Page 1 of 27

COMMERCIAL PILOT EXAM

METEOROLOGY NOTES
(TWENTY STRONG PAGES)
A dedication to our teacher & mentor, CAPT. QAISER ANSARI,
The Foundation of Knowledge – The Aviation Encyclopedia.

Compiled by Capt Khilji A.K - 3693

 Page 2 of 27

1. BUYS BALLOTS’S LAW ........................................................................................................ 4

2. FRONTS.................................................................................................................................... 4
WARM FRONT ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Cross section ................................................................................................................... 5
WARM SECTOR .................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
COLD FRONT ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 6
Cross section ................................................................................................................... 6
OCCLUDED FRONT ............................................................................................................................................................................. 7
Cross section ................................................................................................................... 8
3. CLOUDS ................................................................................................................................... 8
HIGH 9
MEDIUM ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
LOW 9
FORMATION OF CLOUDS ............................................................................................................................................................... 10
Convection .................................................................................................................... 10
Orographic uplift. .......................................................................................................... 10
Cloud formed by turbulence and mixing......................................................................... 10
Cloud formed by widespread lifting................................................................................ 10
CLOUDBASE ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
4. CONVECTION ....................................................................................................................... 11
THERMAL PRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................................ 12
THE “REAL ATMOSPHERE” ............................................................................................................... 12
Inversion ....................................................................................................................... 12
STABILITY AND INSTABILITY ...................................................................................................................................................... 13
CUMULUS CLOUD FORMATION................................................................................................................................................... 13
5. METEOROLOGICAL TERMS ............................................................................................. 16

6. PRESSURE SYSTEMS .......................................................................................................... 16

LOW PRESSURE ................................................................................................................................................................................. 17
Formation of a low ........................................................................................................ 17
Associated weather ........................................................................................................ 18
HIGH PRESSURE ................................................................................................................................................................................ 18
Associated weather ........................................................................................................ 19
7. WINDS AND THINGS ........................................................................................................... 19
VALLEY WINDS ................................................................................................................................................................................. 19
SEA BREEZES ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
SEA BREEZE FRONTS....................................................................................................................................................................... 21
WAVE LIFT.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
FOG 21
Radiation fog................................................................................................................. 21
Advection fog................................................................................................................. 22
Sea fog .......................................................................................................................... 22
Hill Fog......................................................................................................................... 22
8. SYNOPTIC CHART............................................................................................................... 22

9. CLOUDS AND RAIN ............................................................................................................. 24

Compiled by Capt Khilji A.K - 3693

 Page 3 of 27

List of figures:
FIGURE 1 LOW PRESSURE SYSTEM ................................................................................................................................................ 4
FIGURE 2 WARM FRONT SYMBOL ................................................................................................................................................. 5
FIGURE 3 WARM FRONT CROSS-SECTION .................................................................................................................................. 5
FIGURE 4 COLD FRONT SYMBOL ................................................................................................................................................... 6
FIGURE 5 COLD FRONT CROSS-SECTION .................................................................................................................................... 6
FIGURE 6 ANAFRONT ......................................................................................................................................................................... 7
FIGURE 7 KATAFRONT ...................................................................................................................................................................... 7
FIGURE 8 OCCLUDED FRONT SYMBOL ........................................................................................................................................ 8
FIGURE 9 OCCLUDED FRONT CROSS-SECTION ......................................................................................................................... 8
FIGURE 10 CLOUD TYPES ................................................................................................................................................................. 9
FIGURE 11 CLOUDS FORMED BY TURBULENCE .................................................................................................................... 10
FIGURE 12 STANDARD ELR ............................................................................................................... 11
FIGURE 13 ELR AND DALR .............................................................................................................. 12
FIGURE 14 INVERSIONS .................................................................................................................................................................. 13
FIGURE 15 CONVECTIVE CLOUD FORMATION ....................................................................................................................... 14
FIGURE 16 SAMPLE QUESTION ELR .................................................................................................... 15
FIGURE 17 SAMPLE QUESTION ELR AND DALR .................................................................................. 15
FIGURE 18 SAMPLE QUESTION ELR, DALR AND SALR ...................................................................... 15
FIGURE 19 FORMATION OF LOW PRESSURE ............................................................................................................................ 17
FIGURE 20 FORMATION OF LOW (1) .................................................................................................... 17
FIGURE 21 FORMATION OF LOW (2) .................................................................................................... 18
FIGURE 22 FORMATION OF LOW (3) .................................................................................................... 18
FIGURE 23 VALLEY WINDS (MORNING) ............................................................................................... 19
FIGURE 24 VALLEY WINDS (MIDDAY) ................................................................................................. 20
FIGURE 25 VALLEY WINDS (EVENING) ................................................................................................ 20
FIGURE 26 SEA BREEZE FRONT ................................................................................................................................................... 21
FIGURE 27 ADVECTION FOG ........................................................................................................................................................ 22
FIGURE 28 SYNOPTIC CHART ....................................................................................................................................................... 23
FIGURE 29 ROTATION ROUND PRESSURE SYSTEMS ............................................................................................................. 23
FIGURE 30 SURFACE WIND ROUND A LOW.............................................................................................................................. 24
FIGURE 31 SURFACE WIND ROUND A HIGH............................................................................................................................. 24

