CURRENT AND ELECTRICITY

 “The electric charge in motion is called electric current” and it forms the basis of current
electricity. Static electricity, or electrostatics, on the other hand involves charges at rest.
Electric current (I): “it is the rate of flow of charges”.(Q)

 SI unit: Ampere (A)

 Can be measured by an ammeter (must be connected in SERIES to the circuit)
𝑸
I=
𝒕

 A current of one ampere is a flow of charge at the rate of one coulomb per second.
 For electric current in a metal conductor (a solid), the charge carriers are electrons.
 For historical reasons, the direction of the conventional current is always treated as the
opposite direction in which electron effectively moves.
 Current in gases and liquid generally consists of a flow of positive ions in one direction
together with a flow of negative ions in the opposite direction.
 Electric current generates a magnetic field. The strength of the magnetic field depends on
the magnitude of the electric current.
 Current electricity consists of any movement of electric charge carriers, such as subatomic
charged particles (e.g. electrons having negative charge, protons having positive charge), ions
(atoms that have lost or gained one or more electrons), or holes (electron deficiencies that
may be thought of as positive particles)

 If the direction of the current (charge flow) is fixed, it is known as a direct current.
 If the motion of the electric charges is periodically reversed; it is called an alternating
current.
Analogy to river:
 In order to help you understand the concept of current better, you can think of a river. Current
in an electric circuit is similar to water flowing through the river.
Measuring the current:
 Electric current is measures by ampare meter(ammeter).
 There is a range of ammeters from 0-10A.
Electromotive Force(e.m.f)
 (e.m.f.) of a source is the energy converted from non-electrical to electrical form when one
coulomb of positive charge passes through the source.

𝐉
 SI unit: Volt (V) Volt=𝐂
𝑾
E= 𝑸
where E = e.m.f., W = work done by source, Q = amount of positive charges
 e.m.f is typically related with the ability or energy of voltage source(batteries).
  Batteries are combined in different ways according to the requirement., volt meter is used to
measure the emf .it is connected across the ends of battery whose emf is to be known.
Voltage Sources in Series
 When two or more sources are arranged so that the positive terminal of one is connected to
the negative terminal of the next, they are said to be in series and their e.m.f.s add up.
 This arrangement gives increased e.m.f. because, the charge flowing round a circuit will pass
through more than one source and gains electrical potential energy from each of them.
 Portable equipment needing higher voltages use battery packs
with two or more cells connected in series. Figure shows a
battery pack with four 3.6V cells in series, to produce 14.4V
nominal. In comparison, a six-cell lead acid string with 2V/cell
will generate 12V, and four alkaline with 1.5V/cell will give 6V.
 Net voltage is the sum of all individual voltage sources.
 Current remains same as that of a single voltage source.
 DC and AC voltage sources can be added together when
calculating a total voltage.
 The current flowing through one voltage source must be equal
to the current flowing through the other voltage source.

Voltage Sources in Parallel

 Cells can also be arranged in parallel. In this, all the positive
terminals are connected together and all the negative
terminals are connected together.
 The combined e.m.f. in parallel connection will not
increase like in the series connection. But the battery will
last longer before going flat.
 If higher currents are needed and larger cells are not
available then one or more cells can be connected in parallel. Most battery chemistries allow
parallel configurations with little side effect. Figure illustrates four cells connected in parallel
in a arrangement. The nominal voltage of the illustrated pack remains at 3.60V, but the
capacity (Ah) and runtime are increased fourfold.
Potential difference
When a torch bulb is connected to a battery, the torch bulb gets lit. The battery converts chemical
energy into electrical energy and is therefore a source of electrical energy. The torch bulb converts
electrical energy into heat and light and is therefore a sink of electrical energy.
Dissipation of electrical energy between two points (e.g. across torch bulb) in an electrical circuit
causes potential difference (p.d.) between those two points
 Potential difference between two points is defined as “the energy converted from electrical
to other forms when a coulomb of positive charge passes between the two points.

