1.

1 Introduction

CHEMISTRY METHODS LECTURE NOTES

Prepared By: Dr. INYALOT JUDE TADEO (PhD, MSc, BSc Educ.)

COURSE CODE: SCB 2203

COURSE NAME: CHEMISTRY METHODS & COMPUTERS IN
CHEMISTRY
COURSE CREDIT: 3 CU DURATION: 45 HOURS
COURSE LEVEL: YEAR 2 SEMESTER 2

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1.1 Introduction

A brief course description

This course is aimed at developing the students' understanding of teaching issues such as
secondary school curriculum, the learner centred paradigm, lesson planning, teaching
strategies, integration of ICT in science teaching and creating conducive learning
environments as they prepare for their first school practice
In this course students will learn how to develop and use teaching and learning resources in
science based on ideas and views drawn from learning theories. Students will relate the ideas
in learning theories to the classroom environment and be able to use them for effective teaching
and learning of science.
The course builds on the concept discussed in the first year foundation courses, that is,
foundations of curriculum studies and design, development and implementation. During the
course, trends in science curriculum changes from colonial time to today will be traced and the
status of science education in Uganda discussed in detail. The course also looks at the policies
and contemporary issues in relation to science education in Uganda.
Course objectives
By the end of the course, students should be able to:
✓ Describe the relationship between science, technology and society.
✓ Trace changes in the secondary school science curriculum from colonial period to the
present.
✓ Explain how different theorists’ ideas influence the teaching and learning of chemistry
science.
✓ Differentiate between a national teaching syllabus and a school teaching syllabus.
✓ Prepare detailed scheme of work for any school chemistry topic/unit.
✓ Explain circumstances which influence a chemistry teacher’s choice of instructional
methods. Analyze the impact of different policies on science education in Uganda.
✓ Explain different ways through which a chemistry teacher can motivate his/her students
during chemistry lesson. Integrate indigenous science and technological knowledge
(ITK) into the science curriculum.
✓ Articulate the problems of teaching secondary school science and suggest feasible
solutions.
✓ Explain why there fewer female students opting for science/technology related careers
and find solutions to such a problem.
Model of delivery
The course will be conducted through lectures, discussions, group work and presentations. A
blended approach will be followed, whereby we shall have both online and face to face
sessions. Assessment will include written individual assignment(s) and a test contributing 40
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1.1 Introduction

% marks of course work. At the end of the course, the student will take a final examination
which contributes 60 % of the total marks.
Suggested reading list
1. Krepeel, W.J. & Duvall, C.R (1981) Field trips. A guide for improving and conducting
educational experiences. Washington DC National Education Association 1981.
2. Shayer, M &Adey, P (1989) Towards a Science Teaching Cognitive development and
Curriculum demand .Heinemann Educational Books Ltd.
3. Ziman, J. (1980) Teaching and Learning about Science and Society. Cambridge
University press.
4. Osborne, R & W. Wittrock, M. (I983) Learning Science: A generative Process Science
education, 67 (4):489-508.
5. Obanya P.(1985) Teaching Methods across the curriculum ,Billing and Sons Ltd.
6. The African forum for children’s Literacy in science and Technology,(2004) School
Science in Africa: Learning to teach, teaching to learn JOTA Gariel.
7. Naidoo, P; Savage, M. Eds (1998) Africa Science and Technology Education into the
New Millenium: Practice, Policy and Priorities.
8. Yo loye, E. (1986).The relevance of Education Content to National need in Africa.
International Education Review Vol. 32 No. 2149 – 172
9. Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum Development, theory and practice, Harcourt, Brace and
World Inc.
10. Bishop, G. (1985). Curriculum development. A text book for students, Macmillan
Education Ltd.
11. Kell, A.V. (1989). The curriculum theory and Practice 3rd Edition, Paul Chapman
Publishing Ltd.
12. Blenkin, G. M. Edwards, G.& Kelly A.V. (1992) Change and curriculum, Paul
Chapman Publishing Ltd.
13. Shayer, M & Adey, P. (1981). Towards a Science of Science teaching. Cognitive
development and curriculum demand. Heinemann Educational Books Ltd, Oxford
London.
14. Benuaurs G. A., Otiende J. E. and Bro B. (1994). Theory and Practice of Education,
East Africa Education Publishers, Nairobi.
15. 2. Cutis R., J. R. C. (1999). Curriculum Development in Vocational and Technical
Education: Planning, Content and Implementation.

