Rotation Velocity, VR

The procedure for take-off will be that the vehicle will accelerate until it reaches a safe initial flying speed. The pilot can
then rotate the vehicle to an attitude to produce climb lift and it will ascend from the ground. The determination of this
safe flying speed or rotation speed, VR, is a critical factor in determining take-off performance.

Take-off rules vary slightly depending on the aircraft category. Small commuter aircraft should be considered as meeting
FAR 23 rules, transport category aircraft should comply with FAR 25 rules.

Small commuter aircraft :

For safety reasons VR is usually determined as being 1.1 × VSTALL or 1.05 × VMIN CONTROL
which ever is greater. Stall speed, VSTALL, is the lowest speed that the aircraft can be flown before the airflow starts to
separate from wings as the angle of attack becomes too great. The wing is assumed in this case to be in take-off
configuration or "clean".

Now, Minimum control speed, VMC is a more complex calculation and requires knowledge of the stall characteristics of
the tailplane and elevator. For conventional aircraft there is only a small difference between V R calculations based on stall
speed or minimum control speed.

Introduction
An airplane, by definition, is a fixed wing aircraft. Its wings can produce lift only when there is a relative velocity
between the airplane and the air. In order to be airborne, the lift produced by the airplane must be at least equal to the
weight of the airplane. This can happen when the velocity of the airplane is equal to or greater than its stalling speed. To
achieve this velocity called ‘Take-off velocity(VTO)’ the airplane accelerates along the runway. Thus, an airplane covers
a certain distance before it can take-off. Similarly, when an airplane comes in to land, the lift produced must be nearly
equal to the landing weight. Hence, the airplane has a velocity, called ‘Touch down speed (VTD)’, when it touches the
ground. It then covers a certain distance before coming to halt. The estimation of take-off distance and landing distance
are the topics covered in this chapter.

As well as rotation speed there are other safety considerations as shown in the following Figure.

An overview of takeoff performance

Definitions of take-off run and take off distance

The horizontal distance covered along the ground, from the start of takeoff till the airplane is airborne is called the
takeoff run. However, to decide the length of the runway required for an airplane, it is important to ensure that the
airplane is above a certain height before it leaves the airport environment. This height is called ‘Screen height’ and is
equal to 15 m (sometimes 10 m), which is above the height of common obstacles like trees and electricity poles. The
takeoff distance is defined as the horizontal distance covered by an airplane from the start of the run till it climbs to a
height equal to the screen height. It is assumed that the weight of the airplane during take-off is the gross weight for
which it is designed and that the take-off takes place in still air.

Take off performance can be predicted using a simple measure of the acceleration of the aircraft along the runway based
on force equilibrium.

The forces involved will be,

T – Thrust of propulsion system pushing aircraft along runway.

D – Aerodynamic Drag of vehicle resisting the aircraft motion.

F – Rolling resistance friction due to the contact of wheels or skids on the ground.

During take-off run the imbalance in these forces will produce an acceleration along the runway.

• (dV/dt)= T-D-F/m
where dV/dt is the acceleration along the runway and m is the mass of the vehicle

V1- Abort decision speed. Below this speed the take-off can be safely aborted. After this there will not
be sufficient runway length to allow the aircraft to decelerate to a stop.
V2 – Safe climb speed. V2 must be no less than 1.2 * Vstall. Below this speed aircraft cannot attain
sufficient climb rate.

Transport Aircraft :

VR must not be less than V1

VR must be greater than 1.05 * VMC
VR must be set so that aircraft achieves V2 before reaching a height of 35ft above the runway surface.
Aircraft must climb at a minimum gradient to avoid obstacles at the end of the runway. With engine failure on
multi-engined aircraft, this speed should still be achievable.
FACTORS AFFECTING AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE DURING TAKEOFF

The takeoff part of a flight is the distance from the brake release point to the point at which the aircraft reaches
a defined height over the surface. For any particular takeoff it must be shown that the distance required for
takeoff in the prevailing conditions does not exceed the takeoff distance available at the aerodrome.

During the takeoff roll, lift is created on the wings to overcome the aircraft weight. This is done by forward
acceleration of the aircraft produced by greater thrust force then drag.

