KL International Airport 2
WMKM (KLIA2)
WMKJ Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport
Malacca International Airport
Senai International Airport
2. Pejabat Meteorologi Bayan Lepas WMKP Penang International Airport

WMKL Langkawi International Airport
WMKA Sultan Abdul Halim Airport
3. Pejabat Meteorologi Butterworth WMKI Sultan Azlan Shah Airport
4. Pejabat Meteorologi Terengganu WMKN Sultan Mahmud Airport

WMKE Kerteh Airport
WMKC Sultan Ismail Petra Airport
5. Pejabat Meteorologi Pahang WMKD Sultan Haji Ahmad Shah Airport
WMBT Tioman Airport

(ICAO codes)
1 Pejabat Meteorologi Kota WBKK Kota Kinabalu International Airport
Kinabalu WBKS Sandakan Airport
WBKL Labuan Airport
WBKW Tawau Airport
WBKT Kudat Airport
2. Pejabat Meteorologi WBGG Kuching International Airport

Kuching WBGB Bintulu Airport
WBGR Miri Airport
WBGS Sibu Airport
WBGJ Limbang Airport
WBMU Mulu Airport
3. Pejabat Meteorologi WBKL Labuan Airport
Labuan
TROPICAL
THUNDERSTORMS (TS)
CYCLONE (TC)
FREEZING
SQUALL (SQL)
PRECIPITATION
HAIL (GR) PHENOMENA TOXIC CHEMICALS

FOR ISSUANCE
AERODROME
WARNING STRONG SURFACE
FROST WIND AND GUST
TSUNAMI SNOW
VOLCANIC ASH
DUSTSTORMS
(VA)
Criteria of phenomena
Strong surface
PHENOMENON Thunderstorm wind speed & Hail
gust
DESCRIPTION OF TS
PHENOMENON Optional: horizontal SFC WSPD GR (not for
visibility/ RVR < 2000m small hail)
CAUSING THE 20KT MAX 30
Optional: surface wind
ISSUANCE OF
speed > 10 knot & gusts
AD WRNG >20
PHENOMENON Tropical Volcanic Ash Tsunami

Cyclone
To be included if the 10-

DESCRIPTION OF minute mean SFC Based on Based on
PHENOMENON WSPD at the aerodrome volcanic ash tsunami
CAUSING THE is expected to be ≥ 34kt advisory warning
ISSUANCE OF (17m/s) from VAAC issued by
DARWIN & POCGN of
AD WRNG {Based on TC Advisory
from TCAC TOKYO & VA SIGMET MMD
TCAC New Delhi}
Source of Information for Issuance
• METAR/SPECI Report
• Radar images
• RSMC Tokyo and VAAC Darwin

(Tropical Cyclone & Volcanic ash
advisory)
AERODROME WARNING FORMAT
WMO Header
1. Location indicator
First line of 2. Identification of
Aerodrome Warning warning (Type and
sequence no.)
1. Phenomena
Contain of 2. Observed or forecast
Aerodrome Warning phenomena
3. Changes of intensity
ANNEX 3, 19TH Edition, July 2016, APPENDIX

6. (Page APP 6-16 )
AERODROME WARNING:
EXAMPLE
Sequence no. Validity
WMO Header
(Date/ time)
Location of
AD
WOMS31 WMKK 041220

Type of
message WMKK AD WRNG 1 VALID 041230/041430
HVY TS SFC WSPD 15KT MAX 25 FCST NC=
Detail of the Observed / Changes of

phenomena forecast intensity
AERODROME WARNING: EXAMPLE
Phenomenon:
TS
**Phenomenon is forecast to occur
WOMS31 WMKK 010230
WMKK AD WRNG 1 VALID 010245/010345
HVY TS FCST WKN=
RMK: YELLOW
Phenomenon :
TS
**Phenomenon is observed & expected to cont.
WOMS31 WMKK 010958 Refers to intensity within the
WMKK AD WRNG 2 VALID 011000/011200 validity period
HVY TS VIS LESS THAN 1500M
SFC WSPD 05KT MAX 25 OBS INTSF=
RMK: RED
CANCEL AERODROME WARNING

Aerodrome warnings should be
cancelled when the conditions
WOMS31 WMKK 011120 are no longer occurring and/or
WMKK AD WRNG 3 VALID 011120/011200 no longer expected to occur at
CNL AD WRNG 2 011000/011200= the aerodrome.
Aerodrome Warning Examples
THUNDERSTORMS
VOLCANIC ASH
WOMS31 WMKK 041220
WOMS31 WMKK 041220
WMKB AD WRNG 1 VALID 041800/050000
HVY TS SFC WSPD 15KT MAX 25 FCST
VOLCANIC ASH FCST NC =
INTSF=
THUNDERSTORMS
SURFACE STRONG WIND
WOMS31 WMKK 041230
WOMS31 WMKK 041220
WMKP AD WRNG 3 VALID 041230/041430
HVY TS SFC WSPD 15KT MAX 25
SFC WSPD 20KT MAX 30 OBS WKN=
VIS LESS THAN 3000M OBS AT 1225Z NC=
TSUNAMI HAIL
WOMS31 WMKK 200500 WOMS31 WMKK 100730
WBGJ AD WRNG 1 VALID 200600/201000 WMKK AD WRNG 5 VALID 100750/100850
TSUNAMI FCST INTSF= HAIL SFC WSPD 12KT MAX 25 FCST INTSF=
Dissemination of Aerodrome Warning to Users
SEND TO Tel. Fax AFTN Email Webpage
(e.g. ABT)
ATS units (Air √ √ √

Traffic
Controller,
airlines)
Airport √ √ √
authority
Meteorological √ √
Office
Conclusion: AERODROME WARNING PROCEDURE
STEP 1 Source of information:
Monitoring 1. Radar images 2. METAR/ SPECI Report
Aerodrome Warning format: Aerodrome Warning Example:

WOA1A2ii CCCC YYGGgg
STEP 2 CCCC AD [nn] YYGGgg VALID WOMS31 WMKK 041215
Issuance YYGGgg/YYGGgg WMKK AD WRNG 1 VALID 041230/041430
HVY TS SFC WSPD 15KT MAX 25
<Phenomenon> OBS or FCST <Change
VIS LESS THAN 2000M FCST NC=
of intensity>=
STEP 3 Changes in intensity

Amendment
Phenomena no longer occur or expected to occur

STEP 4
WOMS31 WMKK 041310
Cancellation WMKK AD WRNG 3 VALID 041310/041430
CNL AD WRNG 1 041230/041430=
SEND TO: Tel Fax AFTN Webpage

STEP 5 ATS unit √ √ √
Dissemination MET Office √ √
METEOROLOGICAL
WARNING
(MET WARNING)
• Ramalan cuaca buruk yang boleh mempengaruhi
penerbangan ketika berlepas dan mendarat yang
dikeluarkan apabila pegawai meteorologi
sekurang-kurangnya 70% yakin bahawa cuaca
akan mempengaruhi kawasan aerodrome; iaitu
sekitar 10KM RADIUS.
• untuk memberi nasihat kepada pesawat yang

akan berlepas atau mendarat, serta pesawat yang
beroperasi di kawasan latihan, mengenai
ancaman cuaca yang akan datang.
FORMAT MET WARNING
1.Issue Time (local time): adalah masa amaran
cuaca dikeluarkan dan mestilah SELAMA 30 MINIT
SEBELUM WAKTU ONSET untuk membolehkan
kapal terbang yang beroperasi di kawasan latihan
kembali semula(pulang).
2.Wx Affecting.
a.2KM radius of the Airfield. Cuaca dijangka
mempengaruhi kawasan penerbangan (dalam
lingkungan 2KM radius Airfield).
b.10KM radius of the Airfield. Cuaca dijangka
mempengaruhi bahagian radius 10KM dari Airfield,
tetapi tidak pada kawasan penerbangan.
c.Others: Lain-lain kawasan penerbangan
FORMAT MET WARNING....
3.Warnings.
a.“Warning of Shower” dikeluarkan apabila jumlah
hujan dijangka 2mm / jam atau lebih
b.“Warning of low cloud” dikeluarkan apabila
ketinggian dasar awan dijangka lebih rendah
daripada 1000 kaki dalam radius aerodrome dan
jumlah awan melebihi 4 Oktas
c.“Warning of poor visibility” dikeluarkan apabila
jarak ketampakan mendatar dijangka kurang
daripada 5000 m dalam lingkungan kawasan
penerbangan/aerodrome
d.“Warning of TS (thunderstorm)” dikeluarkan
apabila pencerapan cuaca ribut petir, (TS) berlaku
dan dijangka akan berlaku dalam kawasan
penerbangan/airfield/aerodrome
e.“Warning of RA (rain)” dikeluarkan apabila
pencerapan cuaca hujan, (RA) berlaku dan dijangka
akan berlaku dalam kawasan
f.Others : dikeluarkan untuk lain-lain fenomena
cuaca signifikan yang berlaku dan dijangka akan
berlaku dalam kawasan
4.Time of onset (local time): Waktu permulaan bagi
item yang dinyatakan pada para 3 diharapkan dapat
mempengaruhi kawasan yang dinyatakan dalam
para 2.
5.‘AMMEND ( AMD )‘ (SILA PALANG YANG
BERKENAAN SAHAJA): Amaran masih berkuatkuasa
dan terdapat perubahan kriteria cuaca seperti para
3.
6.‘EXTEND‘ Perlu dikeluarkan 30 minit sebelum
tempoh sah laku tamat dan kriteria cuaca seperti
para 3 dipenuhi.
7.Expected duration. Masa yang dijangkakan dalam
para 3 akan tetap aktif dalam kawasan ramalan.
8.Valid Until (local time): Masa tamat amaran.
9.Cloud Base: Anggaran ketinggian dasar lapisan
awan terendah.
10.Visibility: Ramalan jarak ketampakan permukaan
paling rendah.
11.Surface wind: Ramalan arah dan laju angin
permukaan yang dinyatakan di para 3.
12.Movement: Arah pergerakan sistem cuaca dari
kawasan penerbangan/aerodrome yang diramal.
13.Issued By: Nama pegawai meteorologi yang
mengeluarkan amaran.
14.Send to:
I.Sender : Nama pegawai/penolong pegawai
meteorologi yang mengedarkan amaran.
II.Receiver : Nama penerima amaran yang diedarkan, jika
penghantaran melalui telefon.
III.Received by email: Jika penghantaran melalui emel,
nyatakan alamat emel penerima.
15.Terminated at: Masa amaran ditamatkan jika masih
dalam tempoh sah laku.
16.Met Warning baharu dikeluarkan jika:
I.Met Warning terdahulu telah ditamatkan
II.Borang terdahulu telah penuh dan perubahan kriteria
cuaca seperti para 3 masih dipenuhi.
Contoh Met Warning
SUHAILY SAHAT
OBJECTIVE
a) Definition of Wind Shear
b) Monitoring of low level wind shear
c) Wind Shear Warning
i. Definition
ii. Format
iii. Criteria
iv. Example
Definition of Wind Shear
• Wind Shear - Change in wind direction/speed change in wind
direction/speed for more than a few seconds
• change in headwind/tailwind
• change in lift : decrease lift →aircraft to go below the intended path
increase lift →aircraft to fly above the intended path
• Low Level Wind Shear