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1.1 Introduction

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1.1 Introduction

CHAPTER 1. Science

1.1 Introduction

The word science comes from the Latin "scientia," meaning knowledge. Science is
"knowledge attained through study or practice," or "knowledge covering general truths of the
operation of general laws, especially as obtained and tested through scientific method and
concerned with the physical world."

1.1.1 What does that really mean?

Science refers to a system of acquiring knowledge. This system uses experimentation and
observation to describe and explain natural phenomena. The term science also refers to the
organized body of knowledge people have gained using that system. Less formally, the word
science often describes any systematic field of study or the knowledge gained from it.

1.1.2 What is the purpose of science?

Perhaps the most general description is that the purpose of science is to produce useful models
of reality. Science as defined above is sometimes called pure science to differentiate it from
applied science, which is the application of research to human needs.

Fields of science are commonly classified along two major lines:

Natural sciences, the study of the natural world,

Social sciences, the systematic study of human behaviour and society.

Science as a process: - It’s the process of gaining knowledge and understanding of the natural
world.

Science as knowledge: - It is the knowledge about the structure and behaviour of the natural
world based on facts that can be proved.

1.1.3 Importance of Science to Uganda’s Modern Society

✓ Through science we have got technological advancement and economic growth.

✓ The existence of high level scientists implies the production of individuals who are
competent and can compete in the labour market.

✓ Science is very important in the international job market, the greater the advances in
scientific technology, the greater the demand for workers sufficiently educated in these
particular areas.

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1.2 The science curriculum

✓ Science is a fun!!! – The more we learn science, the more we want to learn i.e. it’s a
process that never ends and as we continue to discover new things/ideas in science, the
better our lives are improved upon through technology improvement.

Note: It’s thus imperative to teach science in our educational institutions.

There exist two categorical aspects regarding science;

Scientists.

Scientific literacy.

A scientifically literate person is one who appreciates what science tells about ourselves, the
earth and the universe.

• He recognizes the impart of science and technology on everyday life.

• He takes informed personal decisions about things that involve science.

• The one who understands the essential parts of media reports on science based issues
and reflects critically on the information in or crucially omitted from such reports.

• The one who takes part confidently in discussion with others about issues involving
science.

1.1.4 Technology

This is scientific knowledge used in practical ways, and it can also refer to machinery or
equipment.

1.2 The science curriculum

1.2.1 Why develop a curriculum in science

Society in which schooling takes place has problems, needs, and other issues (challenges); it’s
an analysis of needs, issues or problems that lead to the decision to construct or reconstruct the
curriculum. Trying to achieve an educational goal through curriculum development therefore
is a systematic attempt to solving a problem focused on the guidance of learning.

To achieve an educational goal in society there is need to design a proper system that can or
could operate efficiently. The system must be designed to operate effectively in society with
its various characteristics, for example, humans with different purposes, preferences and
dynamic mechanisms in operations.

1.2.1.1 Examples of issues, needs and problems

• Dissatisfaction with old content and techniques.

• Advancement in technology.

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1.2 The science curriculum

• Declining performance in science disciplines.

• Unavailability of curriculum materials.
• Need to make greater use of technology to enhance learning.

1.2.1.2 Guidelines when constructing relevant science curriculum

A science curriculum should reflect the nature of science, that is, scientists have certain
things that they believe.

They have beliefs like;

✓ They look at the world as understandable, that is, things that occur in the universe can
be understood how they happen if they are studied carefully and systematically.
✓ Scientific ideas are subject to change. Knowledge in science is not static, that is, science
is a process for producing knowledge which depend on careful observations and on
inventing theories for making sense out of such observation.
✓ Change in knowledge is inevitable because new observations may change prevailing
theories. Therefore the testing and improving of theories go on all the time.
✓ Scientific Knowledge is durable (it lasts). Most scientific knowledge is durable and so
the modification of ideas rather than their outright rejection is the room in science, for
example, in formulating the theory of relativity “Albert Einstein” did not discard
Newton’s laws of motion but showed them to be only approximations of limited
application with in a more general concept.
✓ Science cannot provide complete answers to all questions in otherwards, there are
matters that cannot be usefully examined in a scientific way, that is, science cannot
exactly tell why we live.
✓ Scientists do not have the means to settle issues concerning good and evil. But can
contribute to the discussion whether something is good or evil, that is, by identifying
the likely consequences of particular actions which may be helpful in weighing
alternatives.