𝐉
 SI unit: Volt (V) Volt=𝐂
𝑾
𝑽 = 𝑸,

where V = potential difference, W = work done in driving the charge between the two points,
Q = amount of positive charges
Potential difference is measures by using a voltmeter. It has a wide range of readings
And used across any component where the p.d is to be measurerd.
IMPORTANT: There can be e.m.f. without a closed circuit. BUT there cannot be a potential
difference without a closed circuit.
Analogy to waterfalls:
 In order to help you understand the concept of potential difference better, you can think of a
waterfall. In the case of a waterfall, the water flows due to a height difference. In electric
circuits, current flows between two points due to the existence of potential difference between
the two points.

No potential difference = no current.

Resistance
 By increasing p.d. across the ends of a conductor, current flow can be increased. But the
increase in the amount of current flow depends on the conducting ability of the conductor.
Some conductors offer some resistance to current flow than others.
 Resistance (R) of a conductor is defined as “the ratio of potential difference (V), across the
conductor to the current (I), flowing through it”

 SI unit of resistance is the ohm Ω.

V = IR

Its scalar quantity. And 1 ohm is the resistance offered by any conductor if 1A current flows by
applying 1V p.d across its ends
Resistivity
Besides temperature, experimental results show that the resistance (R of a given conductor)
also depends on the composition and size of the material.
Resistance, R is found to be:

 directly proportional to its length, L

 inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area A
 dependent on the type of material
From experimental results, we can show that:
𝑳
R=ρ
𝑨
, where
R = resistance in ohm (Ω)
A = cross-sectional area of conductor in metre2 (m2)
L = length of conductor in metre (m), and
ρ = resistivity of material in ohm-metre (Ωm)

 For the similar lengths and material,

Thinner wires have higher resistance than thicker wires.
 For similar thickness and material,
Longer wires have higher resistance than shorter wires.

Ohm’s Law
 Ohm’s law states that, the current flowing in a metallic conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference applied across its ends, provided that all
other physical conditions, such as temperature, are constant.
 Comparing with V=IR, thus, R must be constant for a metallic conductor under steady
physical conditions.

I/V characteristic graphs

 The voltage and current graph for a fixed resistor is always
linear (a straight line) passing through origin for wide I/A
range of V-I. It is because the temperature of the resistor
remains almost constant so that the resistance .so I –V
graph remains linear(Ohmic behavior)
V/V
  For wires (filament) and thermistors it is always non-linear I/A
(curve) passing through origin. In filament the temperature
increases due to increased amount of current resulting an
increase in the resistance that causes non-linear variation in
current w.r.t voltages Filament V/
 In thermistor the temperature decreases due to increased I/A V

amount of current resulting a decrease in the resistance that

causes non-linear variation in current w.r.t voltages

Effective resistance of resistors

Thermistor V/V
In many situations, several electrical devices are connected to
the same power supply. There are two basic methods of connecting resistors or other devices
together. They are called series and parallel connections.
The derivation of the formula for effective resistance for series and parallel resistors is not
required yet just recall the equation and use it for calculations

Resistors In Series

 If individual resistors are connected from end to end, the resistors are said to be connected
in series.
 The effective resistance, R, of three resistors of resistances R1, R2; and R3 connected in series
(shown in the figure) is given by:
R=R1+R2+R3
 In general, if there are n resistors in series, the effective resistance R is given by:
R=R1+R2+….+Rn
Note: In a series connection, the effective resistance, R, is always larger than the largest of the
individual resistances.

Resistors In Parallel
If each end of individual resistors is connected together to one
another as one, the resistors are said to be connected in parallel.
The effective resistance, R, of three resistors of resistances R1, R2 and R3 connected in parallel is
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
given by: = + +
𝐑 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟑

In general, if there are n resistors in parallel, the effective resistance R is given by:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +⋯
𝐑 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝐧
Note: In a parallel connection, the effective resistance, R, is always smaller than the smallest of
the individual resistances.