Wind shear encounter during final approach
Along the runway
Along take off flight path
Along initial climb out flight path
low level wind shear
• Low-level wind shear, i.e., sudden changes in wind speed and/or wind
direction up to altitudes of 1600 ft (500 m) above-ground is a
hazardous meteorological phenomenon in aviation
• It may radically change the aerodynamic circumstances of the flight,
particularly during landing and take-off and consequently, it may
threaten human lives and the health of passengers, people at the
airport and its surrounding areas
Sources of low level wind shear
• Wind shear conditions are normally associated with the following
phenomena:
— thunderstorms, microbursts, funnel cloud (tornado or waterspout),
and gust fronts
— frontal surfaces
— strong surface winds coupled with local topography
— sea breeze fronts
— mountain waves (including low-level rotors in the terminal area)
— low-level temperature inversions.
Annex 3 — Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation Appendix 6
8/11/18 APP 6-8
Monitoring of Low level wind shear
• Low level wind shear and microbursts pose a
serious threat to aircraft during take-off and
landing
• The instruments for detect wind shear are
combining one or more of the following
meteorological sensors:
1. LLWAS - a ground based alerting system which is
comprised of several anemometers installed in the
vicinity of runways.
2. Weather Radar
3. Doppler Lidar -a remote sensing instrument and have
similar principle like the Doppler meteorological radar.
Can detect low level wind shear in non-rainy weather
conditions.
Wind Shear Monitoring by MetMalaysia
MALAYSIAN INTEGRATED NETWORK RADAR FOR WIND SHEAR DETECTION SYSTEM (WSDS)
Wind Shear Detection System (WSDS)
• Radar Product Centre (RPC) – at HQ
• Hazard Weather Warning Display (HWWD) – 2 units (at MET Offices &
Airport Tower)
All in One PC
Rainbow5 Software
RainScoutATC
3 Products Overlay
1. Runway Oriented Shear (RoShear)
2. Severe Weather Indicator (SWI)
3. Cappi
Wind shear alerts and microburst alerts
• Wind shear alerts and microburst alerts are delivered to pilots and traffic
management specialists through the system Hazard Weather Warning
Display (HWWD).
• The HWWD message contains detailed information on the detected
phenomena, namely its:
I. location (identification of the runway, and whether the phenomena
affects its approach or departure corridor),
II. character (microburst, wind shear)
III. magnitude (change in the wind speed, loss or gain), and
IV. the location of the first encounter of the aircraft with the phenomena
(whether it can be expected along the runway or 1, 2 or 3 NM from the
runway edge).
Hazard Weather Warning Display (HWWD).
Schematic of a microburst alert
Distance from final deprture
Translate:
RUNWAY (RWY)
“On approach to runway 27, there is
microburst alert on the approach
lane to the runway, and the pilot
should expect a 35 knot (17.5m/s)
loss of airspeed at approximately 2
miles out on final approach ( where
it will first encounter the
phenomena). Additional
information, the surface wind at the
airport for landing runway 27 are
Distance in mile to the final approach reported as 250 degrees at 20 knots
(1 MF= 1 nautical miles to final approach) (10 m/s)
RainscoutATC in HWWD (example: KLIA)
14L
14R
15
Roshear threshold
Airport Name,
1 box: 1 NM
Information Box Alarm Information
KLIA : 3 boxes = 3 NM
32R
Active runway 32L
33
Configuration
RainscoutATC in HWWD (example: Senai Airport)
Roshear threshold
16
1 box: 1 NM
Senai Airport : 6 boxes = 6 NM
Airport Name,
Information Box Alarm Information
34
Active Runway
Configuration
LANDING/ APPROACH TAKE OFF/ DEPART
RUNWAY END
RUNWAY END
3NM 2NM 1NM 1NM 2NM 3NM
15 -20K 33
3MF 2MF 1MF 1MD 2MD 2MD
15D Alert
ACTIVE RUNWAY: 15 15A MBA 20K- 2MF 15A MBA 20K- 2MF
or
33D
33D MBA 20K- 2MD
33A MBA 20K- 2MD
TAKE OFF/ DEPART LANDING/ APPROACH
RUNWAY END
RUNWAY END
3NM 2NM 1NM 1NM 2NM 3NM
16 +18K 34
3MF 2MF 1MF 1MD 2MD 2MD
16D WSA 18K+ 3MD
Alert
ACTIVE RUNWAY: 34 16A 34A WSA 18K+ 3MF
34D or
34A WSA 18K+ 3MF 16D WSA 18K+ 3MD
Products overlay in WSDS SWI
1) CAPPI
2) Runway Oriented Shear (RoShear)
3) Severe Weather Indication (SWI) -to
detect Storm areas/cores, CAPPI
mesocyclones, divergence,
convergence, microbursts
RoShear
Wind Shear Warning
Definition:
• Wind shear warning shall give concise info on the observed or
expected existence of wind shear which could adversely affect
aircraft on the approach path or take-off path or during circling
approach between runway level and 500m (1 600ft) above that level
and aircraft on the runway during the landing roll or take-off run.
Responsibility:
• Wind shear warning shall be prepared by the Aviation
Meteorological Office, AMO
SPECIFICATIONS RELATED TO WIND SHEAR
WARNINGS
A) Detection of wind shear
• Evidence of the existence of wind shear should be derived from:
a) ground-based, wind shear remote-sensing equipment, for example, Doppler radar;
b) ground-based, wind shear detection equipment, for example, a system of surface
wind and/or pressure sensors located in an array monitoring a specific runway or
runways and associated approach and departure paths;
c) aircraft observations during the climb-out or approach phases of flight to be made in
accordance with Chapter 5; or
d) other meteorological information, for example, from appropriate sensors located on
existing masts or towers in the
vicinity of the aerodrome or nearby areas of high ground.
Format and dissemination of wind shear warnings
• The wind shear warnings shall be issued in accordance with the

template in Table A6-3, Annex 3 and shall be disseminated in
accordance with local arrangements to those concerned.
• The sequence number referred to in the template in Table A6-3
shall correspond with the number of wind shear warnings issued
for the aerodrome since 0001 UTC on the day concerned.
Recommendation.—
• The use of text additional to the abbreviations listed in the template in Table A6-3 should be
kept to a minimum.
• The additional text should be prepared in abbreviated plain language using approved ICAO
abbreviations and numerical values.
• If no ICAO approved abbreviations are available, English plain language text should be used.
Wind Shear Warning Format
• Format of wind shear warning are
refer to Table A6-3, APP 6-18,
Annex 3.
1. WMO Header (M)
2. First Line of Wind Shear Warning (M)
3. Main Body of Wind Shear Warning (M and C)
a) Phenomenon (M)
b) Observed reported or forecast
phenomenon (M)
c) Details of the phenomenon (C)
M: Mandatory
C: Conditional
Table A6-3, APP 6-
18, Annex 3.
1. WMO Header (M)

a) Phenomenon (M)
b) Observed reported or forecast phenomenon
(M)
Wind Shear Warning Format by MetMalaysia
1. WMO Header (M)

a) Phenomenon (M)
(M)
Element and Location Identification of Time of origin and validity
Detailed indicator of type of message period (M)
Content aerodrome (M)
(M)
Templates nnnnnn WS WRNG [n] n Nnnnnnn [VALID TL nnnnnn]

or
[VALID nnnnnn/ nnnnnn]
Example WMKK WS WRNG 1 120230 VALID TL 120315 (Observed
warning)
or
120230 VALID 120245/120330
(Forecast warning)
Example: WOMS32 WMKK 031230
WMKK WS WRNG 1 031230 VALID 031245/121345
Wind Shear Warning Format by MetMalaysia
1. WMO Header (M)

a) Phenomenon (M)
(M)
3. Main Body of Wind Shear Warning (M)
Element and Detailed Phenomenon (M)
Content
- Identification of the phenomenon and its location
Templates WS [APCH] RWYnnn or
MBST [APCH] RWYnnn

Example WS APCH RWY14R RWY14L or
MBST APCH RWY16

WS APCH RWY16 FCST=
Element and Detailed b) Observed, reported or forecast phenomenon (M)
Content
- Identification whether the phenomenon is observed or reported
and expected to continue or forecast
Templates REP AT nnnn nnnnnnn or
OBS [AT nnnn] or
FCST
Example REP AT 0230 B747 or
OBS AT 0230 or
FCST
WS APCH RWY16 FCST=
Element and
Detailed Details of the phenomenon (C) -Description of phenomenon causing
the issuance of the wind shear warning
Content
Templates SFC WIND: nnn/nnMPS (or nnn/nnKT) nnnM
(nnnFT)-WIND: nnn/nnMPS (or nnn/nnKT)
or
nnKMH (or nnKT) LOSS nnKM (or nnNM)
FNA RWYnn
or
nnKMH (or nnKT) GAIN nnKM (or nnNM)
FNA RWYnn
Example SFC WIND: 320/5MPS,
60M-WIND: 360/13MPS (SFC WIND: 320/10KT 200FT-WIND: 360/26KT),
60KMH LOSS 4KM,
FNA RWY13 (30KT LOSS 2NM FNA RWY13).
WS APCH RWY16 FCST FNA RWY13 (30KT LOSS 2NM FNA RWY13)=
AGENDA MESYUARAT
1. TAKLIMAT PELAKSANAAN WIND SHEAR WARNING
a) Definition of Wind Shear
b) Monitoring of low level wind shear
c) Wind Shear Warning
i. Definition and responsibility
ii. Format
iii. Criteria
iv. Example
2. PERBINCANGAN BERKAITAN PTO AMARAN CUACA PENERBANGAN

Criteria of Wind Shear Warning
• The criteria of wind shear warning should be defined locally for aerodrome
as agreed between the meteorological authority, ATS and operators
concerned.
• Wind Shear Warning is issued when a shear wind occurs and is expected to
occur in the runway and approach area.
• Wind Shear Warning is a valid short-term warning within a period of no
more than 2 hours for a single issue.
• There are two types of Wind Shear Warning:
(1) Wind Shear Warning on expected existence of wind shear
 Warning for wind shear or microburst phenomena expected to occur in the runway area or
approach.
 It is monitored through radar echo analysis and support products from WSDS.
(2) Wind Shear Warning on observed wind shear.
 Issue when wind shear or microburst is detected to occur in the runway area or approach
through the shear wind signal from the WSDS display.
Criteria of Wind Shear Warning by
MetMalaysia
Wind Shear Warning issued based on Wind Wind Shear Warning issued based Wind Shear Warning issued
Shear Alert on analysis by forecaster based on Aircraft Report
(AIREP)
- WSDS give alert whether WSA or MBA - Wind shear detect by - Wind shear report get
analysis from WS products from AIREP
overlay at WSDS: * Special case for PMPN
-Wind Shear Alerts (WSA) - CAPPI and POCGS
a) KLIA - Runway Orientedf Shear
WSA : ≥ ± 15KT (RoShear)
b) Senai Int. Airport - SWI
WSA: > ± 10KT - Rain Tracking (RTR)
Microburst Alerts (MBA)

