Laguna State Polytechnic University

Main Campus Sta. Cruz Laguna

College of Engineering

POLYMERS
(Hydrocarbon Molecules, Polymer Molecules. Chemistry of Polymer Molecules,
Molecular Weight and Shape, Molecular Structure and Configurations,
Thermoplastics and Thermosetting Polymers)
SCI 1 ( Chemistry for Engineers)

Perez, Christine Faith M.

Viray, Krister
BSEE-1A
Engr. Jane N. Anda
Polymers

A polymer is any of a class of natural or synthetic substances composed of very large

molecules, called macromolecules, which are multiples of simpler chemical units called

monomers. Polymers make up many of the materials in living organisms and are the

basis of many minerals and man-made materials. They are found in both natural and

synthetic substances and have various applications in living organisms and industrial

applications.

Polymers can be classified in various ways, such as based on their source, monomers,

physical properties, and technological uses. Here are some common classifications of

polymers:

Natural Polymers: These polymers occur naturally and are found in plants and

animals. Examples include proteins, starch, cellulose, and rubber.

Synthetic Polymers: These polymers are created by humans and can be derived from

petrochemicals or other sources. Examples include polyethylene, polypropylene, and

polystyrene.

Semi-synthetic Polymers: These polymers are derived from naturally occurring

materials but have undergone some form of chemical modification. An example is

cellulose acetate, which is derived from cellulose but has been chemically modified.

Homopolymers: In this type of polymer, a single type of monomer unit is present. For

example, polyethylene.

Heteropolymers or Co-polymers: These polymers consist of different types of

monomer units. For example, nylon-6,6.

Thermoplastic Polymers: These polymers are hard at room temperature but become

soft and more or less fluid when heated, allowing them to be molded. Examples include

polyethylene and polylactic acid (PLA).

Elastomers: These are rubber-like solids with weak interaction forces between the

chains. Examples include rubber and silicone.

Fibers: These polymers have a high tensile strength and are often used in materials like

nylon or Kevlar

Biopolymers: These are polymers that occur naturally in living organisms, such as

proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides.

Each type of polymer has unique properties and applications, making them suitable for

various industries and applications, including construction, electronics, clothing, and

healthcare.

Hydrocarbon Molecules

Hydrocarbons are organic compounds consisting entirely of hydrogen and

carbon. They are the fundamental components of fossil fuels and biofuels, as well as

being present in various natural and synthetic substances.

Hydrocarbons can be classified into different types based on their structure and

properties. The main types of hydrocarbons include alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and

aromatic hydrocarbons.

Alkanes: Are saturated hydrocarbons, meaning they contain only single bonds between

carbon atoms. Alkenes and alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons, containing at least

one double or triple bond between carbon atoms.

Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Such as benzene, possess a unique ring structure. The

classification of hydrocarbons is based on the types of bonds and the arrangement of

carbon atoms in their molecules.

Hydrocarbons have various applications, serving as energy storage molecules in

fossil and biofuels, as well as being used in the production of plastics, fibers, rubbers,

solvents, and industrial chemicals.

Hydrocarbons are organic compounds consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon, and

they exhibit various properties due to their structure and arrangement of atoms. Some

key properties of hydrocarbons include:

Nonpolarity: Hydrocarbons are nonpolar substances with weak intermolecular forces.

Low melting and boiling temperatures: Hydrocarbons have relatively low melting and

boiling temperatures due to their weak intermolecular forces.

Solubility: Hydrocarbons are poorly or not at all soluble in polar solvents, including

water.

Density: Nearly all alkanes have densities less than 1.0 g/mL, making them less dense

than water.

Viscosity: Hydrocarbons, such as those found in natural crude rubber, can form long

chains and have high viscosity.

Color: Hydrocarbons are generally colorless and have faint odors, often similar to that

of gasoline or lighter fluid.

Structural variety: Hydrocarbons can feature simple or relatively complex structures,

and they can be classified into different types based on their structure, such as alkanes,

alkenes, alkynes, and aromatic hydrocarbons.