Direct and alternating current

 A direct current (DC) is a flow of charges around a circuit in the same direction all the
time.
 Batteries supply DC and most appliances need DC to function.
 Alternating current (AC) is a flow of charges
around a circuit that reverses its direction at
regular intervals, usually many times a second.
 Household electrical power is supplied in the form
of AC which usually needs to be rectified to DC
before use.

Electric Circuits/DC Circuits and symbols

 An electric circuit is a collection of electrical devices, called circuit elements connected
by conductors in a closed path (i.e., in a complete loop).
 Circuit elements include,
a. source of electrical energy (e.g. battery),
b. sink/Load of electrical energy (e.g. light bulb),
c. switch to complete or break the circuit.
d. Conductors (e.g., copper wires) are then used to connect them together.
Electrical Symbols
Circuit diagrams are essential part of the study of current electricity
and are often drawn symbolically. In circuit diagrams, various circuit
elements are represented by standard electric
symbols.
Circuit Diagrams
A simple circuit, with a cell (if a series of cells is
used, it is called a battery) and a resistor or bulb.
Circuit diagram showing the measurement of
current in the circuit and potential
difference across a circuit element (e.g.
the resistor).
  An ammeter is used to measure the current flowing in the circuit and must be inserted in
series with the circuit element as shown.
 A voltmeter measures the potential difference between two points in a circuit and must be
connected in parallel to the circuit element as shown.
Note that:

 An ideal ammeter has zero resistance so that when inserted into a circuit, it does not reduce
the current that was previously flowing.
 An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance so that it takes no current. A finite resistance
causes it to take current from the circuit, and to lower the potential difference between the
points to which it is connected.

 Variable resistor can be used as a rheostat to control current or as a potential divider to

control voltages.
 The fuse is a short piece of thin wire which overheats and melts to break the circuit if
current of more than its rated value flows through it. A fuse is connected in series to protect
devices in the circuit.
 Resistance of a thermistor (thermally sensitive resistor) decreases rapidly as its surrounding
temperature rises.
 Resistance of light dependent resistor (LDR) decreases with increasing surrounding light
intensity.
 A light emitting diode (LED) allows current to flow in only one direction. When current is
allowed to pass, it shines brightly with only a small voltage across it. LED is used as on/off
indicator in many electronic devices such as televisions, computers.
 A earth connector is a conductor that connects directly to earth.

Series And Parallel Circuits

Series Circuits
Series circuits has the same current through each circuit components BUT different
potential difference across each circuit components according to its resistance value.
Same current:

In a series circuit, the flow of charges has only one

path to follow. The flow of charge passes through each
component in turn.

Therefore, in a series circuit, the current at every point

is the same.

Adding a new component to the series circuit reduces the current flow throughout because
of the added resistance of the new component.
Different potential difference

 Potential difference (p.d.) between

two points in a circuit is caused by the
energy dissipation in the circuit
elements connected between those two
points. Energy is a scalar quantity. It can
be added to get the total energy
dissipation in a circuit.

In a series circuit, the sum of the potential difference across the sinks (i.e. the bulbs) is
equal to the sum of the e.m.f.s across the sources (i.e. the battery). OR

 In a series circuit, the sum of the potential difference across the bulbs is equal to the
potential difference across the battery.
 In a series circuit, the highest potential difference occurs across a component with the largest
resistance. (regardless of the potential difference across the battery)
 The potential difference between the ends of any of the pieces of connecting wire is effectively
zero because there is almost no loss of potential energy.