Compiled by Capt Khilji A.K - 3693

 Page 4 of 27

Meteorology

1. Buys Ballots’s Law

Very Simple - this states that in the Northern Hemisphere, if you stand with your back to the wind,
the area of low pressure is on your left hand side. In the Southern Hemisphere, it is on your right hand
side.

2. Fronts
A front is a boundary between 2 different air masses of different density. Air masses don’t like to mix
and the boundary between the two (the front) is where active weather can take place. Fronts are very
common in depressions.. Although not in the syllabus, a depression starts along the jet stream.
The jet stream is an area of very fast moving air; West to East (in the Northern Hemisphere). The jet
stream is like the traffic on a motorway; it sometimes bunches and sometimes eases off. Where it
bunches, the high altitude pressure increases causing a downward flow of air - thestart of an
anticyclone (high pressure system) where it eases, it speeds up and due to Bernoulli’s principle, it
causes a reduction in pressure - the start of a low. More details later. As the low pressure “winds up”,
it twists the air masses and causes the characteristic low with fronts. The formation of a low with its
frontal systems will be explained in the section on Pressure systems.

For this section, the typical low with frontal zones is shown below;
Figure 1 Low pressure system

Warm Front

A warm front is where warm air overrides cooler air. Shown on maps as;

Figure 2 Warm front symbol

Compiled by Capt Khilji A.K - 3693

 Page 5 of 27

A warm front is where an area of warm air catches up with an area of cold air and overrides it (due to
the less density). The normal warm front has a shallow slope with the air rising gradually over many
hundreds of miles. This lifting produces the gradually thickening layer of cloud which eventually
results in the steady rain near the frontal zone.

Cross section

The cross section of a warm front is shown below;

Figure 3 Warm front cross-section

The normal warm front has a shallow slope as the warm air mass overrides the cooler air. The
slope is typically 1:50 to 1:400 and the frontal zone effect may extend 500 miles ahead of the
frontal transition on the ground. This means that the forthcoming warm front may be seen in
advance. High cloud such as Cirrus and Cirrostratus will shut off the solar activity usually
cutting off thermals. Then the cloudbase will lower with Alto stratus and Nimbostratus giving
drizzle as the front approaches. Rain possibly beginning 5-10 hrs before the passage of the
front. The winds may strengthen and 1back. At the front, the rain eases off, the wind will veer
50 degrees or so and the temperature and humidity will rise. We are now in the warm sector.

Warm Sector

The warm sector is the area between the leading warm front and its following cold front. The air is
warm and produces the right conditions for wave flights. Following the warm sector ids the cold front.

1
back - winds change direction ANTI CLOCKWISE

Compiled by Capt Khilji A.K - 3693

 Page 6 of 27

Cold Front

A cold front is where colder denser air undercuts warmer air. It is shown on maps as below;

Figure 4 Cold front symbol

When a mass of cold air meets a mass of warm air, it tries to undercut it. The cold air pushes under
the warm air acting as a wedge. The slope of the wedge is steep, about 1 in 30 to 1 in 100. They move
quickly about 20mph. and strong updraughts can be produced about 100 miles ahead of a front.

Cross section

The cross section is shown below;

Figure 5 Cold front cross-section

The warm sector gets its name from the fact that the cold front usually follows a warm front.
See the section on pressure systems later.