Reactivity: Hydrocarbons can undergo various chemical reactions, such as substitution

reactions, when one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced with other atoms, such as

chlorine or another halogen.

These properties of hydrocarbons make them suitable for various applications,

including as energy storage molecules in fossil fuels and biofuels, and as raw materials

for the production of plastics, fibers, rubbers, solvents, and industrial chemicals.

Polymer Molecules

A polymer molecule is a large, chain-like structure composed of repeating units

called monomers. These monomers are covalently bonded to form long and often

flexible chains or networks, giving polymers their unique properties. The term "polymer"

is derived from the Greek words "poly," meaning many, and "meros," meaning parts,

emphasizing the multitude of repeating units that constitute these macromolecules.

Polymer molecules are giant molecules with high molecular weight, composed of

smaller molecules called monomers. These molecules can be natural or synthetic and

have various applications in living organisms and industrial applications. Some key

aspects of polymer molecules include:

Size: Polymers are much larger than small molecules, such as water, and can consist of

10,000 to 100,000 atoms per molecule.

Monomers: Monomers are the building blocks of polymers, and they can be simple

chemical units or more complex structures.

Natural and Synthetic Polymers: Natural polymers, such as proteins, cellulose, and

nucleic acids, are found in living organisms, while synthetic polymers, like those made

from petrochemicals, are created by humans.

Structure: Polymers can have a basic chain of chemically bonded links, sometimes

called their backbone, and may also have secondary parts that dangle from some (or

all) of the chain's links, known as pendant groups.

Applications: Polymers have a wide range of applications, including use in the solid

parts of plants, rubber production, and the manufacturing of various materials like

concrete, glass, paper, plastics, and rubbers

The properties of polymer molecules depend on their structure, composition, and

arrangement, making them suitable for various applications in different industries and

applications.

The Chemistry of Polymer Molecule

Polymers are large molecules composed of many repeated subunits called

monomers. They are significantly larger than small molecules like water, typically

consisting of 10,000 to 100,000 atoms per molecule. The term "polymer" is derived from

the Greek roots "poly," meaning many, and "mer," meaning part or segment. These

macromolecules exhibit unique properties due to their size, such as entanglement and

intermolecular interactions. Polymers play a crucial role in various applications due to

their diverse properties and wide range of uses.

Formation of Polymers

Polymers are formed through a process called polymerization, which involves the

combination of many small molecules known as monomers into a covalently linked

macro molecule. During the polymerization process, some chemical groups may be lost

from each monomer. This occurs in the polymerization of PET polyester, for example.

Classification of Polymers
 Polymers can be classified into different types based on their source, monomers,

molecular forces, and physical properties. Based on the source of availability, polymers

can be classified into natural, synthetic, and semi-synthetic polymers. Natural polymers

include cellulose, starch, proteins, and rubber, while synthetic polymers include

polyethylene, Teflon, and PVC. Based on monomers, polymers can be classified into

homopolymers and copolymers. Based on molecular forces, polymers can be classified

into elastomers, fibers, and thermoplastics. Based on physical properties, polymers can

be classified into thermoplastics, thermosets, and elastomers.

Applications of Polymers

Natural polymers have a wide range of applications, particularly in the biomedical

and materials sectors. In the biomedical field, they are used for regenerative medicine,

drug delivery, tissue regeneration scaffolds, and targeted therapy due to their

biocompatibility, porosity, and surface properties. Additionally, natural polymers

contribute to a greener future in various sectors such as food packaging, textiles, and

cosmetic treatments. They are also used in the manufacture of paper goods, as

additives in food products, and in the formulation of nutraceuticals and functional foods.

The diverse applications of natural polymers highlight their significance in both

biomedical and sustainable material development.

The chemistry of polymer molecules is a fascinating area of study due to the

wide range of properties and applications of these large, chain-like molecules. The

formation of polymers from smaller molecules and their classification based on various

criteria make them essential components in various industries, including biomedical,

materials, and sustainable development.