Parallel Circuits
 Parallel circuits has the different current through each branch (same current through
the circuit components within the branch) BUT same potential difference across each
branch. (different potential difference across the circuit components within the branch)
Different currents

 Instead of wiring components in series, they can be connected in

parallel. Parallel connection offers different paths for the
flow of charges, but the total flow of charges from the source
remains unchanged.
 Therefore, in a parallel circuit, the “current from the source is
the sum of the currents in the separate branches.”
 In the parallel circuit shown, if one lamp is removed, the others
still light up. This is why most household lighting circuits are connected in parallel.
 In a parallel circuit, the largest current will pass through the branch with the smallest
effective resistance.
 At a junction in a circuit, the total current entering a junction is equal to the total current
leaving the junction. This is the conservation of charge.
Same potential difference

 In a parallel circuit, two or more components are connected

between two points of the circuit.
 The potential difference across a component is the potential
difference between the two points and is equal to the
potential difference of any other component connected
in between.
 Therefore, the potential difference across separate
branches of a parallel circuit is the same.

Electric power and energy

 Electrical energy is easily converted to other forms of energy by operation of different
electrical appliances, but unsafe use of electricity causes electric fire and shock, that might lead
to serious injuries or even death to users.
 Using fuses, circuit breakers, switches and earthing wires in electrical appliances are safety
features in preventing both electrical fire and shock.
Heating effect of electricity

 Current flowing through a large resistor, converts electrical energy into heat (thermal)
energy. This is the heating effect of electric current.
 This heating effect concept is used in all the heat-generating household appliances such as
electric kettle, ovens, heaters, iron, hair dryers, toasters and electric cookers etc.
 These electrical appliances have a heating element which is made of high resistance, such as
nichrome wire. The amount of heating effect is controlled by varying the amount of current
flowing through the heating element.
 Apart from heating effect, electric current also has effects in magnetic and chemical (as in
electrolysis) from.
Measurement of electrical power and energy
 Power rating :Electrical power is the product of potential difference across the ends of a
load and the current flowing through it. It is known as power rating

P=VI
 power delivered :to the appliances by a voltage source is given by
𝑽𝟐
P=
𝑹

 Power dissipation :power consumed or dissipated due to heating effects of current is

called power losses actually this is a way to convert electrical energy to the thermal energy.
  The rate of heating effect is usually measured in power units, i.e., the kilowatt (kW), while
the amount of energy converted is usually measured in energy unit, i.e., the kilowatt-hour
(kWh).
 Power (P) of electrical appliances is given by:

P=𝑰𝟐 𝑹
 where,
V = voltage applied across appliance
I = current flowing through appliance
R = total resistance of appliance
SI unit for power is the kilowatt (kW)
𝟏𝑱
1 W = 𝟏𝑺=> 1 kW = 1000 W = 1000 J s-1

Energy converted (E) of electrical appliances is given by

E=P×t=I2R×t=V2R×t=VI×t
E=VIt
where,
V = voltage applied across appliance
I = current flowing through appliance
R = total resistance of appliance
t = total time taken
SI unit for energy conversion is the kilowatt-hour (kWh)

1 kWh = (1000 W) X (60 X 60 s) = 3 600 000J = 3600 kJ = 3.6 MJ

 Appliances with high power rating consume more electrical energy per unit time.

Notes:
Many, if not all, electrical appliances are not 100% efficient. Some of the electrical energy are
converted to other forms of energy. e.g. light, sound and etc.

Cost of using electrical appliances

 Domestic consumption of electrical energy is measured by electrical meters units of

kilowatt-hour (kWh).
 Each consumed energy unit (kWh) is billed according to a fixed or variable rate.
  The total cost of energy usage for a defined period is the product of number of consumed

energy units in kWh and the charge per energy unit.

 At the beginning of each month, the electricity meter of the domestic household is read and the
total number of energy units consumed so far is recorded. The difference between last
month’s reading and this month’s reading is the current month’s consumption.