MBA : ≥ - 15KT
Wind Shear Warning issued based on Wind Shear Alert
EXAMPLE:
Wind Shear Warning Criteria issued by analysis by
Forecaster
Justification by TDWR products
Constant Runway Rain Tracking Cell Centroid Severe

Types of WS Altitude PPI Oriented (RTR) Tracking (CTR) Weather
PHENOMENON (Cappi) Shear Indication
warning
(ROSHEAR) (SWI)
Forecast Wind shear Convective TS cell Precipitation is Cell centroid is LOSS /GAIN
warning (WS) cell occurred occurred tracked and detected and wind ≥ ± 15KT
forecasted tracked into occurred in
into runway runway storm cell
Forecast Microburst Convective TS cell Precipitation is Cell centroid is LOSS WIND ≥

warning (MB) cell occurred occurred tracked and detected and -15KT
forecasted tracked into occurred
into runway runway In the storm
cell
CASE 1: CB APPROACHING APRROACH AREA
- Airport: KLIA
Date/ Time Alert: 09 August 2019/ 2046 UTC
- CB expected towards approach area
- Active runway : RWY14
- MBA occurred at RWY14LA
Wind Shear Warning Text Approach

(Forecast Warning)
WOMS32 WMKK 092046

WMKK WS WRNG 1
092046 VALID 092100/092200
WS APCH RWY14R RWY14L
Climb
RWY13 FCST=
CASE 2: ALERT AT APPROACH AREA
- Airport: Senai Int. Airport
- WSA occurred at RWY16D and
RWY34A
- Active runway : RWY34 Climb
Wind Shear Warning Text

(Observed Warning)
Approach
WOMS32 WMKK 050713
WMKJ WS WRNG 1
050713 VALID TL 050800 Date/ Time Alert: 22 August 2019/ 0615 UTC
WSA APCH RWY34 OBS AT 0711= Date/ Time Alert: 05 August 2019/ 0711 UTC
CASE 3: ALERT AT APPROACH AREA
- MBA occurred at RWY16A and
RWY34D
- Active runway : RWY16 Approach

(Observed Warning)
WOMS32 WMKK 230425

Climb
WMKJ WS WRNG 2
230425 VALID TL 230500
MBST APCH RWY16 OBS AT 0422= Date/ Time Alert: 23 August 2019/ 0422 UTC
CASE 4: CB APPROACHING TOWARDS
RUNWAY
- CB expected towards runway
Approach
(Forecast Warning)
WOMS32 WMKK 140007

WMKJ WS WRNG 1
Climb
140010 VALID 140020/140120
MBST RWY FCST=
Date/ Time Alert: 14 July 2019/ 0007 UTC
CASE 5: WSA /MBA AT RUNWAY

- WSA occurred at RWY
Approach

(Observed Warning)
WOMS32 WMKK 200800

WMKJ WS WRNG 4 Climb
200800 VALID TL 200855
WS RWY16 OBS AT 0757=
Date/ Time Alert: 22 August 2019/ 0757 UTC
SUHAILY SAHAT
OBJECTIVE
• Overview types of significant aeronautical meteorological warning
over en-route and FIR: AIRMET (AM14) and SIGMET (AM15 &AM16)
• Know the USERS of each warning products
• Understand the format of each warning products
• Understand the procedures of dissemination of the warning products
TYPES OF AERONAUTICAL METEOROLOGICAL WARNING
Types Area/air space of covered Stage of flight planning Responsibility for
preparing/ issuance the
warning in Malaysia
SIGMET Information FIR or control area/ encompassing all Pre-flight and in-flight MWO (WMKK & WBKK)
flight levels used for flight operations
AIRMET Information FIR or control area or sub- area Pre-flight and in-flight MWO (WMKK & WBKK)
thereof/ encompassing all flights levels
up to FL 100 (FL 150 or higher in
mountainous areas)
Aerodrome Aerodrome surface conditions Not-applicable (intended for Aerodrome Meteorological

Warnings parked aircraft, aerodrome Office (WMKK, WBKK,
installations) WBGJ,WMSA, WMKD, WMKA,
WMKB, WMKC..)
Wind Shear Aerodrome and approach/ take off In - flight Aerodrome Meteorological
Warnings paths between runway level and 500 m Office (WMKK, WBKK,WMSA,
(1600 FT) or higher if necessary) WMKD, WMKA, WMKB,
WMKC..)
PHASES IN AVIATION vs WEATHER WARNINGS
SIGMET
(UPPER LEVEL
UP TO FL500)
AIRMET
(LOW LEVEL UP TO FL100)
WIND
SHEAR
WARNING
AD WRNG AD WRNG
(In-flight) (In-flight) (In-flight)
(In-flight) (Landing)
(Landing)
AIRMET
• AIRMET is concise of the occurrence or expected
occurrence of specified en-route weather phenomena
which may affect the safety of low-level aircraft operations
and which were not already included in the forecast issued
for low-level flights in the FIR concerned or sub-area thereof.
• AIRMET shall be issued by the meteorological watch office

(MWO) with regional agreement when occurring of weather
phenomena at cruising levels below FL 100 (or below FL 150
or higher, where necessary in mountainous areas)
AIRMET Phenomena
Weather Description Abbreviation
Element/
Phenomenon
surface wind widespread mean surface wind speed above SFC WIND
speed 15 m/s (30 kt) (+ wind direction, speed and units)
surface visibility widespread areas affected by the deterioration in SFC VIS (+ visibility)
visibility to less than 5 000 m, including the (+ weather phenomenon or
weather phenomenon causing the deterioration combination thereof:
in visibility BR, DS, DU, DZ, FC, FG, FU, GR, GS,
HZ, PL, PO,
RA, SA, SG, SN, SQ, SS or VA
thunderstorm Isolated thunderstorms without hail ISOL TS

Occasional thunderstorms without hail OCNL TS
Isolated thunderstorms with hail ISOL TSGR
Occasional thunderstorms with hail OCNL TSGR
AIRMET Phenomena
Element/
Phenomenon
mountain mountains obscured MT OBSC
obscuration
cloud widespread areas of broken or overcast cloud
with height of base less than 300 m (1 000 ft)
above ground level:
• broken BKN • BKN CLD (+ height of the base and
top and units).
• overcast OVC CLD • OVC CLD (+ height of the base and
top and units)
cumulonimbus • isolated • ISOL CB
clouds which are: • occasional • OCNL CB
• frequent • FRQ CB
AIRMET Phenomena
Element/
Phenomenon
towering cumulus • isolated • ISOL TCU
clouds which are: • occasional • OCNL TCU
• frequent • FRQ TCU
icing moderate icing (except for icing in convective MOD ICE
clouds)
turbulence moderate turbulence (except for turbulence in MOD TURB

convective clouds)
mountain wave moderate mountain wave MOD MTW

*Only one element from those listed above may be used in an AIRMET
Surface visibility
(SFC VIS (BR, FG,
RA,FU,GR, HZ, DS,
SA, SN..)
Surface wind Thunderstorms (ISOL
speed (SFC WSPD) TS, OCNL TS, ISOL
TSGR, OCNL TSGR
Mountain
Mountain wave obscurations
AIRMET
(MOD MTW) (MT OBSC)
Phenomena
Cloud (BKN CLD,
OVC CLD, ISOL CB,
Turbulence (MOD OCNL CB, FRQ CB,
TURB) ISOL TCU, OCNL
TCU, FRQ TCU)
Icing (MOD ICE)

AIRMET FORMAT
• Format of AIRMET Information shall be in accordance with the template shown
inTable A6-1A, APP -9 to APP 6-14, Annex 3.
WAA1A2ii CCCC YYGGgg (WMO Header)

CCCC AIRMET [nn] YYGGgg VALID YYGGgg/YYGGgg CCCC- (First Line)
CCCC <FIR><Phenomenon> OBS/ FCST <Location> <MOV> <INTENSITY>= (Second Line)
AIRMET STRUCTURE
(M) WMO Abbreviated
Heading Line (WMO AHL) T1T2TAAii CCCC YYGGgg [BBB]
1. ICAO Location indicator of the FIR/CTA (M)

First line of AIRMET 2. Message identifier and daily sequence no. (M)
Information 3. Validity period (M)
4. Location indicator of MWO (M)
1. Name of the FIR (M)

Second line of 2. Phenomena (M)
AIRMET 3. Observed or forecast phenomena (M)
4. Location of phenomenon (M)
5. Level (C)
6. Movement or expected movement (C )
7. Changes of intensity (C)
6. (Page APP 6-13 )
WMO Header
• WMO header code: T1T2A1A2ii CCCC YYGGgg [BBB]
T1T2 Data type designator WA – for AIRMET for phenomena
A1A2 Country or territory designators Assigned according to Table C1, Part II of Manual on the
Global Telecommunication System, Volume I – Global
Aspects (WMO Publication No. 386)
Example: MS
ii Bulletin number Assigned on national level according to p 2.3.2.2, Part II of

Manual on the Global Telecommunication System, Volume I
– Global Aspects (WMO Publication No. 386)
Example: 31
WAMS31 WMKK 301951

WMFC AIRMET 7 VALID 301952/302300 WMKK-
WMFC KUALA LUMPUR FIR ISOL TS
OBS WI N0139 E10210 - N0459 E09834 - N0443 E09953 -
N0122 E10302 - N0139 E10210 MOV ENE NC=
WMO Header
• CCCC is the ICAO location indicator of the communication centre disseminating the message (this
may be the same as the MWO location indicator).
• Example:
• WMKK -ICAO location indicator for Kuala Lumpur MWO and Kota Kinabalu MWO-
• VTBS - ICAO location indicator for Bangkok FIR
• VVTS - ICAO location indicator for Ho Chi Minh FIR
• WSJC - ICAO location indicator for Singapore FIR
WAMS31 WMKK 301951 WAMS31 WBKK 301951

WMFC AIRMET 7 VALID 301952/302300 WMKK- WBFC AIRMET 7 VALID 301952/302300 WBKK-
WMFC KUALA LUMPUR FIR ISOL TS WBFC KOTA KINABALU FIR ISOL TS
OBS WI N0139 E10210 - N0459 E09834 - N0443 E09953 - OBS WI N0139 E10210 - N0459 E09834 - N0443 E09953 -
N0122 E10302 - N0139 E10210 MOV ENE NC= N0122 E10302 - N0139 E10210 MOV ENE NC=
WMO Header
• YYGGgg is the date/time group; where YY is the day of the month and
GGgg is the time of transmission of the AIRMET in hours and minutes
UTC (normally this time is assigned by the disseminating (AFTN)
centre).
WAMS31 WMKK 301951

OBS WI N0139 E10210 - N0459 E09834 - N0443 E09953 -
N0122 E10302 - N0139 E10210 MOV ENE NC=
AIRMET STRUCTURE
(M) WMO Abbreviated

1. Name of the FIR/UIR or CTA (M)

5. Level (C)
6. (Page APP 6-13 )
First line of AIRMET
• CCCC AIRMET [n][n]n VALID YYGGgg/YYGGgg CCCC-
CCCC ICAO location indicator of the ATS unit serving the FIR or CTA to which AIRMET
refers
AIRMET Message identifier
[n][n]n Daily sequence number (see 3.5.2.2)
VALID Period of validity indicator