The cold front is often dramatic with heavy showers. At the front, the temperatures drop, the
air is drier and the wind 2veers often to the North West direction. Behind the cold front, there
is often a complete clearance of cloud but this very quickly gives way to high Cumulus and

2
veer - winds change direction CLOCKWISE

Compiled by Capt Khilji A.K - 3693

 Page 7 of 27

shower clouds. Good days for soaring are found after cold fronts have gone through and the
pressure starts to rise again. The rising pressure raises cloudbase, and the cooler air means a
ready supply of thermals.

Occluded Front

An occluded front is where a cold front has caught up with a warm front. It is shown on maps as
below;

Figure 8 Occluded front symbol

As the depression deepens, the cold front with its weather systems catches up with the warm front and
the 2 types of weather become mixed.

Cross section

Figure 9 Occluded front cross-section

The occlusions can have some of the characteristics of a warm front or a cold front but on a
milder scale. The weather produced by a occlusion can range from that of the 2 frontal types to
prolonged periods of rain.

Compiled by Capt Khilji A.K - 3693

 Page 8 of 27

3. Clouds
The amount of moisture that air can hold depends on its temperature, with warmer air holding more
air than cold.

Cloud form whenever the air is cooled to a point where the temperature to which a particular mass of
air must be cooled for saturation to occur is called the Dew Point.

Sometimes the amount of moisture in the air is measured as relative humidity. The Relative humidity
(RH) is;

RH = amount of water vapour in the air / amount of water vapour required to saturate it (at that
temperature). This is expressed as a percentage.

i.e. dry air has a RH of 0%. Air about to form cloud has a RH of nearly 100%.

Clouds are classified as high, medium or low according to the height of their base. There are 10 basic
types. See the diagram below;

Figure 10 Cloud types

High

Altitude range is 15 to 40,000ft. These are composed mainly of ice crystals and are known as cirro
types.

1. Cirrus (Ci) is the wispy high cloud

2. Cirrocumulus (Cc) is a high cloud with a cell pattern.
3. Cirro stratus (Cs) is the thin veil type cloud
Medium

Altitude range is 6,500 to 23,000ft. The are known as alto clouds.

4. Alto cumulus (Ac) is a medium layer with a cell pattern. In an unstable atmosphere, Ac may
produce virga or precipitation which does not reach the ground.

Compiled by Capt Khilji A.K - 3693

 Page 9 of 27

5. Alto stratus (As) is an even layer of cloud at medium height

Low

Altitude range is 0 to 8,000ft.

6. Nimbostratus (Ns) is a deep layer of rain cloud.

7. Stratocumulus (Sc) is a greyish/whitish cloud consisting of rolls or cells. The weather is light rain,
drizzle or snow.
8. Stratus (St) is a low lying layer of cloud. May give drizzle
9. Cumulus (Cu) these are individual heaped clouds with a cauliflower top. Large Cu may give
showers.
10. Cumulonimbus (Cb) are heavy shower clouds or thunderstorm clouds. The tops of these can reach
past 30,000ft. Weather is rain, hail and heavy showers.

There are other clouds which are not listed above –

Castellanus such as Altocumulus castellanus are excellent indicators (especially in the Alps) or upper
atmosphere instability. These in the morning may indicate Cbs later in the day.

Lenticular - These lens shaped clouds indicate the presence of wave activity and may be stacked, one
above the other in certain cases. They show the top of the wave.

Formation of clouds

Clouds may be formed in several ways but all rely on the fact that the air is cooled to a point where it
cannot hold its moisture.

Convection

The action of the sun will heat the ground. This in turn heats the air layer closest to the ground
which will become warmer and thus less dense. It may rise and is it does so, it will cool.
Eventually it may reach a point where its temperature reaches the dew point and the water
vapour condenses to form cloud. Cumulus cloud is formed in this way.

Orographic Uplift

Air may be flowing along and be forced to rise upwards when it reaches an obstruction such as
a mountain chain. As it rises it will cool and it may be cooled past its dew point temperature. It
will condense and orographic cloud will form on the windward side of hills.

Cloud formed by turbulence and mixing

As air flows over the surface of the earth, frictional effects cause variations in local wind
strengths. Eddies are set up which cause the lower level air to mix. The more friction and
stronger the wind, the more mixing it causes. As the air mixes, it may rise and if it cools
enough, layer cloud above the friction area may result.