Molecular Weight and Shape

 Biology and materials science are among the domains that are impacted by the

intrinsic properties of molecules, such as molecular weight and shape, which have a

substantial impact on their behaviour. In order to shed light on the consequences and

uses of molecular weight and shape across a wide range of scientific areas, this

research study attempts to analyse their linked roles.

One of the most important factors determining a molecule's physical and

chemical properties is its molecular weight, or mass. Understanding molecular weight is

critical to drug development since it affects pharmacokinetics, bioavailability, and

therapeutic efficacy, among other factors. Our capacity to precisely determine molecular

weights has improved with advances in mass spectrometry and analytical procedures,

which has led to more accurate medication design.

At the same time, molecule interactions are greatly influenced by molecular form.

In biological systems, interactions between enzymes and substrates as well as the

binding of ligands to receptors are regulated by the precise shape of molecules.

Molecular geometry plays a fundamental role in materials science, impacting the

characteristics and uses of polymers and nanomaterials, in addition to biology.

Advanced imaging methods and computational modelling have emerged as essential

resources for understanding the complex world of molecular form. The combination of

molecular weight.

Analysis of molecular formulas:

1. The number of hydrogen atoms that can be bonded to a given number of carbon

atoms is limited by the valence of carbon. For compounds of carbon and hydrogen

(hydrocarbons) the maximum number of hydrogen atoms that can be bonded to n

carbons is 2n + 2 (n is an integer). In the case of methane, ch4, n=1 & 2n + 2 = 4. The

origin of this formula is evident by considering a hydrocarbon made up of a chain of

carbon atoms. Here the middle carbons will each have two hydrogens and the two end

carbons have three hydrogens each.

2. For stable organic compounds the total number of odd-valenced atoms is even.

Thus, when even-valenced atoms such as carbon and oxygen are bonded together in

any number and in any manner, the number of remaining unoccupied bonding sites

must be even. If these sites are occupied by univalent atoms such as h, f, cl, etc. Their

total number will necessarily be even. Nitrogen is also an odd-valenced atom (3), and if

it occupies a bonding site on carbon it adds two additional bonding sites, thus

maintaining the even/odd parity.

3. The number of hydrogen atoms in stable compounds of carbon, hydrogen &

oxygen reflects the number of double bonds and rings in their structural formulas.

Consider a hydrocarbon with a molecular structure consisting of a simple chain of four

carbon atoms, ch3ch2ch2ch3. The molecular formula is c4h10 (the maximum number of

bonded hydrogens by the 2n + 2 rule). If the four carbon atoms form a ring, two

hydrogens must be lost. Similarly, the introduction of a double bond entails the loss of

two hydrogens, and a triple bond the loss of four hydrogens.

Thermoplastics and Thermosetting Polymers

Unlike their thermoplastic siblings, thermosetting polymers are a family of

synthetic materials with distinct properties. Thermosetting polymers go through a

chemical reaction during their initial curing process, irreversibly hardening into a

three-dimensional network structure, in contrast to thermoplastics, which can be

melted and reshaped several times. Because of this unique characteristic,

thermosetting polymers are essential in a wide range of industrial applications

because they provide improved strength, durability, and heat resistance.

What are thermoplastics?

 They are molten when heated and harden upon cooling. These characteristics,

which lend the material its name, are reversible so that it can be reheated, reshaped,

and frozen repeatedly. As a result, thermoplastics are mechanically recyclable. Some

of the most common types of thermoplastics are polypropylene, polyethylene,

polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, polyethylene terephthalate and polycarbonate.

Properties of thermoplastics thermoplastics have a simple molecular structure

comprising chemically independent macromolecules. They are softened or melted on

heating, then shaped, formed, welded, and solidified when cooled. Multiple heating

and cooling cycles can be repeated, allowing reprocessing and recycling.