YYGGgg/YYGGgg Validity period of the SIGMET given by date/time group of the beginning and
date/time group of the end of the period (see 3.5.2.3)
WAMS31 WMKK 150230 CCA
CCCC ICAO location indicator of the issuing MWO
- Mandatory hyphen to separate the preamble from the text

First line of AIRMET:
Daily sequence number
• The numbering of AIRMETs starts every day at 0001 UTC. The

sequence number should consist of up to three alphanumeric
characters and may be a combination of letters and numbers, such as:
• - 1, 2, …
• - 01, 02, … WAMS31 WMKK 301951
• - A01, A02, … WMFC AIRMET 7 VALID 301952/302300 WMKK-
OBS WI N0139 E10210 - N0459 E09834 - N0443 E09953 -
N0122 E10302 - N0139 E10210 MOV ENE NC=
AIRMET STRUCTURE
(M) WMO Abbreviated


5. Level (C)
6. (Page APP 6-13 )
Second line of AIRMET:
Name of the FIR (M)
• CCCC <name> FIR
• Location indicator and name of the FIR for which the AIRMET is
issued.
• Example: VTBB BANGKOK FIR, WMFC KUALA LUMPUR FIR
WAMS31 WMKK 301951

OBS WI N0139 E10210 - N0459 E09834 - N0443 E09953 -
N0122 E10302 - N0139 E10210 MOV ENE NC=
Phenomenon(M)
• Descriptions of the phenomenon causing the issuance of AIRMET.
• Refer on previous page (6 – 8) --- AIRMET phenomena and Table A6-1A: Template
for SIGMET and AIRMET, Appendix 6 -10, Annex 3,
WAMS31 WMKK 301951

OBS WI N0139 E10210 - N0459 E09834 - N0443 E09953 -
N0122 E10302 - N0139 E10210 MOV ENE NC=
Table A6-1A: Template for SIGMET and AIRMET, Appendix 6 -10, Annex 3,
Observed or forecast phenomena (M)
• Indication whether the information is observed and expected to continue or
forecast.
• OBS or OBS AT GGggZ or FCST or FCST AT GGggZ
• Example:
OBS
OBS AT 0140Z
FCST
FCST AT 0200Z
WAMS31 WMKK 301951
OBS WI N0139 E10210 - N0459 E09834 - N0443 E09953 -
N0122 E10302 - N0139 E10210 MOV ENE NC=
AIRMET STRUCTURE
(M) WMO Abbreviated


5. Level (C)
6. (Page APP 6-13 )
Location of phenomenon(M)
• Location (referring to latitude and longitude (in degrees or in degrees and
minutes)
• When reporting in degrees the format will be Nnn or Snn for latitude, and Ennn
or Wnnn for longitude.
• When reporting in degrees and minutes the format will be Nnnnn or Snnnn for
latitude, and Ennnnn or Wnnnnn for longitude.
• Example: N60 E025, N6030 E02550
• WAMS31 WMKK 301951
OBS WI N0139 E10210 - N0459 E09834 - N0443 E09953 -
N0122 E10302 - N0139 E10210 MOV ENE NC=
• The following are the possible ways to describe the location of
the phenomenon:
1. Polygon
2. Relative to a specified line, or single series of up to three connected lines, with
start and end points on the FIR boundary.
3. Between two lines of latitude, or between two lines of longitude.
4. Between two specified lines, or between two series of up to three connected
lines,
5. Relative to a line of latitude and a line of longitude (effectively a quadrant);
6. Relative to a line of latitude or longitude (effectively a segment),
7. Approximate
8. Specific point
9. Entire
Location of phenomenon(M) – (1)Polygon
• An area of the FIR defined by a polygon.
Minimum 4 coordinates, and not normally
more than 7 coordinates
• Symbolically, this is indicated as:
WI N0229 E10242 - N0229 E10117 -
WI <Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]> - N0329 E10012 - N0459 E10012 -
<Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]> - N0459 E10242 - N0229 E10242
<Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]> -
<Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]>
• The points of a polygon should be provided in

a clockwise order, and the
end point should be a repeat of the start
point.
Location of phenomenon(M) – (2)dir OF LINE lat lon
• Relative to a specified line, or single series W OF LINE N0545 E10147 - N0137 E10215
of up to three connected lines, with start
and end points on the FIR boundary.
<N OF> or <NE OF> or <E OF> or <SE OF> or

<S OF> or
<SW OF> or <W OF> or <NW OF> LINE
<Nnn[nn]> or
<Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]> -
<Nnn[nn]> or
<Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]>
E OF LINE N0545 E10147 - N0137 E10215

Location of phenomenon(M) – (3) dir OF lat AND dir OF lon
N OF N0410 AND W OF E09935
• Between two lines of latitude, or
between two lines of longitude.
<N OF> or <S OF> <Nnn[nn]> or

<Snn[nn]> AND <N OF> or
<S OF> <Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]>
<W OF> or <E OF> <Wnnn[nn]> or
<Ennn[nn]> AND <W OF>
or <E OF> <Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]>
S OF N0410 AND E OF E09935

Location of phenomenon(M) – (4) dir OF LINE lat lon – lat lon
• Between two specified lines, or between two
series of up to three connected lines, each with
start and endpoints on the FIR boundary.
<N OF> or <NE OF> or <E OF> or <SE OF> or <S OF> or
<SW OF> or <W OF> or <NW OF> LINE <Nnn[nn]> or
<Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]> - <Nnn[nn]> or
<Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]>[ - <Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]>
<Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]>][ <Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or
<Ennn[nn]>] AND <N OF> or <NE OF> or <E OF> or <SE OF> or <S OF>
or <SW OF> or <W OF> or <NW OF> LINE <Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]>
<Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]> - <Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or
<Ennn[nn]> [ - <Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]>][
- <Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]>] N OF LINE N0300 E10043 - N0155 E10432 AND S
OF LINE N0519 E09814 - N0433 E10343
Location of phenomenon(M) – (5) dir OF longitude AND
• Relative to a line of latitude and a line of
longitude (effectively a quadrant).
<N OF> or <S OF> <Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]>

AND <E OF> or <W OF> <Wnnn[nn]> or
<Ennn[nn]>
W OF E10135 AND E OF E09735
Location of phenomenon(M) – (6) dir OF latitude or
longitude
dir OF longitude
• Relative to a line of latitude or
longitude(effectively a
segment), where a coordinate
of latitude (or longitude)
defines a
line
• Symbolically, this is indicated dir OF latitude
as:

<Snn[nn]> or <E OF> or <W OF>
<Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]> E OF E09935
S OF N0402
Location of phenomenon(M) – (7) Approximate
• A ‘corridor’ of specified width, centred upon a line, of up to three connected segments, described by;
• APRX nnKM WID LINE BTN <Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]> - <Nnn[nn]> or
<Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or
<Ennn[nn]>[ - <Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]>][ - <Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]>
<Wnnn[nn]> or
<Ennn[nn]>]
or
• APRX nnNM WID LINE BTN <Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]> - <Nnn[nn]> or
<Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]>]
• For example:
APRX 50KM WID LINE BTN S1500 E07348 – S1530 E07642
Location of phenomenon(M) – (8) Specific point
• At a specific point within the FIR, indicated by a single coordinate of
latitude and longitude.
• For example:
N5530 W02230
S23 E107
Location of phenomenon(M) – (9) ENTIRE
• A reference to the whole FIR, FIR/UIR, or CTA .

ENTIRE FIR[/UIR]
ENTIRE CTA
AIRMET STRUCTURE
(M) WMO Abbreviated


5. Level (C)
6. (Page APP 6-13 )
Level (C)
Level (C) & Movement or expected movement (C)
in polygon line of longitude
Graphical
AIRMET in
specified line joining different format line of latitude and
two points longitude
Dissemination of AIRMET to Users
Send to Tel. Fax AFTN Email Webpage (e.g.
ABT)
ATS units (Air Traffic √ √ √ √ √
Controller, Approach
Terminal Controllers and
airlines)
Airport authority √ √ √ √ √
Meteorological Office √ √ √ √ √
Aviation Briefing Terminal (ABT)

Conclusion: AIRMET PROCEDURE
STEP 1 Monitoring by MWO based on source of information:
Monitoring 1. Radar images 2. Special AIREP Report
AIRMET Example:
AIRMET format:
WAMS31 WMKK 041215
STEP 2 WAA1A2ii CCCC YYGGgg WMFC AIRMET 1 VALID 041230/041630 WMKK-
CCCC AIRMET [nn] YYGGgg VALID WMFC KUALA LUMPUR FIR ISOL/OCNL TS/TSGR
Issuance YYGGgg/YYGGgg CCCC- OBS WI N6030 E02550 – N6055 E02500 – N6050
CCCC <FIR><Phenomenon> OBS/ FCST E02630 – N6030 E02550
<Location> <MOV> <INTENSITY>= MOV SE INTSF=
STEP 3
Changes in location and phenomena
Amendment
Phenomena no longer occurring or expected to occur

STEP 4
WAMS31 WMKK 041408
Cancellation WMFC AIRMET 2 VALID 041408/041530 WMKK-
WMFC KUALA LUMPUR FIR CNL AIRMET 1 041230/041530=
STEP 5 SEND TO: Tel Fax AFTN Webpage
Dissemination ATS unit √ √

MET Office √ √
Thank You
SUHAILY SAHAT
OBJECTIVE
• Overview types of significant aeronautical meteorological warning
over en-route and FIR: AIRMET (AM14) and SIGMET (AM15 &AM16)
• Know the USERS of each warning products
• Understand the format of each warning products
• Understand the procedures of dissemination of the warning products
INTRODUCTION
SIGMET Information
SIGMET Information: SIGnificant METeorological Information
• shall be issued by the meteorological watch office (MWO) with
regional agreement.
• SIGMET information is “a concise description in abbreviated plain
language concerning the occurrence and/or expected occurrence of
specified en-route weather phenomena, which may affect the safety of
aircraft operations, and of the development of those phenomena in
time and space.” ANNEX 3, 19TH Edition, July 2016,
CHAPTER 7: SIGMET AND AIRMET INFORMATION,
AERODROME WARNINGS AND WIND SHEAR
WARNINGS AND ALERTS (page 7-1)
PROCEDURES FOR PREPARATION OF SIGMET
INFORMATION
• SIGMET is intended for transmission to aircraft in flight either by ATC or by
VOLMET or D-VOLMET, and therefore, SIGMET messages should be kept
concise.
• SIGMET messages, are prepared and issued in the prescribed standardized
format as specified in Annex 3, Appendix 6, should be strictly followed by
the MWOs.
• The MWO should maintain watch over the evolution of the phenomenon
for which a SIGMET has been issued. (If the phenomenon persists or is
expected to persist beyond the period of validity of the SIGMET, another
SIGMET message for a further period of validity should be issued with
updated information.
• SIGMET should be promptly cancelled when the phenomenon is no longer
occurring or no longer expected to occur in the MWO’s area of
responsibility.
TYPE OF SIGMET
THERE ARE THREE (3) SIGMET TYPES
SIGMET for SIGMET for SIGMET Volcanic

weather tropical cyclone Ash
Convective SIGMET
Non Convective SIGMET
Thunderstorms
(TS)
Turbulence
Squall (SQL)
(TURB)
Dust storms PHENOMEN