Compiled by Capt Khilji A.K - 3693

 Page 10 of 27

Figure 11 Clouds formed by turbulence

Cloud formed by widespread lifting

When two air masses meet, such as in a warm front, then great areas of air may flow over the
cooler air and rise as it does so. High stratus cloud will result. See the section on fronts for more
details.
Cloudbase

Cloudbase is the term given to indicate the height that the base of the cloud is ASL. It can be
calculated from the dew point and the ground temperature.

Cloudbase in feet = (Air temp - dew point) x 400.

i.e. Temp of 23 deg with dew point of 12 give a cloudbase of 4,400ft.

4. Convection
One of the main topics in the Met course is to describe thermal growth and activity. By understanding
this and the reasons for thermals, we can also understand many other parts of the atmosphere and
cover such things as, Inversions, Stability and instability, Cb’s and cloud base.

With increasing altitude, the following decrease -

Temperature
Pressure
Density

As altitude rises, temperature generally decreases. This change in temperature with height is called
the Lapse Rate.

The standard atmospheric rate of change has been defined by Scientists as the standard atmosphere
and it has the following conditions;

Environmental Lapse rate (ELR) = 2’C/1000ft

Pressure change = 1mb per 30ft

The ELR can be represented on a graph but it is important to know that this is only a “measuring
stick”. The real ELR may be a lot different.
.

Compiled by Capt Khilji A.K - 3693

 Page 11 of 27

Altitude (ft)

Standard ELR

5,000ft

10 20 Temperature (degrees C)
Figure 12 Standard ELR

Compiled by Capt Khilji A.K - 3693

 Page 12 of 27

Thermal production

As the sun heats the ground, the ground in turn heats up a layer of air close to the ground. A bubble of
warm air starts to form and is less dense than the surrounds since it is warmer. It may unstick from
the ground and start to rise through the atmosphere. As the density and the pressure of the
surrounding air decreases with altitude, the thermal will expand 3adiabatically and hence it cools. As
air expands it cools. The thermal will cool at a known rate and its rate of cooling or lapse rate is the
Dry Adiabatic Lapse rate or DALR. The word dry refers to the moisture in the thermal being retained
as vapour and not condensing.

Dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR) = 3’C / 1000ft

If we plot the course of a thermal leaving the ground with a temperature of 25’C, after 5,000ft the
thermal has cooled to 10’C and has reached equilibrium with the surroundings. i.e. it stops rising.

Altitude (ft)

Standard ELR

5,000ft

DALR

Ground heating of
Surface air

10 20 25 Temperature (degrees C)
Figure 13 ELR and DALR

The “Real Atmosphere”

In real life, the atmospheric conditions do not look exactly like the above. Overlaying warm fronts
could mean warm air aloft. High pressure systems could warm the upper air due to compression of the
upper air. Air close to the ground may be chilled on a clear night. When the air temperature does not
fall with height, but rises, then this condition is called an inversion.

Inversion

An inversion is a warming of the air at height increases and can be in 2 types.

 High level - caused by a high pressure system warming the upper air

3
An adiabatic process is one where no heat is lost from gained from the surroundings.

Compiled by Capt Khilji A.K - 3693

 Page 13 of 27

 Low level - caused by air chilled in contact with a cold ground which has lost heat by
convection

These may be shown on a lapse rate graph as before;

Altitude (ft)

High level inversion

5,000ft

Ground
Inversion

10 20 25 Temperature (degrees C)
Figure 14 Inversions
Inversions may puts a lid on our max. altitude possible by thermals.

Stability and instability

We often hear the terms stability and instability with the latter being our preference. Using the lapse
rate graphs we can understand the terms. Thermals will rise to a point where they are in equilibrium
with the surrounding. If the ELR is such that the equilibrium is never reached, then the thermals will
keep rising indefinitely. i.e. the 2 lines diverge. This is unstable.

If the 2 lines converge, then the day will be relatively stable.

Unstable ELR > DALR (3’C/1000ft)

Stable ELR < DALR (3’C/1000ft)

Cumulus cloud formation

A thermal rising will may contain moisture. As they rise, they cool and may rise to a point where they
reach the dew point. At that, the water vapour condenses to form cloud. We have reached cloudbase.

As the water condenses, something else happens. Latent heat will be released. The latent heat is the
extra energy required when a substance changes state, i.e. from water to water vapour, extra heat is
required to effect the change of state. This extra heat is stored and released when the water vapour
condenses back into a liquid. This in effect gives a “boost” to the thermal and acts as a source of heat,
hence the lapse rate in clouds will be lower than in a dry thermal. The lapse rate in clouds is known
as the Saturated (or moist) adiabatic lapse rate) SALR.