Dangers/hazards Of Electricity
Most dangerous consequences of using electricity are
electric shock and electric fire. They are usually
caused by
a. damaged insulation,
b. overheating of cables
c. damp conditions.
Damaged insulation

 Rubber is used as insulation for the current-carrying

conductors of most electrical appliances.
 Rubber insulation is prone (exposed) to damage due to
regular bending and twisting. (Common appliances
that bend/twist during usage: Hair dryer and Iron)
The rubber insulation might break apart and expose
the wire.
 This damaged insulation would result in

1. Electric shock →→ resulting in serious injury or even death to users.
2. Short circuit in the current path by connecting exposed current-carrying
conductors together →→ resulting in the wires heating up →→ fire hazard.
Overheating of cables

 Especially thin wire conductors, when very large currents are made to flow through these
conductors, these wire conductors will heat up and produce very high temperatures.
 Short-circuit or overloading of cables are conditions that lead to such large currents.
 This overheating of cables would result in melting of the insulation and catching fire.
Damp Condition
  Effective body resistance drop drastically from 100 kΩ to 100 Ω under damp condition (wet
environment condition). Activities like sweating, bathing and etc lower the effective
resistance of our body.
 This damp condition, coupled with unsafe usage of electrical appliances, would result in large
currents flowing through our body causing electrical shock and leading to serious injury
or even death.

Electricity in the home

Electricity is supplied to the households via the mains (wires o cables):
They carry usually AC of very volts and low frequency. The wires are classified according to their
function, insulation of each wire is coloured differently
(Note: The colours are different for different countries)

 Live wire (L): high voltage (240 V) wire or main wire that carries current into the house
circuit.
 Typically coloured RED /BROWN
 Neutral wire (N): Zero voltage wire or neutral wire that carries current out of the
house circuit.
 Typically coloured BLACK /BLUE
 Earthing Wire(E) :it is used to ground the appliance and makes it safe to use in the
case of even short circuit(further details are in next topic)
 Typically coloured GREEN/YELLOW+GREEN

 Touching the live wire WILL give you an electric shock but touching the neutral wire
SHOULD be safe. (NOTE: Do NOT touch any wires that are connected to the mains, live or
neutral! If there is a wiring fault, the supposedly “safe” neutral wire will give
you an electric shock!)
safe use of electricity
although electricity is much dangerous but it is more than useful if it is handled with safety
precautions. Here are few house hold safeties which are necessary to know for each
individual:
Consumer Distribution Box
 Current is carried into the house by the live wire through
a main fuse, an electricity meter, a main switch and a
consumer distribution unit and then returned from the
house via the neutral wire to the public power supply.
This is considered to be the complete circuit.
The safe use of all these components is ensured as all
are fixed at distribution box
  Connecting an electrical appliance between a pair of live and neutral wires, form a
complete circuit. A voltage difference (240 V-AC) is set up between the terminals of
electrical appliance resulting in a current flowing through the appliance resulting in a current
flowing through the appliance. The electrical energy is then converted in the appliance into
other form of useful energy.

Fuse and circuit breakers

In order to prevent excessive currents flowing into the home circuit, electrical
appliances and its cables, fuses and circuit breakers are wired into the live wire and
used as safety devices.

 FUSE: A fuse is usually made up of a tin-coated copper wire.

When current exceeds its design rating value.
 The wire will overheat and melt, thus opening the electrical
circuit.
 It will prevent further damage to the appliance or user.
 It cannot be reused.

Current rating of fuse:

 A fuse is identified according to its current ratting. The

current rating of a fuse is calculated by the power rating of appliances

𝑷
I=
𝑽

 A fuse is selected with a little higher current so that the

appliance works in the case of fluctuations

A circuit breaker:

 It is usually made up of a reusable spring-loaded

type of switch.
 The function of the circuit breaker is similar to that of the
fuse. If current exceeds its breaking setting, it will spring
open and break the circuit as in a fuse.
 The device can be reused by resetting the spring-
loaded switch.
  It is correct to fix the fuse or circuit breaker at the live wire before the appliance. When
the circuit is loaded with excessive current, the fuse or circuit breaker will break and open
the circuit.
 It will prevent overloading, burning or damaging the appliance.