(DS) and A FOR Icing (ICE)
Sandstorm (SA) ISSUANCE
SIGMET
Radioactive
cloud (RDOACT Tropical
CLD) Cyclone(TC)
Mountain wave Volcanic ash

(MTW) (VA)
Source of Information for Issuance SIGMET
SIGMET FORMAT
• Format of AIRMET Information shall be in accordance with the template shown
inTable A6-1A, APP -9 to APP 6-14, Annex 3.
WS/WC/WVA1A2ii CCCC YYGGgg (WMO Header)

CCCC SIGMET [nn] YYGGgg VALID YYGGgg/YYGGgg CCCC- (First Line)
CCCC <FIR><Phenomenon> OBS/ FCST <Location> <MOV> <INTENSITY>= (Second Line)
SIGMET STRUCTURE
(M) WMO Abbreviated

First line of SIGMET 2. Message identifier and daily sequence no. (M)

SIGMET 3. Observed or forecast phenomena (M)
5. Level (C)
6. (Page APP 6-13 )
WMO Header
T1T2 Data type designator WS – for SIGMET for phenomena other
than volcanic ash or tropical cyclone Examples:
WC - for SIGMET for tropical cyclone
WV – for SIGMET for volcanic ash • WSMS31 WMKK 060824
A1A2 Country or territory Assigned according to Table C1, Part II of
designators Manual on the Global • WVMS31 WMKK 090430
Telecommunication System, Volume I –
Global Aspects (WMO Publication No.
386)
• WSTH31 VTBS 121200
Example: MS
ii Bulletin number Assigned on national level according to • WVJP31 RJTD 012030
p 2.3.2.2, Part II of Manual on the Global
Telecommunication System, Volume I – • WCNG21 AYPY 100600
Global Aspects (WMO Publication No.
386)
Example: 31
WMO Header
Examples:
• CCCC is the ICAO location indicator of the
communication centre disseminating the message • WSMS31 WMKK 060824
(this may be the same as the MWO location
indicator).
• WVMS31 WMKK 090430
• Example:
• WMKK -ICAO location indicator for Kuala Lumpur • WSTH31 VTBS 121200
MWO and Kota Kinabalu MWO-
• VTBS - ICAO location indicator for Bangkok FIR • WVJP31 RJTD 012030
• VVTS - ICAO location indicator for Ho Chi Minh
FIR • WCNG21 AYPY 100600
• WSJC - ICAO location indicator for Singapore FIR.
WMO Header
• WMO header code: T1T2A1A2ii CCCC
YYGGgg [BBB] Examples:
• YYGGgg is the date/time group; where YY is
the day of the month and GGgg is the time • WSMS31 WMKK 060824
of transmission of the AIRMET in hours and
minutes UTC (normally this time is assigned • WVMS31 WMKK 090430
by the disseminating (AFTN) centre).
• In accordance with Annex 5 – Units of
Measurement to be Used in Air and Ground • WSTH31 VTBS 121200
Operations, when the validity period begins or
ends at midnight, YY should be set for the
following day and GGgg should be '0000'. i.e. • WVJP31 RJTD 012030
SIGMET validity ending at midnight on the 23rd
day of the month should be expressed as • WCNG21 AYPY 100600
'240000'
SIGMET STRUCTURE
(M) WMO Abbreviated


5. Level (C)
6. (Page APP 6-13 )
First line of SIGMET
• CCCC SIGMET [n][n]n VALID YYGGgg/YYGGgg CCCC-
CCCC ICAO location indicator of the ATS unit serving the FIR or CTA to which AIRMET
refers
SIGMET Message identifier
[n][n]n Daily sequence number (see 3.5.2.2)
VALID Period of validity indicator
YYGGgg/YYGGgg Validity period of the SIGMET given by date/time group of the beginning and
date/time group ofWMKK
WAMS31 the end 150230
of the period
CCA(see 3.5.2.3)
CCCC ICAO location indicator of the issuing MWO
- Mandatory hyphen to separate the preamble from the text

First line of SIGMET:
Daily sequence number
• The numbering of SIGMETs starts every day at 0001 UTC. The
sequence number should consist of up to three alphanumeric characters
and may be a combination of letters and numbers, such as:
• - 1, 2, …
• - 01, 02, …
• - A01, A02, …
• The sequence number is the sequence number for all SIGMET
messages types (WS, WV and WC) for one flight information region.
WSJC SIGMET A04 VALID 202230/210430 WSSS

Validity period
• The period of validity of a WS SIGMET should not be more than 4
hours;
• The period of validity of a WC or WV SIGMET should not be more than
6 hours;
WSJC SIGMET A04 VALID 202230/210430 WSSS

Validity period
• In case of a SIGMET for an observed phenomenon,
the filing time (date/time group in the WMO header) should be the same or
very close to the time in the date/time group indicating the start of the
SIGMET validity period.
• When the SIGMET is issued for a forecast phenomenon:
the beginning of validity period should be the time of the expected
commencement (occurrence) of the phenomenon in the MWO area of
responsibility;
the time of issuance of a WS SIGMET should not be more than 4 hours
before the start of validity period (i.e., expected time of occurrence of the
phenomenon); and for WC (tropical cyclone) and WV (volcanic ash)
SIGMET the lead time should not be more than 12 hours.
Validity period
1) First two lines of a SIGMET for an observed phenomenon:
• WSTH31 VTBS 241120
• VTBB SIGMET 3 VALID 241120/241500 VTBS–
2) First two lines of a SIGMET for a forecast phenomenon
(a) Expected time of occurrence 1530UTC
WSSR20 WSSS 311130
WSJC SIGMET 1 VALID 311530/311930 WSSS-
(b) Expected time of volcanic ash occurrence 1800UTC (+6 hours forecast of VA by Volcanic
ash advisory)
WVMS31 WMKK 011230
WMFC SIGMET A01 VALID 011800/020000 WMKK-
(c) Expected time of tropical cyclone occurrence 1200UTC (+12 hours forecast of TC by
Tropical Cyclone advisory)
WCMS31 WMKK 120100
WBFC SIGMET 01 VALID 121200/121800 WBKK-
SIGMET STRUCTURE
(M) WMO Abbreviated


5. Level (C)
6. (Page APP 6-13 )
Second line of SIGMET:
Name of the FIR (M)
• CCCC <name> FIR
• Location indicator and name of the FIR for which the AIRMET is
issued.
• Example: VTBB BANGKOK FIR, WMFC KUALA LUMPUR FIR
WSMS31 WMKK 191635

WMFC KUALA LUMPUR FIR EMBD CB OBS
WI N0254 E10049 - N0538 E09753 - N0544 E09848
- N0313 E10056 - N0254 E10049 TOP FL550 MOV W NC=
Phenomenon(M)
• Descriptions of the phenomenon causing the issuance of SIGMET.
• Refer on previous page (6 – 8) --- SIGMET phenomena and Table A6-1A: Template
for SIGMET and AIRMET, Appendix 6 -10, Annex 3,
WSMS31 WMKK 191635

WI N0254 E10049 - N0538 E09753 - N0544 E09848
Table A6-1A: Template for SIGMET and AIRMET, Appendix 6 -10, Annex 3,
Phenomenon(M) – for weather phenomenon
• The phenomenon description consists of a qualifier and a phenomenon
abbreviation. SIGMET should be issued only for the following phenomena
observed and forecast to persist for more than a transitory period.:
thunderstorms – if they are OBSC, EMBD, FRQ or SQL with or without hail
(GR);
turbulence – only SEV
icing – only SEV with or without FZRA
mountain waves – only SEV
dust storm – only HVY
sand storm – only HVY
radioactive cloud – RDOACT CLD
Phenomenon(M) – for volcanic ash
• For volcanic ash SIGMET (WV) only, the following conventions should be used
a) In the case when the eruption is from a previously unknown or un-named volcano.
VA ERUPTION PSN Nnn[nn] or Snn[nn] Ennn[nn] or Wnnn[nn] VA CLD
Example:
YUDD SIGMET 2 VALID 101200/101800 YUSO –
YUDD SHANLON FIR VA ERUPTION PSN N4315 E02115 VA CLD
b) In the case when the eruption is from a known and named volcano. The name may be up to 10
alphanumeric characters.
VA ERUPTION MT nnnnnnnnnn PSN Nnn[nn] or Snn[nn] Ennn[nn]
or Wnnn[nn] VA CLD
Example:
YUDD SHANLON FIR VA ERUPTION MT ASHVAL PSN N4315 E02115 VA CLD
c) In the case when a region of volcanic ash cloud is known to exist, but the precise origin of its source is
unknown (the ash cloud may be of large horizontal extent, and obscuring the precise vent from which it
emanates, and is otherwise in an area sparse of observation to identify the source).
VA CLD
Observed or forecast phenomena (M)
• Indication whether the information is observed and expected to continue or
forecast.
• OBS or OBS AT GGggZ or FCST or FCST AT GGggZ
• Example:
OBS
OBS AT 0140Z
FCST
FCST AT 0200Z
WSMS31 WMKK 191635
WI N0254 E10049 - N0538 E09753 - N0544 E09848
SIGMET STRUCTURE
(M) WMO Abbreviated


5. Level (C)
6. (Page APP 6-13 )
• Location (referring to latitude and longitude (in degrees or in degrees and
minutes)
• When reporting in degrees the format will be Nnn or Snn for latitude, and Ennn
or Wnnn for longitude.
• When reporting in degrees and minutes the format will be Nnnnn or Snnnn for
latitude, and Ennnnn or Wnnnnn for longitude.
• Example: N60 E025, N6030 E02550
• WSMS31 WMKK 191635
WI N0254 E10049 - N0538 E09753 - N0544 E09848
• The following are the possible ways to describe the location of
the phenomenon:
1. Polygon
2. Relative to a specified line, or single series of up to three connected lines, with
start and end points on the FIR boundary.
3. Between two lines of latitude, or between two lines of longitude.
4. Between two specified lines, or between two series of up to three connected
lines,
5. Relative to a line of latitude and a line of longitude (effectively a quadrant);
6. Relative to a line of latitude or longitude (effectively a segment),
7. Approximate
8. Specific point
9. Entire
Location of phenomenon(M) – (1)Polygon
• An area of the FIR defined by a polygon.
Minimum 4 coordinates, and not normally
more than 7 coordinates
WI N0229 E10242 - N0229 E10117 -
WI <Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]> - N0329 E10012 - N0459 E10012 -
<Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]> - N0459 E10242 - N0229 E10242
• The points of a polygon should be provided in

a clockwise order, and the
end point should be a repeat of the start
point.
Location of phenomenon(M) – (2)dir OF LINE lat lon
• Relative to a specified line, or single series W OF LINE N0545 E10147 - N0137 E10215
of up to three connected lines, with start
and end points on the FIR boundary.
<N OF> or <NE OF> or <E OF> or <SE OF> or

<S OF> or
<SW OF> or <W OF> or <NW OF> LINE
<Nnn[nn]> or
<Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]> -
<Nnn[nn]> or
<Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]>
E OF LINE N0545 E10147 - N0137 E10215

Location of phenomenon(M) – (3) dir OF lat AND dir OF lon
N OF N0410 AND W OF E09935
• Between two lines of latitude, or
between two lines of longitude.