1.2.1.3 Scientific inquiry

There are certain features of science that gives it a distinctive character as a mode of inquiry
and features are;

1. Science demands evidence

The validity of scientific claims is settled by referring to observations of phenomena therefore

scientists concentrate on getting accurate data as evidence obtained by observation and
measurement taken from situations that range from natural setting such as forests to completely
contrived ones.

2. It’s a blend of logic and imagination

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1.2 The science curriculum

Although all sorts of imagination and thought may be used in coming up with hypothesis and
theories, scientific arguments must conform to the principles of logical reasoning.

3. Science explains and predicts.

Science strives to make sense of observation of phenomenon by constructing explanations for

them that use currently accepted scientific principles, but it is not enough for scientific theories
to fit only the observations that are already known, they should also fit additional observations
that were not used in formulating theories in the first place.

4. Scientists try to identify and avoid bias

They want to know the possible sources of bias and how bias is likely to influence evidence.
Scientists are also expected to be as alert to possible bias in their work as in that of other
scientists.

5. Science is not authoritarian

In the history of science esteemed authorities have been wrong many times. Therefore no
scientist however famous or highly placed is empowered to decide for other scientists what is
true. There are no pre-established conclusions that scientists must reach on the basis of their
investigations.

1.2.1.4 What a science curriculum should reflect

Science curriculum should reflect the nature of science and thus:

✓ The science curriculum should enable the student to understand the nature of science.
✓ It should enable students to use science process and thinking skills to manifest science
interests and skills.
✓ It should understand important science concepts and principles.
✓ Communicate effectively using science language and reasoning.
✓ Demonstrate awareness of the social and historical aspects of science.

1.2.1.5 Science curriculum should be coherent

The science curriculum should be designed such that there is a logical relationship with one
another. The science ideas taught within a particular level should have a natural connection
with each other and with those of earlier grades. In other wards efforts should be made to select
topics and skills that integrate well with one another and with the subject areas appropriate to
that level. There should also be an upward articulation of science concepts, skills and content.
This spiraling prepares students to understand and use more complex science concepts and
skills as they advance through their science learning.

1.2.1.6 A science curriculum should be developmentally appropriate

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1.2 The science curriculum

It should take into account the psychological and social readiness of student. It should describe
the science language students should use that is appropriate to each level. Instead of telling
students about abstract concepts and inappropriate levels, it should focus on providing
experiences with concepts that students can explore and understand in depth to build a
foundation for future science learning.

1.2.1.7 Science curriculum should be comprehensive

It should emphasize depth so that it will empower other than intimidate them with a collection
of isolated facts. A good science curriculum should also encourage good teaching practices,
that is, should emphasize students inquiry. This means that the science skills should be central,
that is, students should gain science knowledge by doing science, thus instructors should
involve learners in making and testing hypothesis, evaluating data, making conclusions,
making decisions, predictions, exploring, questioning, etc.

1.2.1.8 Science curriculum should be feasible

It should be taught with materials and resources that are easily obtained.

1.2.1.9 Science curriculum should be useful and relevant

It should relate directly to students interests and needs and therefore should be grounded in the
natural world in which we live.

1.2.1.10 Science should encourage good assessment practices

Students’ achievements should be assessed using a variety of assessments instruments

depending on one’s purpose of assessment. We should be observing students engaged in
science activities for a clear judgment of whether students have gained the skills or group
working skills.

1.2.1.11 Science curriculum should be motivating

The science curriculum should provide skills in a context that enables students the joy of doing
science. Effective science instruction engages the students actively in enjoying learning
experiences.

1.2.1.12 A science curriculum should have a focus

It should deal with helping students to develop e a broad range of skills, knowledge, attitude
and values each of which ultimately contributes to students’ development and employability.

1.2.1.13 Science curriculum should be responsive

The curriculum should be responsive to a constantly changing world.