This has a range of values depending on the moisture content but is typically;

Saturated Adiabatic lapse rate (SALR) 1.1 - 2.8’C/1000ft

Compiled by Capt Khilji A.K - 3693

 Page 14 of 27

The thermal in a cloud will keep rising until an inversion is reached or the cloud runs out of moisture.
This determines the cloud top height. If the air mass is very unstable and there is a constant supply of
warm moist air and powerful thermal development, then the situation may turn be right for the
formation of Cunimbs (Cb) .

The trigger temp is the temperature on the ground at and beyond which thermals will rise past the
inversion layer.

Different ground types absorb solar energy better than others as far as thermal production is caused.
The thermal is caused by the sun heating the ground (not the air itself), then the ground will warm up
the bottom layer of the air to warm a “warm bubble” which wants to rise up. Dark surfaces such as
ploughed fields, areas of dark tarmac are better than lakes etc, for the production of a thermal. The
exam will expect you to be able to plot the life of a thermal.

Lets look at a typical thermal growth on a lapse rate graph.

Altitude (ft)

Cloud tops

SALR

Cloudbase

DALR

10 Dew 20 25 Temperature (degrees C)

Point
Figure 15 Convective cloud formation

On the day above, clouds have formed with the cloudbase at dew point and the cloud tops limited by a
lack of moisture, or if there is an abundant supply of moisture, then the inversion above. Note that if
the dew point had been lower, then the thermal would have risen as a blue thermal (no cloud) and
could have possible been cut off lower. The SALR has a steeper gradient and thus is very unstable.

Knowledge of ELR, DALR and SALR and the effect on thermals together with dewpoint and the
effect on clouds is required for the exam (hint). One other term to know is the Isothermal layer. This
is an area of the atmosphere where the temperature does not change with height.

Lets take an example question.

A table showing air temperature against height is below. Dewpoint at ground is 14’C and decreases
by 0.5’C per 1,000ft. SALR is 1.5’C per 1,000ft. Describe what happens.

Compiled by Capt Khilji A.K - 3693

 Page 15 of 27

The ELR is plotted below with the dewpoint shown as a dotted line.

Height Air temperature

0 24 9000
1000 17 8000
2000 15
7000
3000 13
4000 11 6000

5000 9 5000
6000 7 4000
7000 8
3000
8000 7
9000 6 2000

1000

0
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Figure 16 Sample question ELR

9000

8000 The thermal leaves the ground

with a temp of 24’C and rises at
7000
the DALR.
6000

5000
4000

3000
2000

1000
0
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Figure 17 Sample question ELR and DALR

Then plot the air rising at the 9000

SALR of 1.5’C/1000ft after the
8000
thermal has hit the dewpoint.
7000

6000
The SALR hits the inversion (in
5000
this case) at about 6,600ft, the
cloud tops are limited by the 4000
inversion to about 6,600ft. Cloud 3000
base is 4,000ft which ties in with
2000
the equation. Note the reliability
of the equation is based on the 1000
DALR of 3’C and the dewpoint 0
lapse rate of 0.5’C per 1,000ft. 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Figure 18 Sample question ELR, DALR and SALR

Compiled by Capt Khilji A.K - 3693

 Page 16 of 27

If the air is very moist and the SALR is less than 1.5, then the possibility exists of the moist air rising
at a steeper gradient and therefore escaping the effects of the inversion and high Cu’s or Cb’s may
result.

5. Meteorological terms

Adiabatic - A thermodynamic process where Iso - equal

no heat leaves or enters the system
Iso therm - a line of constant temperature
Advection - transfer of air mass properties by
motion. Katabatic wind - wind that flows downslope

Air mass - huge body of air in which Katafront -a front where the warm air sinks
horizontal changes in temp are small. down above the frontal surface which will
eventually weaken and destroy the front.
Anabatic wind - Wind blowing upslope.
SALR - Saturated adiabatic lapse rate,
Anafront - a front where warm air is about 1.5°C per 1000ft
ascending over cold air.
Stability - the tendency of the atmosphere to
Anticyclone - area of high pressure stay as it is. Unstable air, where the ELR is
greater than the DALR (in excess of 3°C per
Backing - winds changes direction anti 1000 ft) means that a thermal will diverge
clockwise from the atmospheric temperaturelapse rate.