<Snn[nn]> AND <N OF> or
<S OF> <Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]>
<W OF> or <E OF> <Wnnn[nn]> or
<Ennn[nn]> AND <W OF>
or <E OF> <Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]>
S OF N0410 AND E OF E09935

Location of phenomenon(M) – (4) dir OF LINE lat lon – lat lon
• Between two specified lines, or between two
series of up to three connected lines, each with
start and endpoints on the FIR boundary.
<N OF> or <NE OF> or <E OF> or <SE OF> or <S OF> or
<SW OF> or <W OF> or <NW OF> LINE <Nnn[nn]> or
<Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]> - <Nnn[nn]> or
<Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]>[ - <Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]>
<Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]>][ <Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or
<Ennn[nn]>] AND <N OF> or <NE OF> or <E OF> or <SE OF> or <S OF>
or <SW OF> or <W OF> or <NW OF> LINE <Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]>
<Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]> - <Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or
<Ennn[nn]> [ - <Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]>][
- <Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]>] N OF LINE N0300 E10043 - N0155 E10432 AND S
OF LINE N0519 E09814 - N0433 E10343
Location of phenomenon(M) – (5) dir OF longitude AND
• Relative to a line of latitude and a line of
longitude (effectively a quadrant).
<N OF> or <S OF> <Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]>

AND <E OF> or <W OF> <Wnnn[nn]> or
<Ennn[nn]>
W OF E10135 AND E OF E09735
Location of phenomenon(M) – (6) dir OF latitude or
longitude
dir OF longitude
• Relative to a line of latitude or
longitude(effectively a
segment), where a coordinate
of latitude (or longitude)
defines a
line
• Symbolically, this is indicated dir OF latitude
as:

<Snn[nn]> or <E OF> or <W OF>
<Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]> E OF E09935
S OF N0402
•
Approximate
A ‘corridor’ of specified width, centred upon a line, of up to three connected segments, described by;
• APRX nnKM WID LINE BTN <Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]> - <Nnn[nn]> or
<Wnnn[nn]> or
<Ennn[nn]>]
or
• APRX nnNM WID LINE BTN <Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]> - <Nnn[nn]> or
<Wnnn[nn]> or <Ennn[nn]>]
• For example:
APRX 50KM WID LINE BTN S1500 E07348 – S1530 E07642
Location of phenomenon(M) – (8) Specific point
• At a specific point within the FIR, indicated by a single coordinate of
latitude and longitude.
• For example:
N5530 W02230
S23 E107
Location of phenomenon(M) – (9) ENTIRE
• A reference to the whole FIR, FIR/UIR, or CTA .

ENTIRE FIR[/UIR]
ENTIRE CTA
Location of phenomenon(M) – (10) radius
• Within a specified radius of the centre of a tropical cyclone.
WI nnnKM OF TC CENTRE
WI nnnNM OF TC CENTRE
• Within a specified radius of the location of a radioactive release event.

WI nnKM OF <Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or
<Ennn[nn]>
WI nnNM OF <Nnn[nn]> or <Snn[nn]> <Wnnn[nn]> or
<Ennn[nn]>
For example:
WI 30KM OF N5530 W02230
SIGMET STRUCTURE
(M) WMO Abbreviated


5. Level (C)
6. (Page APP 6-13 )
Level (C)
Details: Flight level (C)
1) Reporting at a single flight level
For example: FL320
2) Reporting at a single geometric level, in metres or feet
For example: 4500M or 8250FT or 12000FT
3) Reporting a layer extending from the surface to a given height in meters, feet
or flight level (for SEV ICE, VA)
For example: SFC/3000M or SFC/9900FT or SFC/11000FT or SFC/FL350
4) reporting a layer extending from a given FL to a higher flight level (for SEV
TURB)
For example: FL250/290
5) reporting a layer where the base is unknown, but the top is given (for EMBD
CB, EMBD TS)
For example: TOP FL350
Details: Flight level (C)
6) reporting phenomenon above a specified flight level, but where the upper limit is
unknown: (for EMBD TS, EMBD CB)
For example: ABV FL350
7) reporting phenomenon that has an unknown lower limit, but has an upper limit that
is known to extend above a known flight level:(for EMBD TS, EMBD CB)
For example: TOP ABV FL350
8) reporting phenomenon expected between a lower and upper geometric level
expressed in metres or feet:
For example: 3500/9000M or 8000/12000FT or 11000/14000FT
9) reporting phenomenon expected between a lower geometric level expressed
in metres or feet and a higher flight level:
For example: 4000M/FL220 or 6000FT/FL140 or 11000FT/FL190
10) reporting the CB upper limit for tropical cyclone SIGMET
For example: TOP BLW FL450
Level (C) & Movement or expected movement (C)
Expected change of intensity (C)
The expected evolution of the phenomenon’s intensity is indicated by

one of the following abbreviations:
INTSF or WKN or NC
Forecast Time (C)
• This section is used, with ‘Forecast position’ to explicitly provide a
forecast of the position of the phenomena at the time specified. The
format is fixed, and is of the form
FCST AT <GGgg>Z
For example:
FCST AT 1600Z
• Where the forecast time is the same as the SIGMET validity end time.
Note. ― In accordance with Annex 5 – Units of Measurement to be Used in Air and
Ground Operations, when the validity period ends at midnight, YY should be set for the
following day and GGgg should be '0000'. i.e. SIGMET validity ending at midnight on
the 23rd day of the month should be expressed as '240000'.
TC Forecast Position (C)
• Only to be used for tropical cyclones, and used to indicate the location of
the centre of the tropical cyclone.
• The forecast centre position of a tropical cyclone is given by:
TC CENTRE PSN Nnn[nn] or Snn[nn] Wnnn[nn] or Ennn[nn]
• For example
TC CENTRE PSN N2740 W07345
Forecast Position (C)
• For volcanic ash which is not expected to be present within the FIR at the
end of the validity of the SIGMET, the following is permitted:
NO VA EXP
Cancellation of SIGMET
1. If the phenomenon for which a SIGMET was issued is NO LONGER present or no longer expected
within the validity period, the SIGMET SHALL be cancelled by the issuing MWO. The cancellation is done
by issuing same type of SIGMET with the following structure:
EXAMPLE:
STEPs: WSMS31 WMKK 040330
FORMAT OF
CANCELLATION SIGMET WMFC SIGMET A01 VALID 040340/040740 WMKK-
1 WMFC KUALA LUMPUR FIR EMBD TS OBS WI
(A) WMO heading with the same N0254 E10049 - N0538 E09753 - N0544 E09848
data type designator - N0313 E10056 - N0254 E10049 TOP FL550 MOV W NC=
(B) First line that contains as
period of validity the
remaining time of the original NO LONGER
period of validity PRESENT/EXPECTED
(C) Second line, which contains WITHIN VALIDITY
the name of the FIR, the PERIOD!
combination CNL SIGMET,
followed by the sequential (A) (B) (C)
number of the original
SIGMET and its original
validity period
WSMS31 WMKK 040515
2 WMFC KUALA LUMPUR FIR CNL SIGMET A01
040340/040740=
Cancellation of SIGMET ….CONT.
2. If the phenomenon for which a SIGMET was issued have significantly changes or, expected will be CONTINUE to
issue to the NEXT SIGMET within/before end the validity period, the original SIGMET SHALL be cancelled by the
issuing MWO. The cancellation is done by issuing same type of SIGMET with the following structure:
EXAMPLE:
Sequence of Cancellation
of SIGMET: WSMS31 WMKK 040325
1 WMFC KUALA LUMPUR FIR EMBD TS OBS WI
1. If it is known that an existing
N0254 E10049 - N0538 E09753 - N0544 E09848
SIGMET no longer accurately
describes the existing or expected - N0313 E10056 - N0254 E10049 TOP FL550 MOV W NC=
future evolution of the phenomena
a new SIGMET, correctly describing WSMS31 WMKK 040410
the hazard should be issued, WMFC SIGMET A02 VALID 040425/040825 WMKK-
WMFC KUALA LUMPUR FIR EMBD TS OBS WI
2. followed immediately by a cancellation of the 2 N0254 E10049 - N0538 E09753 - N0544 E09848
original, erroneous - N0313 E10056 - N0254 E10049 TOP FL500 STNR WKN=
SIGMET.
3. The new SIGMET should be issued

BEFORE the cancellation in order to WSMS31 WMKK 040415
ensure there is always a SIGMET in WMFC SIGMET A03 VALID 040415/040740 WMKK-
force and that the cancellation is not 3
mistakenly understood to mean that WMFC KUALA LUMPUR FIR CNL SIGMET A01
the hazard has completely dissipated. 040340/040740=
TYPE OF SIGMET
Convective Non - Convective

SIGMET SIGMET
WSMS31 WCMS31 WVMS31

WC and WV SIGMET
Introduction:
 Target tropical cyclones: TCs with a 10-minute mean surface wind
speed of 17m/s (34 kt) or more.
 SIGMETs for a tropical cyclone are to be issued only by the MWO responsible for the watch
of the FIR in which the centre (“eye”) of the tropical cyclone is located.
 Whenever a neighbouring FIR is influenced by CB clouds and thunderstorms associated with

the tropical cyclone, the MWO concerned must issue a SIGMET for such thunderstorms. (WS
SIGMET – FRQ TS)
 Update at least every six (6) hours.
 WC SIGMET messages concerning tropical cyclones should be based on advisory

information provided by TCACs designated by regional air navigation agreement.
From ANNEX 3, Doc 8896

TYPE OF SIGMET
Convective Non - Convective

SIGMET SIGMET

WV SIGMET (VOLCANIC ASH)
Introduction:
 When the VAAC advises;
• VA has approach, or within the FIR; or is expected to

enter your FIR (forecast)
 Update at least every six (6) hours.
 WV SIGMET messages concerning volcanic ash should

be based on advisory information provided by VAACs
designated by regional air navigation agreement.
From ANNEX 3, Doc 8896
VARIOUS CASE OF WV SIGMET
CASE 1: For VA (eruption on-going),
defining the area affected as a corridor of
specified width
YUDD SIGMET 2 VALID 211200/211800 YUSO–

YUDD SHANLON FIR/UIR VA ERUPTION MT ASHVAL PSN
N4330 E02200 VA CLD
FCST AT 1200Z APRX 100KM WID LINE BTN N4330 E02200
– N4315 E02230 – N4230 E02300 – N4145 E02230 – N4130
E02145 FL310/450 NC
FCST AT 1800Z APRX 100KM WID LINE BTN
N4330 E02200 – N4315 E02300 – N4215 E02415
– N4115 E02400 – N4030 E02315=
VARIOUS CASE OF WV SIGMET Observed position of Forecast position of
Volcano (+6 HOURS)
CASE 2: Multiple areas in SIGMET Volcano
for Volcanic Ash

FL250/370 FL250/370
The only way to include a second instance of a volcanic A A
ash cloud in a SIGMET message is to use the 'AND' option
after the 'Forecast position' section. B B
FL150/300 FL150/300
FIR area