1.2.1.14 A science curriculum should have a justification

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1.2 The science curriculum

It should be held based on identified needs of the society.

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2.1 Trends in Uganda school science curriculum

CHAPTER 2. Changes science curriculum has undergone in Uganda

2.1 Trends in Uganda school science curriculum

2.1.1 The period before independence

Science has been an important and integral part of the school curriculum from the time
missionaries introduced schooling in Uganda since the first missionary schools were set up at
the beginning of this Century. About the 1930’s science was taught from then Junior Secondary
up to college (Makerere College at the time). There was little or no science at all at primary
school level. The science taught in missionary schools like King’s college Budo, Namilyango
College and St. Mary’s College Kisubi produced Uganda’s early doctors, engineers, science
teachers, technicians and other scientific and technological cadres of the national man power.

There was selection/bias for which students were supposed to do science, that is, the brighter
students were allowed to do sciences and others denied that opportunity. This trend was
strengthened with the introduction of the Cambridge Overseas School Certificate (COSC)
examinations in the late 1940s.

At the beginning there was little specialization in the various branches of science as they are
today. Students were being taught basically general science especially at the lower levels. In
some schools Health science was being taught as part of the science curriculum.

School enrollment before independence was quite low and combined with the fact that there
was rigorous selection for science students, that is, science classes were few or small. At higher
levels of the school system, the science teachers were almost exclusively European expatriates,
that is, very few blacks. Most schools were boarding. Day schools were confined mainly to
urban centres or were privately owned with little or no assistance from the government. The
teaching styles laid emphasis on demonstrations; each lesson was augmented with one or more
practical demonstrations performed by the teacher assisted by the lab assistant or student.
Students were expected to carry out weekly experiments which were designed and supervised
by the teacher and at the end of the experiment the students were expected to write a report for
marking and strictly according to a particular format. The marks however did not contribute to
the students’ score in the final internal or public examinations (the Cambridge School
Certificate at the time). Regular exercises were administered and carefully marked by the
teachers with appropriate remarks to assist students improve on weak points.

There was no lack of science teachers in schools, there were science text books and libraries
had enough scientific literature on science. The government provided necessary requirements
for science regardless of its relative economy.

There was a change in the science curriculum due to the introduction of COSC. So the
curriculum was being developed by Cambridge Overseas Examination syndicate. Though
general and health science continued to be offered, the science subjects were separated into
Chemistry, Physics and biology. Biology was independent but Physics and Chemistry were

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2.1 Trends in Uganda school science curriculum

combined so one could either do Biology or Physics with Chemistry or Biology, Physics and
Chemistry (Biology, Physics with Chemistry combined) and or (Biology; Physics and
Chemistry). Most schools offered physics with Chemistry alternative as it was of less
demanding on material input.

Note that the Physics and chemistry were recommended for brighter students. Students who
hated Physics were encouraged to do Biology and Chemistry as their science subjects.

At the end of fourth year there would be examinations both in theory and practical irrespective
of the syllabus followed.

2.1.2 The period after independence to 1971

By the time we got our independence the number of local science teachers (some trained to
degree level at Makerere University and abroad) was gradually increasing. In the early 1960s
(immediately after independence) there was no serious attempt to revise science curriculum
and science subjects continued to be taught in the same way as before independence.

In 1963 the Uganda television was launched and it began to broadcast educational programs
including science subjects to schools and college. For this purpose government gave most
schools Tv sets. The broad cast materials were developed by experts in the ministry of
education together with ministry of Information and Broadcasting and the television lessons
were delivered by a selected core of experienced science school teachers (mainly expatriates).
At the same time in 1966, the Advanced level (Higher school Certificate, HSC) courses were
also introduced. Most students offered 3 principle subjects with the most favored subject
combinations being:

✓ PCB mainly for students interested in medicine or veterinary medicine.

✓ PCM mainly for students interested in engineering.
✓ BCG mainly for students interested in agriculture or forestry.
o Selections for PCB: Distinctions or strong credits usually not lower than 3 in 3
subjects.
o Selections for PCM: A distinction or at least credit 3 in mathematics at O’ level.
o Selections for BCG: Strong grades in Biology and Chemistry.