 Connecting the fuse or circuit breaker to the neutral wire is incorrect, i.e., even when the
circuit is opened due to excessive currents, the appliance may still be at live potential,
creating possibility of an electric shock.

The current limit:

 Through the fuse (fuse rating) can be controlled by varying the thickness of the tin-coated
copper wire.
 Thicker the wire, the larger the heating effect needed to melt the connection, thus
permitting larger current to flow.

Switch
 Switch is used to open or close the electrical circuit.
 Open the switch = NO current is flowing through the circuit.
 Close the switch = Current can flow through the circuit.
 The switch should be connected to the LIVE wire and not the
neutral or earthing wire.
 If you connect the switch to the neutral wire, even if the switch is
opened, the appliance will still be connected to the live wire. This
increases the possibility of an electric shock.
 The switch should be connected BEFORE the appliance. (There’s no way for you to connect
after the appliance.)

Need for earthing and double insulation

Earthing is the act of connecting the metal casing of the
appliance to earth via a wired connection to the bare ground.
Earthing wires are usually have a green and yellow bands
around them. Why do you need earthing? Consider this scenario:

 The live wire is frayed and touched the metal casing of the
appliance. (Another phrase for this is: The metal casing of the appliance becomes live.)
 The appliance do not have an earthing cable.
 YOU touched the metal casing of the appliance.
 Your body would have completed the circuit →→ electricity will pass through your body.
 The current is not high enough to trigger the breaking of fuse in the power plug.
  You get electrocuted.(electric shock)
If you have earthing (connecting the metal casing to the ground), the current will have two paths to
take to complete the circuit:

1. The low resistance earthing wire

2. Your body (Note that your body have very high electrical resistance as compared with the
resistance of earthing wire
 From the theory for current flows in parallel circuits, the current through the low resistance
earthing wire will be higher than the current flowing through your body (which will be
negligible).
 In effect, the situation can be summarised as “the current flowing through the low
resistance earthing wire instead of your body”.
 Hence, the earthing will divert the current into the earth by providing an alternate path to
the large current flow via the earth wire, rather than through the user’s body.
 This huge surge current blows the fuse and make the appliance safe to repair

Double Insulation
 There are some appliances which do NOT have an earth wire. They have another way to
protect the user: double insulation.

 Double insulation protects the user of the appliance from an electrical shock by preventing
any possibility of the external casing becoming live (the live
wire can not touch the casing even if wires inside become loose),
thus eliminating the need for an earth connection. The two
layers of insulation are:

a. First insulation: Insulating electrical cable from the

internal component of the appliance.
b. Second insulation: Insulating internal metal part which
could become live from the external casing.

Note:
 If the external casing is plastic, there’s no way the
external casing can become live.
 You can identify which appliances have an earth wire by
checking the mains plug.
 If it is a 3-pin plug (all three pins are made of metal), it would have an earthing
wire.
  If the connecting cable (power cable) has 2-pin plug ,then it is either low power ratting
appliance or it has double insulation

Wiring a mains plug

Steps:

1. Remove a sufficient amount of outer insulation of the

three core wires, (Live , Neutral, Earth)
2. Open the mains plug with a screwdriver and take out the
fuse.
3. Remove about 5 mm of the insulation from three wires
and twist the copper strands of each wire together.
4. Clamp the edge of the removed outer insulation by
tightening the two screws that are holding down the
outer insulation wire.
5. Insert each wire to the correct terminal as shown and
tighten each screw so that the wires are fixed properly with the terminals.
6. Fix the fuse back to its position and close the covering of the plug.

It is the correct wiring of power plug

If the wires are not fixed at correct position they will cause the appliance casing to become
live and can cause electric shock.