YUDD SHANLON FIR VA ERUPTION MT ASHVAL PSN N4315 E02115 VA CLD
OBS AT 1200Z WI N4315 E02115 – N4345 E02145 - N4330 E02215 – N4245
E02230 – N4230 E02145 - N4315 E02115 FL250/370 NC
FCST AT 1800Z WI N4330 E02215 – N4315 E02345 – N4145 E02315 –
N4230 E02200 - N4330 E02215
AND WI N4200 E02115 – N4217 E02130 – N4145 E02200 – N4130 E02130
– N4200 E02115 FL150/300 NC FCST AT 1800Z WI N4200 E02145 – N4145
E02215 – N4100 E02215 - N4130 E02130 - N4200 E02145=
SIGMET
PREPARATION
SIGMET WORKFLOW IN WMKK STEP 1 : MONITORING
STEP 2 : SIGMET ISSUANCE
WMKK USING MESSIR – NEO

SYSTEM AS A TOOL
IN MONITORING AND WARNING
ISSUANCE.
WEB APPLICATIONS: MESSIR NEO
WEB APPLICATIONS:
JMA & HKO Support Web-based Tools
JMA SUPPORT WEB-BASED TOOL HKO SUPPORT WEB-BASED TOOL
http://ds.data.jma.go.jp/awfo/sigmet/sigco/app/ http://sigmet.hko.gov.hk/ops-sigcoord/#
STEP 3 : SIGMET TRANSMITTED
NAMC GLOBAL
MMD (HQ) WSSS DISSEMINATION
(RODB)
• MESSIR-VISION • WAFCs
COROBOR • Aeronauti • Broadcast London &
SYSTEM / cal Fixed Washington,
Meteorological Telecomm • WAFS
Data Processing unication Internet File
System (MDPS) Network Services
• e-MET (AFTN) (WIFS)
All SIGMET information will be displayed in Aviation Briefing Terminal (ABT)

NOTE:
Tropical cyclone & volcanic
ash are hazardous to
aircraft operations, so
issuance of WC SIGMET or
WV SIGMET must be given
high priority and without
delay!
http://abt.met.gov.my
Conclusion: SIGMET PROCEDURE
Types of SIGMET
Process Other
Tropical Cyclone Volcanic Ash
Phenomena
Satellite, Radar, TCAC

ICAO Satellite, Radar, Satellite, VA
Types of FIR/ACC Advisory (Tokyo &
Location Monitoring RSMC, WAFS Advisory (VAAC
SIGMET Served New Delhi TCAC
Indicator and NWP Darwin) and WAFS
Advisory) and WAFS
Other
phenomena WMKK
WMFC Observation that
WSMS31
WBFC Occurring or confirm a tropical Eruption and/or
Issuance expected to cyclone has developed ash is expected to
Tropical occur within FIR and expected to enter enter FIR
WMFC
Cyclone WMKK FIR
WBFC
WCMS31
Amendment Changes in location, movement and intensity
Volcanic
Ash WMKK
WMFC Cancellation Phenomena no longer exists or expected to exist
WBFC
WVMS31
Free Text Form
WMKK – WMO Location Indicator
Dissemination
AFTN
SIGMET
DISSEMINATION
SIGMETs Dissemination Flow Chart
SIGMET information should be transmitted to aircraft with the least possible delay on the
initiative of the responsible ATS unit
AM17: TROPICAL CYCLONE AND VOLCANIC ASH

ADVISORIES CENTRE
15 DISEMBER 2020

BAHAGIAN LATIHAN TEKNIKAL
TROPICAL CYCLONE
ADVISORIES CENTRE
The map below shows where the seven (7) basins noted for the
Tropical Cyclone development are located and typical tracks for each.
It also has the average number of tropical storms, and hurricanes,
created in each basin.
TROPICAL CYCLONE ADVISORY CENTRES (TCAC)
• ICAO ANNEX 3 1.1

Tropical cyclone advisory centre (TCAC).
A meteorological centre designated by regional air navigation agreement to
provide advisory information to meteorological watch offices, world area
forecast centres and international OPMET databanks regarding the position,
forecast direction and speed of movement, central pressure and maximum
surface wind of tropical cyclones.
• in short:
A meteorological center providing advisory information for TC SIGMET
(Tropical Cyclone Advisories, or: TCAs) to Meteorological Watch Offices,
WAFCs and OPMET (Operational aeronautical Meteorological) Data
Centers
TCAC - Area of Responsibility
These centers are responsible for the warnings
concerning tropical cyclone locations, intensity and
movement.
They are composed of:-
 Regional Specialized Meteorology Centers
(RSMC) which includes Miami, Honolulu, New
Delhi, La Reunion, Nadi, Tokyo and
 Tropical Cyclone Warnings Centers (TCWC)
which includes Perth, Darwin, Brisbane,
Wellington, Port Morseby (Papua New Guinea)
and Jakarta.
TCAC SERVING THE MWO WMKK AND WBKK
Issue updated advisory info to MWOs
for each tropical cyclone, as
hours. RSMC serving the MWO
WMKK & WBKK:-
i. TCAC TOKYO, JAPAN.
ii. TCAC NEW DELHI, INDIA.

Tropical Cyclone Intensity Scale
Roles and responsibility of Tropical Cyclone
Advisory Centers (TCACS)
• Monitor the development of tropical cyclone in their areas of responsibility, using
geostationary and polar-orbiting satellite data and other meteorological
information sources (e.g. numerical weather prediction models)
• Issue advisory information concerning the position of the cyclone centre, its
direction and speed of movement, central pressure and maximum surface wind
near the centre, in abbreviated plain language to:
(i) Meteorological watch offices in its area of responsibility;
(ii) Other TCACs whose areas of responsibility may be affected; and
(iii) World area forecast centres, international (Operational Meteorological
Information) OPMET databanks, and centres
• Designated by regional air navigation (RAN) agreement for the operation of
aeronautical fixed service (AFS) satellite distribution systems; and
• Issue updated advisory information to meteorological watch offices for each
tropical cyclone, as necessary, but at least every six hours
PRODUCTS OF TCACS
WMO Data type designator, (FK)
Time of origin
Name of tropical cyclone
Position of the centre
Direction and speed of movement
Forecast of centre position
Example of Tropical cyclone advisory by TCAC Tokyo

PRODUCTS OF TCACS
Example of Tropical cyclone advisory by TCAC New Delhi

VOLCANIC ASH
ADVISORIES CENTRE
VOLCANIC ASH ADVISORY CENTER (VAACS)
• VCACS are meteorological centers designated by regional

air navigation (RAN) agreement on device from WMO.
• The responsibility for providing a VAAC within the
framework of the international airways volcano watch,
shall arrange for that centre to respond to a notification
that a volcano has erupted, or is expected to erupt or
volcanic ash is reported in its area of responsibility
MAP OF AREA OF RESPONSIBILITY
VOLCANIC ASH ADVISORY CENTRES (VAACs)
 9 Volcanic Ash Advisory Centres

(VAAC) – detect VA clouds and
forecast their evolution.
 Issue updated advisory info to
MWOs for each tropical cyclone,
as necessary, but at least every
six hours. VAAC serving the
MWO WMKK & WBKK:-
VAAC DARWIN, AUSTRALIA

(VAACS)
• Monitor relevant geostationary and polar-orbiting
satellite data to detect the existence and extent of
volcanic ash in the atmosphere in the area concerned;
• Activate the volcanic ash numerical
trajectory/dispersion model in order to forecast the
movement of any ash “cloud” which has been detected
or reported;
Note: The numerical model may be its own or by
agreement, that of another
(VAACS)
• Issue advisory information regarding the extent and forecast movement of the volcanic ash “cloud”
to:
(i) Meteorological watch offices, area control centres and flight information centres serving flight
information regions in its area of responsibility which may be affected;
(ii) Other VAACs whose areas of responsibility may be affected;
(iii) World area forecast centres, international OPMET databanks, international NOTAM offices,
and centres designated by regional air navigation agreement for the operation of aeronautical
fixed service (AFS) satellite distribution systems; and
(iv) Airlines requiring the advisory information through the AFTN address provided specifically for
this purpose; and
Note: The AFTN address to be used by the VAACs is given in the ICAO Handbook on the
International Airways Volcano Watch (IAVW)(Doc 9766) which is available on the ICAO IAVWOPSG
website.
• Issue updated advisory as necessary, but at least every six hours until such time as the volcanic
ash “cloud” is no longer identifiable from satellite data, no further reports of volcanic ash are
received from the area, and no further eruptions of the volcano are reported.
PRODUCTS OF VAACS
1. Volcanic Ash that identifies the volcano,

Advisory(VAA) time of eruption, observed
 Information issued by a position of the ash cloud,
Volcanic Ash Advisory and the forecasted
Center concerning the position of the ash.
occurrence or expected The VAA is not to be used
occurrence of volcanic ash as a warning message
that may affect the safety
of aircraft operations.
 A VAA is a text message
PRODUCTS OF VAACS (TEXT)
WMO Data type designator, (FV)
Name of the volcano
Position of the volcano
Intensity of the eruption
Observe position of the ash
Forecast position of the ash

PRODUCTS OF VAACS
2. Volcanic Ash Graphic(VAG)
 A graphical depiction of the Volcanic Ash Advisory (VAA).

STATE VOLCANO OBSERVATORIES
• Contracting States with active or potentially active volcanoes
shall arrange that State volcano observatories monitor these
volcanoes and when observing:
a) significant pre-eruption volcanic activity, or a cessation thereof;
b) a volcanic eruption, or a cessation thereof; and/or
c) volcanic ash in the atmosphere
• shall send this information as quickly as practicable to their
associated Area Control Centre (ACC)/ Flight Information
Centre (FIC), MWO and VAAC.
• States volcano observatories monitor active volcanoes and
notify of their status through a color code
Thank You
AM18: AVIATION METEOROLOGICAL PRODUCTS AND

FLIGHT DOCUMENTATION
15 DISEMBER 2020

BAHAGIAN LATIHAN TEKNIKAL
Outline
• What is Aviation Meteorological Products?