Initially the physics and chemistry syllabus was referred to as syllabus N for normal (slightly
less mathematical as far as physics was concerned). In the mid-1960s, a new A’ level syllabus
for physics and Chemistry referred to as T was introduced by the Cambridge University
overseas Examinations Syndicate. The T referred to Technical (the mathematics content was
increased). It was meant to increase students’ ability to solve problems (problem solving
approach).

The most significant development in school science curriculum was the introduction of the
science school project (SSP); SSP Physics, SSP Chemistry and SSP Biology. This was a
modification of the Nuffield Science Project introduced in the UK in 1962. In the new
curriculum there was a shift from learning of theory first followed by practical, to a discovery
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2.1 Trends in Uganda school science curriculum

approach through experimentation. This curriculum was confined to O’ level only coincided
with the setting up of the East African Examinations Council which at the beginning was setting
and marking examinations under the supervision of COES. With the SSP approach, students
were given a minimum of instruction and left on their own to perform experiments and arrive
at conclusions with a minimum of assistance from the teacher.

Emphasis was on practical aspects of science as opposed to the traditional approach which laid
emphasis on the theory. The syllabus was, however shallow on content and there were few text
books for it. Also teachers who had been brought up on the traditional syllabus were not
adequately trained to cope with the new approach. Since the A’ level syllabus remained
unchanged, students who had followed the SSP syllabus at O’ level found it difficult to cope
with the traditional syllabus at A’ level.

There was also lack of funds to purchase the necessary inputs in the right quantities as most of
them had to be imported into the country. The syllabus was also not evaluated for appraisal
purposes.

In the late 1970’s due to lack of trained teachers and scarcity of financial resources, the SSP
syllabi were abandoned and no follow up studies were carried out with regard to their impact
on students. Syllabi 561-Physical science was introduced in all schools and taught at ordinary
level. The advantage of 561- physical science syllabus was that it required less materials and
apparatus than the other alternative of teaching separate science subjects (Physics, Chemistry
and Biology). But at the end of the 4th year of the secondary education, students’ skills in
practical work was inadequate and so in 1984 syllabus 561- Physical science was abolished
and the current 535 Physics and 545 Chemistry syllabi were introduced with the aim of
integrating theory and practical work as much as possible. The challenge with the current
science syllabi is that they are too long to be covered in the given time. They also demand far
too much time on the part of the teacher and there is lack of materials needed to conduct
experiments. The student/teacher ratio is also too high (over 100:1 in some cases).

2.1.3 Recent trends in science and technologies in school

The trend in science and technology these days is towards science for all. It is to give more
weight on aspects of science that can be seen to contribute to the overall goals of schooling.
Thus according to this trend, we are giving less weight to the traditional academic content as a
means of preparation for higher studies in science. It’s towards more subject integration. In the
early years of schooling science and technology is usually more or less integrated with other
school subjects and so it’s only later that science subjects are presented as separate disciplines.
Specialization also varies from country to country.

Towards widening perspective of science, that is, to give more weight on cultural; historical
and philosophical aspects of science and technology and so in widening of the science
perspectives we are presenting science as a set of human authorities, that is, we want science
to have some meaning to our society. To make the context in which we learn science more
important we are giving more weight on putting science and technology in meaningful context

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2.1 Trends in Uganda school science curriculum

for the learners. This often implies examples from everyday life and current social scientific
issues. It’s towards the concern for environment. Environmental issues should form part of our
science curriculum. To place more weight on technology, it’s not just teaching knowledge and
facts but also to apply the skills and knowledge. Towards science technology and society
(STS), it’s also to relate the science and technology that we teach to society in terms of issues,
problems related to society. Towards the inclusion of ethics, that is, we bring in social issues
we have to decide what our goals are, the experiments we need. Moral issues are also inclusive.
Note that when scientists are doing their work, there are ethics they have to follow, so ethics
cannot be separated from the moral issues.

“Less is more”, that is, you need not to cover all the aspects but simply look at a few key things
which are covered adequately that is important. More weight is put on presentation of key ideas
and their development often in an historical and socio context. These key ideas replace the
attempt to give an encyclopedic coverage of all science. To look at information technologies
as subject matter and as tools. It can be used as a tool when doing simulations designs and
likewise used as subject matter, that is, to improve ICT as part of curriculum and also use ICT
to teach science.