The takeoff distance required depends on the interaction of forces:

• The thrust varies during takeoff, in general it decreases as aircraft speeds up; • The total drag of the
aircraft during takeoff results from aerodynamic drag and wheel drag. As the aircraft speeds up the
aerodynamic drag will increase. The wheel drag depends on the load and the runway surface resistance.
But as the aircraft speeds up the lift force increases, which reduces the load on the wheels and therefore
reduces the wheel drag
(eventually to zero); • the lift force increases, as aircraft speeds up; • The aircraft weight remains constant;

The factors that affect these forces and their interaction are the factors that affect aircraft performance during
takeoff:

• Aircraft takeoff mass and balance; • temperature; • air density; • wind; • runway conditions (runway
surface, runway slope); • flap setting and airframe contamination;

• Aircraft takeoff mass and balance

Aircraft takeoff mass and balance, determine the weight force. Limitations on mass are set to ensure adequate
margins of strength and performance while limitations on the centre of gravity position (balance) are set to
ensure adequate stability and control of the aircraft in flight.

The total takeoff mass of the aircraft consists of its empty mass, its passengers, cargo (payload), and the fuel.
When loading the aircraft care must be taken not to exceed the limits mentioned.

The greater the takeoff mass the greater the aircraft weight. This means that greater lift force is required to
overcome the weight, therefore greater speed is necessary for takeoff. Thus a longer takeoff distance is required
in order to achieve this speed, because the rate of acceleration is reduced (inversely proportional to the mass)
and the wheel drag will be greater due to increased load.
The efficiency of the jet engine depends on the temperature of the air surrounding it. The higher the air
temperature, the less thrust can be produced by the engine. Because of that the difference between the thrust and
the drag during takeoff is smaller. Therefore the rate of acceleration is smaller and the aircraft will need a longer
takeoff distance.

In addition, a change in temperature affects the air density.

• Air density

Air density affects the thrust, lift and drag forces in the following way: - low air density gives reduced thrust
created by the engines; - low air density requires higher takeoff speed. The lift is proportional to the air density.
So, higher speed is required to produce same lift when the air density is low; - low air density gives lower
aerodynamic drag. However, the effect on the lift and thrust is more dominant since the aerodynamic drag is
relatively small;

In general low density requires longer takeoff distance.

Air density is determined by the pressure (elevation), temperature and humidity: - low atmospheric pressure
gives low air density; - higher the aerodrome is elevated, lower the atmospheric pressure hence lower the air
density; - higher the temperature, lower the air density; - higher the humidity, lower the air density.

• Wind

The lift and the drag during takeoff depend on air speed, but the distance required for takeoff depends on the
ground speed. A headwind therefore reduces the ground speed at a required takeoff air speed and reduces the
takeoff distance. On the other hand, a tailwind increases the ground speed, at a same required takeoff air speed,
and increases the takeoff distance.

Crosswind component has no effect on the takeoff distance.

Pilots are permitted to use only 50% of the reported headwind component (or 150% of the reported tailwind
component) when calculating the takeoff distance required. This is to allow for variations in the reported winds
during takeoff. Runway conditions

If the runway is sloping, a component of the weight acts along the runway and increases or decreases the
acceleration force. A downhill slope increases the accelerating force, and therefore reduces the takeoff distance
required, whereas an uphill slope reduces the accelerating force and increases the takeoff distance.

The runway surface condition has effect on the wheel drag. If the runway is contaminated by snow, slush or
standing water, the wheel drag will be greater. Thus the accelerating force decreases and the takeoff distance
required increases. Further on, if the takeoff is abandoned in such conditions and breaking is required the
stopping distance will greatly increase.

• Flap setting and airframe contamination

Flap setting has an affect on the wing’s lift coefficient and on the aerodynamic drag. Increasing flap angle
increases the lift coefficient, and therefore reduces stalling speed and the required takeoff speed (the same lift
will be created at smaller air speed due to greater lift coefficient). This reduces the takeoff distance. In the same
time increased flap angle increases drag, reduces acceleration, and increases the takeoff distance.

The net effect is that takeoff distance will decrease with increase of flap angle initially, but above a certain flap
angle the takeoff distance will increase again. An optimum takeoff setting can be determined for each type of
aircraft and any deviation from this setting will give an increase in the takeoff distance.

The flap setting also affects the climb gradient. Increasing the flap angle increases the drag, and so reduces the
climb gradient for a given aircraft mass. If there are obstacles to be considered in the takeoff flight path, the flap
setting that gives the shortest takeoff distance may not give the required climb gradient for obstacle clearance.
In addition if the airframe is contaminated by frost, ice or snow during takeoff the aircraft performance will
be reduced, and the takeoff distance will be increased.