• Overview all aviation meteorological products.
• What is “Flight Doc”?
• Content of “Flight Doc”.
• Dissemination of aviation meteorological products and
flight doc.
AVIATION METEOROLOGICAL PRODUCTS AND
• Aviation Weather Products and Flight Doc are

meteorological information supplied to operators and flight
crews for
a) Pre-flight planning
b) In –flight replanning
c) Use by flight crew members before departure
d) Aircraft in flight
• Aviation Weather Products and Flight Doc are issued by
AMO (Aerodrome Meteorological Office) and MWO(
Meteorological Watch Office)
Ways to Supply The Information
Meteorological information is supplied to operators and flight crew members
by one or more of the following, as agreed between the meteorological
authority and the operator concerned and the order shown below does not
imply priority:
a) written or printed material, including specified charts and forms;
b) data in digital form;
c) briefing;
d) consultation;
e) display; or
f) in lieu of a) to e), by means of automated pre-flight information systems
providing self-briefing and flight documentation facilities while retaining
access by operators and flight crew members to consultation, as necessary,
with the aerodrome meteorological office.
AVIATION METEOROLOGICAL PRODUCTS AND
Aviation Meteorological Products and Flight Doc shall be up to date and include the following
information:
ANNEX 3, Chapter 9, 9.13 a) 1 to 7, b) to j)
a. Forecast of:
1. Upper wind and upper air temperature
2. Upper air humidity
3. Geopotential altitude of flight levels
4. Flight level and temperature of tropopause
5. Direction, speed and flight level of maximum wind
6. SIGWX phenomena and
7. Cumulonimbus clouds, icing and turbulence
b. METAR or SPECI
c. TAF or amended TAFfor aerodromes
d. Forecast for TAKE OFF
e. SIGMET information
f. Volcanic ash and tropical cyclone advisory
g. GAMET area forecast and/or area forecast for low level flight in chart form in support of the
issuance of AIRMET information for low level flights
h. Aerodrome warnings
i. Meteorological satellite images
j. Ground-based weather radar information
AVIATION METEOROLOGICAL PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
Aviation Meteorological Responsible Issued time Validity

Products
Upper wind and upper WAFC 4 times daily ((0000UTC, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21,
temperature 0600UTC,1200UTC,1800UTC) 24, 27, 30, 33 and
36 hours
SIGWX Chart
a) High level SIGWX a) WAFC London and 4 times daily 24 hours
(SWH) WAFC Washington (0000UTC,
b) Medium level SIGWX b) WAFC London and 0600UTC,1200UTC,1800UTC) 24 hours
(SWM) WAFC Washington
c) Low level SIGWX c) Aerodrome 4 Times daily Based on
(SWL) Meteorological Office agreement between
(AMO) meteorological
authority and users
METAR SPECI Aeronautical METAR: Hourly or half hourly intervals -
Meteorological Station SPECI: anytime
(AMS)
TREND forecast AMO Hourly or half hourly intervals 2 hours
AVIATION METEOROLOGICAL PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
Aviation Responsible Issued time Validity
Meteorological
Products
Terminal Aerodrome AMO TAF: Every 6 hours 24 hours or 30 hours
Forecast ,TAF or (0000UTC,0600UTC,1200UTC,1800UT
amended TAF C)
Amended TAF: when necessary
Take off forecast AMO Based on agreement between Based on agreement
meteorological authority and users. between meteorological
PMPN: issued every 3 hours authority and users
(PMPN: 6 hours)
SIGMET information MWO When necessary SIGMET convective: not
more than 4 hours
SIGMET VA and TC: shall
be extended up to 6 hours
Volcanic ash and MWO As necessary but at least every 6 hours
tropical cyclone
advisory
Aerodrome Warning AMO As necessary
KLIA PPI IMAGE
RADAR IMAGES
KLIA CAPPI IMAGE
KLIA ROSHEAR IMAGE
KLIA RADAR
SUBANG
RADAR
SUBANG CAPPI IMAGE
SUBANG WINDSHEAR IMAGE
SATELLITE images
Flight Documentation (Flight Doc)
• Flight documentation shall be comprise information listed under Annex 3, Chapter 9, 9.1.3 a) 1) and
6), b) , c), e), f), g)
• Flight documentation should comprise the following information
a) Current and forecast: upper winds and upper-air temperatures
b) Existing & expected significant en-route weather phenomena
c) METAR, SPECI (trend)
d) TAF or amended TAF
e) SIGMET & special air-reports
• Airline operators and crew members can retrieve flight documents using aviation meteorological
information dissemination system 3 hours before flight departure. If required, weather briefings are
provided via video conferencing facilities or telephone to flight crew members prior to departure
Aerodrome Forecast (TAF)

METAR and SPECI
SIGMET
Volcanic ash and tropical cyclone advisory
GAMET area forecast, area forecast for low level flights
and AIRMET information (if appropriate)
SIGWX Chart
Wind and Temperature (WIND/ TEMP) Chart
SAMPLE OF PRODUCTS
METAR BULLETIN TAF BULLETIN SIGMET BULLETIN

SAMPLE OF PRODUCTS
Volcanic ash advisory Tropical cyclone advisory AIRMET BULLETIN

PRODUCT: GAMET FORECAST
. An area forecast in
abbreviated plain language for low-level flights for a
flight information region or sub-area thereof,
prepared by the meteorological office designated by
the meteorological authority concerned and
exchanged with meteorological offices in adjacent
flight information regions, as agreed between the
meteorological authorities concerned
SIGWX CHART
• SIGWX is a Significant Weather Chart defined by ICAO

• Issued by World Area Forecast Centres, WAFC (from
meteorological offices in London and Washington),
presenting the most important meteorological phenomena
relevant especially for air traffic transport.
• WAFC publishes them in two formats : BUFR code and
PNG images
• Charts are being issued every six hours (0, 6, 12, 18UTC)
OVERVIEW SIGWX CHART
How to interpret SIGWX Forecast Chart
Interpretation of SIGWX Chart
a)Legend information
Figure1: Legend from WAFC SIGWX PNG forecast chart indicating

issuer, provider, ICAO area, height range and validity time.
Example of legend provided by PMPN

Interpretation of SIGWX Chart
a)User advisory information
Figure 2: Legend from WAFC SIGWX PNG forecast chart

providing advisory information.
Figure 3: Legend from WAFC SIGWX PNG forecast chart

providing advisory information in the event
of a radiological incident.
Example of legend provided by PMPN

FEATURES PROVIDED IN WAFC SIGWX FORECASTS
1) JET STREAM
Jetstream information is indicated in WAFC SIGWX

forecasts when the jet
core equals or exceeds 80KT.
Figure 3: Example area of WAFC SIGWX forecast. Note

the orientation of the jet pennants and flight
level information indicating an easterly jetstream
EXAMPLE
A jet core with wind speed increasing from 105 knots to a

maximum of 125 knots then decreasing to 105 knots. The jet core
is at FL380 and at the location of the maximum wind speed the
wind speed is 80 knots or greater between FL280 and FL420.
2) CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE (CAT)
Example area of WAFC SIGWX forecast highlighting an

area of CAT (within the dashed line). The number in the
'call-out' box should be cross referenced with the legend
on the chart itself.
2) CUMULONIMBOS CLOUD
Areas of cumulonimbus (CB) cloud are indicated by 'scalloped' lines.
…the forecast is embedded within cloud layers and not readily recognised". The top of the CB
clouds are expected to be FL480, and this is indicated by the 3 numeric figures
'480'. The base of the CB is indicated as being 'XXX', and this means that the
base is below the lower boundary of the WAFC SIGWX forecast. For SWH
which covers a vertical from FL250 to FL630, 'XXX' means the base of the CB
will be below FL250.
3) ICING, TURBULENCE
indicates that moderate turbulence is forecast from

below FL100 (the lower bound of the forecast) as
therefore represented by XXX, up to FL240.
The lower combination of symbol and characters

indicates that moderate icing is forecast from FL130
to FL210.
4) FLIGHT LEVEL OF TROPOPAUSE, TROPICAL CYCLONE, VOLCANIC

ERUPTION, WIDESPREAD SANDSTORMS/DUSTORM
Volcanic eruption
Widespread sandstorm/ dustorm

WIND AND TEMPERATURE CHART
 WIND AND TEMPERATURE
CHART prepared in digital form four
times daily by WAFCs are valid for
6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33
and 36 hours after the time (0000,
0600, 1200 and 1800 UTC) of the
synoptic data on which they are
based.
 These charts are prepared for the

following flight levels FL
FL 50 (850 hPa) FL 320 (275 hPa)
FL 100 (700 hPa) FL 340 (250 hPa)
FL 140 (600 hPa) FL 360 (225 hPa)
FL 180 (500 hPa) FL 390 (200 hPa)
FL 240 (400 hPa) FL 410 (175 hPa)
FL 270 (350 hPa) FL 450 (150 hPa)
FL 300 (300 hPa) FL 530 (100 hPa)
How to interpret?
• Basically, the wind barbs give us two elements of

information about the wind: direction and speed.
• The thin edge of the barb is the direction, while the barbs
themselves inform us on the average speed of the wind.
Speed of wind barb Direction of wind barb

Figures
 The figures shown in the chart actually

express the forecasted temperature at that
point and altitude.
 Numbers are expressed in negative

degrees Celsius.
 When a positive degree needs to be

informed, it will be preceded by the plus
sign (+). So, in the chart, 42 means -42°C,
while +6 means +6°C.
DIFFERENT MODES OF DELIVERY
• Web-based information system (ABT, PMPN PORTAL, MMD

Official website)
• Telephone consultation
• Facsimile/Email
DISPLAY OF MET INFO
(ABT, PMPN PORTAL & MMD WEB)
Aviation Briefing Terminal (ABT)

http://abt.met.gov.my
PMPN Portal MMD Official Website

http://211.24.195.134/pmpn/ www.met.gov.my
Thank You

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KURSUS ASAS METEOROLOGY BAGI

PEGAWAI METEOROLOGI 2020/2021

AM1: Introduction to Factors That Affect Safe Operations

WAN AZLINA BINTI WAN AB AZIZ

• Contains almost all weather.

These services are provided within the technical

Affect aircraft performance,

 An altimeter is an instrument used to measure the altitude, the distance

 The density of air decreases with height because at higher altitudes:-

 The standard atmosphere is a hypothetical profile of

 pressure - 1013.25 hPa

 Altitude - vertical distance between Mean Sea Level (MSL)

The shortest hand indicates tens

The middle length hand represents

The shortest hand is just before

 Icing may occur :

 One might also categorize icing into:

• How about during in flight?

WHEN? – In convective formation.

1 Approach initially appeared normal

3 Airspeed of airplane decrease and combined with reduced visual of visibility

4 Airplane crashed at short approach end of runway

1 Airplane experiences increased performance caused by increasing of headwind

2 Airplane experiences a performance decreasing downdraft

3 Rapidly airplane experience increasing tailwind

High Cloud Cirro

Low Cloud Strato

Courtesy of Lisa Gardiner/ UCAR

• Fog is encoded as FG on METAR/SPECI and TAF report and reported

(a) Horizontal visibility - the furthest visibility obtained horizontally in a specific

• From Local Report (MET REPORT/ SPECIAL) - measured by instrument

• Decreased visibility to values ​below

2. Numerical weather prediction (NWP) generally provides good

3. Forecast tephigrams are extremely useful but again the limitations of

• Picture of vertical visibility

What causes turbulence?

 Thermal create convective

 Clear air turbulence (CAT) is originates from a strong shear

Source: FAA Handbooks Manual

 Jet streams are bands of strong wind that generally

 They impact weather, air travel and many other things

What cause the Jet Stream?

 This movement creates an air current, or wind.

 So, if an airplane flies in a powerful jet stream

 That’s why an airplane flying a route from

 Effects for air traffic - According to the Flight

 Volcanic ash reporting by Volcano Observatory

 Dust storms and sand storms are regions of raised dust

 The dust and sand are essentially raised by the wind,

1. Drastic reductions in visibility.

1. By satellite image (visible and infrared image)

2. Empirical forecasting technique (analysis the

3. Numerical weather prediction (NWP) products

 The objective of the aeronautical meteorological services is to

• One of the purposes of the WMO is “…to further the

• WMO together with the International Civil Aviation

Profile of Malaysia as a Council Member of the ICAO

Objectives of ICAO (Art. 44)

• Encourage the development of airways, airports and air

• Decreased visibility to values below