To give some weight on the nature of science. In the past science has been about discovery the
absolute truth but now it is something depending on evidence and creative reasoning, that is,
sensible reasoning. So our science curriculum should give the nature of science to the society.
The weight on recent understanding of the nature of science implies a stress on the social
cultural and human aspects of science. Science is presented as knowledge that builds on
evidence as well as arguments in a creative search for meaning explanation.

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3.1 Introduction

CHAPTER 3. Innovation in science and technology

3.1 Introduction

Innovation in science and technology requires good understanding of what science and
technology are. The emphasis in science is the composition and behavior of matter in relation
to the existing scientific laws or theories. One of the major pillars of science is the assumption
that “facts and theories that are scientific can survive periods of critical study and testing by
others thus increasing their acceptability by the scientific community. On the other hand
technology is the use or application of knowledge and skills to solve practical problems with
in a given society or community. Science and technology are therefore closely related but be
treated in such a way that one is exclusive of the other. However, science focuses on
understanding why things happen while technology is the know how possessed by people.
Secondary school science is generally theoretical and abstract but technology is applied and
practical and is usually associated with sociology and economy. Thirdly technology does not
always use scientific knowledge and it’s this aspect which makes technology an aspect of the
whole curriculum rather than an appendage of science. Whereas science is academic and free,
technology is frequently expensive and patented.

3.2 Innovation

Innovation may be defined as process renewing, altering or introducing new methods, new
components or device. The process of innovation involves four major components.

1. The innovator or change agent. The person/group of persons that decide upon and
initiate the innovation.
2. The innovation or the change itself. An example is the introduction of new technology
or a new way of teaching mathematics conducting an investigation.
3. The user system. This is a person or group of persons to which the innovation is
targeted.
4. Time. Innovation is essentially a social process and so occurs over a period of time

The process of innovation usually proceeds through the following phases;

✓ The identification of the problem, some need or dissatisfaction which requires attention.
✓ The identification of possible solutions is considered.
✓ A particular solution/innovation is then selected, as being the most likely to solve the
problem.
✓ The solution/innovations then are absorbed into the system after being implemented on
a wider scale. In other wards the innovation has become institutionalized.

Many innovations fail largely because innovators fail to appreciate the process of innovation
which is after sporadic, haphazard, spontaneous and none linear. Innovation is a matter of
system change and system building with in a social context, for example, there might be
problem in a science curriculum which is causing dissatisfaction among the students and the

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3.2 Innovation

teachers. This may require an innovation in curriculum to solve or to ameliorate the program.
The major problem is often the inability to identify the major cause of the dissatisfaction. For
example, is the problem of the class we teach the science curriculum? The problem may have
nothing to do with the topics in the curriculum but they may lie elsewhere in the pedagogy.

Having identified the real problem, the next phase involve considering possible solutions
bearing in mind the economic social and cultural limitation. In the case of the curriculum the
examination system and the public perceptions of the role of examinations is very often a major
constraint to innovation. Over reliance examinations has resulted in coaching & memorization
of scientific facts without paying attention to understanding and application; this has in turn
influenced teacher pedagogical practices.

Innovation will require coming up with the best suggestions to change the status quo (existing
status) and this would involve consultations with various state/stakeholders. The task of the
innovator is to develop and innovate on optimum solution to the identified problem. This may
require thinking about the various options available and having the willingness to undertake a
risk. Innovation involves the phase of implementation after an earlier phase of trial.
Implementation involves integration, monitoring and evaluation system into the innovation.

In summary there are many considerations that should be taken into account when innovating
in science and technology. Although the process of innovation involves specific steps, the
duration of these steps may vary from one to another. Innovation in science and technology is
the only way out for the transformation of the Ugandan society from its current pre-determined
stage.

Questions

This year’s national science week is science and technology innovations for wealth creation
and improved livelihoods.

1. What is meant by science and technology innovation?

2. To what extent is the theme appropriate to the Ugandan context?
3. What need to be done in order to use innovations in science and technology to create a
wealth and improve livelihoods in the majority of Ugandans?
4. What role can the science teacher do to contribute to the Aspirations of the theme?

3.2.1 Models of innovation

There are several models of innovation but for the most known ones are.