Convection - transfer of heat by motion of a Standard atmosphere (ISA) has a ELR of 2°C
substantial volume of air. per 1000ft

Dew point - temperature at which air must be Super Adiabatic Lapse Rate - A lapse rate
cooled to become saturated with water vapour. greater than 3°C per 1000ft

DALR - Dry Adiabatic lapse rate, about 3°C Tephigram - a aerological diagram with the
per 1000ft x.y co-ordinates Temperature and entropy.
The diagram is used for plotting the values of
ELR - Environmental lapse rate. This is 2°C temp and humidity at specific pressure levels
per 1000ft for the ISA. obtained from upper air soundings.

Inversion - a layer of air where the Veering - wind which changes

temperature increases with height. direction clockwise.

6. Pressure systems

As the earth is covered by atmosphere, this atmosphere exerts a pressure on us all. This pressure is
measured in Bars and the pressure is about 1 bar. A bar is too large for any detail so it is divided into
millibars and represented as 1000mb. The unit hectopascal may also be used and is the same as a
millibar.

Compiled by Capt Khilji A.K - 3693

 Page 17 of 27

Low pressure

Low pressure systems are the source of a great deal of active weather in the UK. The majority of our
weather systems form out in the Atlantic along the frontal boundary between the arctic airmass and
the warmer tropical maritime air to the south.

Formation of a low

When 2 masses of air of different density lie side by side they induce a strong current of air to
flow along the cold side of the front at very high altitudes. This jet stream is formed due the
extreme pressure differences at altitude causing a close bunching if high altitude isobars. The
jet is several miles deep and travels at speeds of about 100 to 200 mph. Disturbances cause the
jet tosnake around and results in areas of divergence and convergence.

Jet stream
Cold air

Warm air

Area of Area of
Convergence Divergence

pressure rises pressure falls

Figure 19 Formation of low pressure

The area of convergence will cause downward flowing air. This results in an increase in
pressure at ground level and a downward movement of air. Similarly, at the area of divergence,
the surface pressure will fall and an area of low pressure will start to form.

1. The jet stream divergence will cause an area of low pressure to start to form along the
frontal zone.

The low pressure will draw the 2 edges of

the front together, effectively increasing
the temperature and pressure differentials
thus aiding the formation of the low.

Figure 20 Formation of low (1)

Compiled by Capt Khilji A.K - 3693

 Page 18 of 27

As the air rises it is given a twist by the Coriolis

force. This coriolis force is exactly the same as the
force which causes the water going down the
plughole to spin. The force is zero at the equator
and is the reason behind low pressure spinning anti
clockwise in the Northern hemisphere and the
Figure 21 Formation of low (2) reverse in the southern hemisphere.

As the air in continually extracted at the top

of the system, so the surface pressure drops
increasing the circulation and the winds
speeds. The anticlockwise circulation is
gradually spread up to the upper levels and
the upward movement of ward moist air
will eventually cause condensation and the
release of latent heat to further power the
process.

The cold front moves faster than the warm

front and catches it up. With an occlusion
forming where the cold front has caught the
warm front The spiralling air in the
depression further twists the fronts round to
give the classic “hook” shape of the
depression.

Figure 22 Formation of low (3)

Associated weather

The weather associated with a depression is usually poor. Associated frontal systems can bring rain
and cloud. A depression may arrive at our shores at any stage of development and it may or may not
have frontal systems. It may have a weak warm front and an active cold front or vice versa. A system
with an active cold and an active warm front is very rare. It may have a decaying occlusion, but the
general outlook is worsening weather.

High pressure

High pressure systems are formed in a similar way to lows, and areas of high pressure can mean areas
where there aren’t any lows. In an anticyclone, the air is descending and being warmed by
compression as it descends. Since warmer air can hold more moisture, then clouds are less willing to
form.

Compiled by Capt Khilji A.K - 3693

 Page 19 of 27

This results in clear skies at night and little tendency for any overdevelopment.

Associated weather

In summer, a high pressure system always means an improvement with lighter winds and less
cloud. In winter a high pressure can mean persistent fog and low cloud or it may lead to clear
skies, depending on the source and track of the airmass at low level.