Open main menu thermoplastics what are thermoplastics? They are molten when

heated and harden upon cooling. These characteristics, which lend the material its

name, are reversible so that it can be reheated, reshaped, and frozen repeatedly. As

a result, thermoplastics are mechanically recyclable. Some of the most common

types of thermoplastics are polypropylene, polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride,

polystyrene, polyethylene terephthalate and polycarbonate. Properties of

thermoplastics thermoplastics have a simple molecular structure comprising

chemically independent macromolecules. They are softened or melted on heating,

then shaped, formed, welded, and solidified when cooled. Multiple heating and

cooling cycles can be repeated, allowing reprocessing and recycling. How

thermoplastics are used thermoplastics have been around for a long time and are an

important component of everyday life today. For example: snow skis acrylonitrile

butadiene styrene (abs) is a thermoplastic used to manufacture: sports equipment

toys (for instance, lego® blocks) various automobile parts eyeglass lenses

polycarbonate is used to make: reusable drinking bottles food storage containers

eyeglass lenses cleaning product bottle polyethylene is probably the most common
thermoplastic and is used to make: milk bottles cleaning products plastic grocery

bags syringe and vials polypropylene (pp) is used in a wide range of applications,

including: packaging for food, and chemical and cleaning products electrical cabling

automotive components medical items, e.g. syringes, petri dishes and specimen

bottles polypropylene can also be used in fibre form for clothing, upholstery and

carpets thermoplastics innovations the use of thermoplastics in 3d printing has

brought about new opportunities for medical device companies and hospitals.

Applications of 3d-printed medical-grade polymers range from trial implants and

instruments to short- and long-term implants. Implants previously relied on more

expensive metals and conventional production methods. 3d-printed implants using

polymers such as polyphenyl sulfone (ppsu) can save medical companies up to 50%

compared with milled titanium, providing opportunities to find more economically

feasible solutions to various medical challenges and consequently enable better

patient care.l

Thermoplastics are one the the main two types of plastic - the other being

thermosets. Thermoplastics becomes soft and malable when heat is applied and

becomes hard again once cooled. In general, the viscosity of thermoplastic melts is

higher than for thermosets (but not necessarily for highly-filled materials).

Thermoplastics are the most commonly used type of plastic with polyethelene

(including hdpe, lldpe/ldpe), polypropylene (pp), polyvinyl chloride (pvc) and

polyethylene terephthalate (pet) being the most widely used.

1. Chemistry and the mechanism of curing

Crosslinking is a process that thermosetting polymers go through during the

curing process. This is the process by which polymer chains create covalent

connections with one another to form an inflexible, stiff structure. Amines,

 isocyanates, and peroxides are common crosslinking agents. These reactions can

take many different chemical forms, which produce a large variety of

thermosetting polymers with different characteristics

2. Thermosetting polymer types

A. Epoxy resins: used in coatings, adhesives, and composite materials, epoxy resins

are well-known for their superior adhesive qualities and chemical resistance.

B. Polyurethanes: utilised in foams, elastomers, and coatings, polyurethanes combine

durability and versatility, demonstrating their suitability to a variety of industries.

C. Phenolic resins: known for their ability to withstand heat and operate as an

electrical insulator, phenolic resins are frequently used in the construction of circuit

boards.

3. Uses

Thermosetting polymers are essential to the electronics, construction, automotive,

and aerospace industries. Epoxy resins, for example, have a high strength-to-weight

ratio and are widely utilised in wind turbine blades and aviation components. While

phenolic resins serve as the foundation for fire-resistant building materials,

polyurethanes are utilised in the creation of long-lasting car paints.

4. Benefits and difficulties

Benefits: thermosetting polymers gain improved mechanical and thermal

properties from the irreversible curing process. Their versatility in harsh settings is

increased by their resistance to chemicals, heat, and solve.

 In summary, thermosetting polymers stand out for their special qualities and

range of applications in the wide and varied field of polymers. They are extremely

strong and durable due to the chemical crosslinking that takes place during the curing

process, which makes them invaluable in many different sectors. Each type of resin—

from epoxy to polyurethane to phenolic—offers unique benefits that support a diverse

range of applications. Notwithstanding, obstacles pertaining to recyclable materials

underscore the necessity for sustained investigation into sustainable substitutes and

approaches for managing refuse.

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