I. The problem solving model.

II. Social interactions.
III. Research development, development diffusion model.

3.2.1.1 Problem solving model

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3.2 Innovation

This model is a user central model in which the users themselves are involved in conserving,
initiating, and developing an innovation within their own, setting most of the ideas and
resources to bring about a change to occur within the users or the client system, for example,
within the school, among the teachers, among the students. The procedures and techniques used
involve the major steps of problem solving:

• Problem identification.
• Generation of alternative solutions.
• Evaluation of the proposed solution (various solutions).
• Implementation.
• Monitoring and evaluation.

3.2.1.2 Social interaction model

In this model ideas and practices diffuse through society largely through informal contact
between interested individuals and groups. This is how extension agents especially in
agriculture transfer technical knowledge or innovations to the farmers.

3.2.1.3 Research development diffusion model

In this the innovation is conceived at the head or center of the Ministry Education or by the
head teacher within the school system and introduced for implementation on a wider scale.
This model is effective when used on large scale and where ideas are used in geographically
dispersed and isolated users. In addition it’s effective where those who will be implementing
innovation lack the necessary knowledge and expertise. This model has several disadvantages:

• It is a top-down rather than bottom-up.

• Its implementation is unlikely to be effective because the users of the innovation have
little understanding of the philosophy and value for the innovation.
• Users usually resend what doesn’t come from within their community and this affects
negatively on their levels of participation.

3.2.1.4 Linkage model

In this model intermediate agents such as teachers link to the centre (Ministry of education)
and the consumers of the innovation, for example, students. The linkage model is a little more
effective compared to the research development diffuse model but it’s also a top-down model.

In summary, there many models/strategies that can be used to introduce and implement an
innovation. Many innovations fail because of several factors including;

• Resistance to change.
• When the innovation does not appear to be related to the needs of the society.
• When the society is not adequately mobilized for the innovation.

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3.2 Innovation

3.2.2 Indigenous technological knowledge and innovation in science technology

Indigenous knowledge is the cumulative body of knowledge and beliefs built by the groups of
people over generations and which is transmitted through stories, riddles, folklore, etc.
Indigenous knowledge also refers to as indigenous technical knowledge characterized by the
following.

✓ It is culture specific.
✓ It is usually orally transmitted.
✓ In the area of conservation (its associated with spirits).
✓ It has a high relevance to the society which it originates.
✓ In the area of medicine particularly herbal medicine it forms the basis of modem
conventional medicine.

The biggest challenge is how to incorporate indigenous technical knowledge into modern
science and technology curriculum. Indigenous technical knowledge faces a number of threats
including the following;

• It’s likely to disappear with the disappearance of custodians of this knowledge.

• The old generation of people who are knowledgeable in indigenous technical
knowledge (ITK) has disappeared and yet ITK is not sufficiently documented.
• Globalization as a result of innovation and communication has generally brought
different people together, and the usually more superior cultures have tended to become
dominant.
• The educational system which was introduced among most indigenous communities in
Africa discouraged ITK and labeled it as heathen or devilish. Consequently, our
education system has not sufficiently reformed to incorporate innovations in ITK. into
modern science and technology.

Questions

1. Summarize the story “My Grandmother the great environment education” (in one page).
2. What is the relevance of the story to the current teaching of environmental management in
schools?
3. What are the major challenges of incorporating Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK)
into the current school science curriculum?
4. Suggest ways of overcoming the challenges.
5. What factors hinder the development or participation and performance to school student
science?
6. Suggest practical solutions to overcome these hindrances.
7. In what ways does the current science policy contribute to the promotion of effective
teaching and learning of science at the secondary school level?

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4.1 Gender

CHAPTER 4. Contemporary issues in science curriculum

4.1 Gender

Gender is determined socially; it is the societal meaning assigned to male and female. Each
society emphasizes particular roles that each sex should play, although there is wide latitude in
acceptable behaviors for each gender. Gender is used to describe those characteristics of
women and men, which are socially constructed, while sex refers to those which are
biologically determined. People are born female or male but learn to be girls and boys who
grow into women and men. This learned behavior makes up gender identity and determines
gender roles. In summary gender refers to those characteristics of women and men that are
socially constructed, while sex refers to those biologically determined.