High pressures move slowly and can lead to the production of inversions due to the warmed
upper air. The atmosphere becomes stable (cooler air at the bottom) and leads to poor thermal
production. Inversions can lead to poor air quality with pollen, dust etc. being trapped in the
inversion layer. Highs can persist for days and then they become blocking highs which will
often divert the path of a low pressure system around the UK.

7. Winds & Other Wx Phenomena

Valley winds

Mountains tend to form a barrier to winds at low level. The air tends to flow up and down the valley
Imagine a valley with hills on both sides. In the morning, the effect of the sun is to heat up the
mountains first since the valley will be cooler and still in shade;

Morning
Figure 23 Valley winds (morning)

Compiled by Capt Khilji A.K - 3693

 Page 20 of 27

As time reaches midday, both slopes are in sun and powerful anabatic winds are produced up both
slopes

Figure 24 Valley winds (midday)

This causes the winds at low level to rush up the valley to replace the air flowing up the slopes. The
valley wind flows into the valley in the afternoon and evening. As the sun goes down and the slopes
start to cool off with the altitude, katabatic winds flow downslope

Night

Figure 25 Valley winds (evening)

In the evening, as the wind turns katabatic on the slopes, it can rush down the hill and force upwards,
over the valley centre, great areas of lifting air. This is the evening restitution lift or magic lift and
can give easy soaring for quite a while in huge areas of lifting air. As time goes on, the valley winds
will slow down from travelling up the valley and then turn to the evening and night time valley winds
where they flow down the valley.

Sea breezes

In summer, the land tends to warm up quickly, but the sea remains much at the same temperature.
Thermal activity may result in a general lessening of the pressure over the land with the results that
air flows in from the sea to replace the lifting air over the land. This is a sea breeze. It can kill
convection and shut off any thermals near the coast so avoid sea breezes.

In winter, the sea temperatures are relatively stable and warmer than the cold land. The sea breeze is
reversed and sometimes leads to Cumulus formation over the sea as cold land air is blown over the
sea, to have its base warmed by the sea to produce unstable conditions over water.

Sea Breeze Fronts

When a sea breeze sets up, it could be in opposition to the normal wind. In this case, a sea breeze

Compiled by Capt Khilji A.K - 3693

 Page 21 of 27

front may be formed. This is characterized by a hanging curtain of cloud and a stepped cloud base.
This is due to the moist sea air having a lower cloudbase. It needs a fairly light wind, warm day and
some instability to set up the sea breeze front. The evidence of a front may also be apparent even with
no surface 4geostrophic wind. The cool moist air flowing inland will meet the warm dry land airmass
and this is also a cold front of sorts.

Figure 26 Sea breeze front

Sea breeze fronts rarely occur between October and April.

Wave lift

Another type of lift is the wave lift. The requirements for wave are;

 Wind to be in a fairly constant direction

 Wind to be increasing with height
 A shallow unstable layer with a stable layer above it works well
 An obstruction upwind such as a range of hills is needed to start the waves off
Fog

Fog is cloud on ground level and there are several types

Radiation fog
 Conditions suitable for radiation fog are;

 A cloudless night, allowing the earth to cool and thereby causing the air in contact with it
to become cool

 Moist air that requires little cooling to reach dew point

 Light winds to reduce mixing

4
Geostrophic - wind set up parallel to isobars. The “normal” wind

Compiled by Capt Khilji A.K - 3693

 Page 22 of 27

Advection fog

A warm moist air mass flowing across a significant colder surface will be cooled from below. Ifits
temperature is reduced to the dew point, then fog will form. Advection fog can persist in stronger winds
than radiation fog.

Figure 27 Advection fog

Sea fog

Sea fog is advection fog and may be caused by

 An air flow off a warm land moving over a cold sea.

 warm tropical air moving over a cold ocean or meting a cold air mass

Hill Fog
Hill fog is caused when moist air is uplifted over a hill and cools as it is forced upwards. As it cools it
condenses to form hill fog or orographic cloud.

Compiled by Capt Khilji A.K - 3693

 Page 23 of 27

8. Synoptic chart
The exam requires you to understand the symbols, isobars, pressure systems and associated weather
that you could expect when checking a synoptic chart.

A typical chart is shown below.

Figure 28 Synoptic chart

Pick out features such as;

 Areas of high pressure and low pressure

 Isobars
 Frontal systems

Remember about the Coriolis force and its effect on both high and low pressure systems

The Coriolis force means that in the Northern hemisphere, the

Geostrophic wind circulates anticlockwise round a low and
clockwise round a Anticlyclone (High pressure). The winds
rotate in the same direction as the isobars, but this is only true
for winds at altitude (over about 1,000ft). The effect of the
ground causes friction which slows down the surface winds.

Figure 29 Rotation round

pressure systems

Compiled by Capt Khilji A.K - 3693

 Page 24 of 27

The surface wind around a low pressure points to the low pressure
by about 30’ over land due to the friction. This effect is less over the
sea where the friction is less.

Figure 30 Surface wind

round a low
The surface wind around a high pressure points away from the high
pressure area by again about 30’ due to the friction. The wind speed
also decreases in both cases

Figure 31 Surface wind

round a high

Think of the affects on the atmosphere such as wind speed and direction, temperature, precipitation,
cloud cover and visibility.

By the way, the above chart was taken in January, in the depths of the icy winter. Winds were from
the East (Siberia) and as the base of the winds warmed up slightly over the North Sea, this resulted in
instability with snow showers over the eastern coast and hills. The high pressure fended off any frontal
system and allowed the temperatures to plummet during the evenings. Blocking highs like this can
(and did) last for several days. The chart was taken as the cold weather was dying off. The frontal
systems in the Atlantic did eventually make their way in and the winds switched direction to the West
or South West raising the temperatures and bringing the normal weather of showers, winds etc.

9. Clouds and Precipitation

Rain or precipitation can consist of different types of precipitation. It may be rain, fine drizzle, snow
or hail.

Continuous rain or snow is associated with Nimbostratus and alto stratus clouds and intermittent rain
or snow with Altostratus or Stratocumulus.

Rain and snow showers are associated with cumuliform clouds such as Cumulonimbus, Cumulus and
Altocumulus, with the very heavy showers & thunderstorms coming from the Cumulonimbus.

Fine drizzle and snow is associated with Stratus and Stratocumulus.

Compiled by Capt Khilji A.K - 3693

 Page 25 of 27

A
Adiabatic ................................................... 16 M
Advection .................................................. 16 Magic lift .................................................. 20
Advection fog ............................................ 22
Air Mass ................................................... 16 N
Altocumulus (AC) ....................................... 8 Nimbostratus............................................... 9
Altostratus (AS)........................................... 9
Anabatic .................................................... 16 O
Anticyclone ............................................... 16 Occluded Front ........................................... 7
Orographic uplift ….. ............................... ..9
B
Backing ..................................................... 16 P
Bernoulli’s principle .................................... 4 Pressure Systems…………………………..16
Buys Ballots’s Law...................................... 4
R
C
Radiation fog ............................................ 22
Castellanus ................................................ 10 Relative humidity ........................................ 8
Cirrostratus (CS) ......................................... 8 Restitution lift ........................................... 20
Cirrocumulus (CC) ...................................... 8
Cirrus (CI)................................................... 8 S
Cloudbase ................................................. 11 SALR....................................... 13, 14, 15, 16
Cold Front ................................................... 6 Sea breeze fronts ....................................... 21
Convection ................................................ 10 Sea breezes ............................................... 20
Coriolis force....................................... 18, 23 Sea fog ...................................................... 22
Cumulonimbus (CB) .................................. 9 Stability ......................................... 11, 13, 16
Cumulus (CU) ............................................. 9 Strato cumulus ............................................ 9
Stratus(ST) ................................................. 9
D
Synoptic chart ........................................... 24
DALR ................................ 12, 13, 14, 15, 16
Dew point.................................................. 16 T
Dew Point ................................................... 8 Tephigram ................................................ 16
Trigger temp ............................................. 15
E
ELR ................................... 11, 13, 14, 15, 16 V
Valley winds ............................................. 19
Veering ..................................................... 16
F
W
Fog……………………………………….21
Warm Front ................................................ 5
H Warm Sector ............................................... 6
High pressure systems ............................... 18 Wave ........................................................ 21
Hill Fog ..................................................... 22
I
Instability ........................... 10, 11, 13, 21, 24
Inversion ............................................. 12, 16
Isothermal layer ......................................... 14
J
Jet stream .............................................. 4, 17
L
Lapse Rate ................................................ 11
Lenticular .................................................. 9
Low pressure systems ................................ 17

Compiled by Capt Khilji A.K - 3693