4.2 Gender and science education

Girls and women remain substantially under-represented in mathematics, science & technology
in school and in the workplace. Although this problem is recognized, its complexity is widely
underestimated and causes are not well understood. It has been observed that fewer females
often study mathematics, physical sciences, engineering, computer studies, and allied fields at
every level of education from elementary school to graduate school. Consequently, women are
under-represented in occupations requiring knowledge of or qualifications in these fields.

4.3 Reasons for the problem

There is more divergence of opinion on the reasons for these facts. Some of the divergence is
due to the different situations which exist in different countries and regions of the world. They
include cultural differences which in some countries serve to discourage girls from studying
science in schools or universities, and from pursuing scientific careers. Other reasons
frequently advanced are discrimination, career interruptions due to childbirth and family
responsibilities, gender stereotyping of science and technology, and the relative lack of women
in policy and decision-making positions. It is also recognized that the full gender dimension of
science and its impact on society was imperfectly understood and warrants further study and
research.

4.3.1 Does gender difference matter?

Does it matter if the above differences between men and women exist? After studying all the
evidence my colleagues and I were in no doubt that it did matter and for the following reasons:

1. Human rights and social justice

All individuals should have equality of opportunity to a science education and to a scientific
career, and for women and men to benefit equally from advances in science and technology.

2. Scientific and economic reasons

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4.3 Reasons for the problem

If women are not given equal opportunity to become scientists and engineers then a country
denies itself its full complement of scientifically creative minds. This can be a serious handicap
both to development of science and to the generation of wealth in an increasingly competitive
world.

3. Social reasons

Women frequently perform different roles and tasks, both within & outside the home compared
to those performed by men. It is important that both men and women are able to bring a
scientific and technical education to bear on the performance of these roles and tasks.

4. Reasons of insight

Some women, it has been suggested, bring different insights, values, motivations and methods
of work to their scientific jobs than do most men and other women. The inclusion of more
women in science will enrich the total pool of talents, insights and motivations, and increase
the probability that science will serve the needs of all humanity.

Other reasons include;

Women are custodians of culture, so if they are scientifically literate there will be more
preservation. Different countries are struggling to become scientifically literate, so they
need to bring women on board as they carry the biggest population.
In influential positions women can participate in policy making so that the policies are
gender sensitive.
Uganda relies on agriculture most for its economy and yet women are the ones entirely
devoted to agricultural activities. So if they are scientifically empowered the agricultural
sector will be improved.
Science and technology enables women to access those careers and so add income to the
family (access interesting work and carriers that bring economic benefit).

4.3.1.1 Why there are fewer women than men in science and technology in Uganda

• Cultural beliefs; In most places, girls are trained to be house wives and so they are
deprived of the chance of science and technology, for example, in some places
education of men or boy is at the expense of girls women. Culture looks at girls as
inferior and thus lowering their self-esteem.
• Discouragement by teachers, parents, peers, society, etc.
• Lack of enough role models.
• Poor teaching methods (not gender sensitive).
• Lack of adequate career guidance and counseling.
• Early marriages and pregnancies.
• Abstract nature of science.
• Attitude of employers towards women.
• Lack of sanitary facilities in schools.

20
4.4 Gender sensitivity

• Negative attitude towards science.

• The social responsibilities are always assigned to girls.
• Unfair policies.

4.3.1.2 What can be done to improve the situation or ways in which to increase
women/girls participation in science and technology

1. Sensitizing the parents, teachers, peers and the general public on gender balance.
2. Sensitizing the public against discriminating females for jobs.
3. Career guidance and counseling.
4. Inviting role models and professionals of girls who have excelled in science and
technology to address or carryout career guidance so that mindset of girls towards
science and technology can be changed.
5. Giving incentives to well performing girls, that is, bursaries given to girls excelling
in science.
6. Provision of basic facilities for the girls to stay in school.
7. Teachers should employ-gender sensitive methods in teaching and learning.
8. Encouraging women to take up the administrative and official positions.
9. Strengthening laws about early marriages and pregnancies. Teachers who tend to
impregnate students need to be punished.
10. Allowing pregnant students to continue with school after delivering.
11. Developing gender sensitive curriculum and instructional materials.

We need to influence policies so that they give equal opportunities to women as well as to
men.

4.4 Gender sensitivity

To be sensitive towards any one's sexual or reproductive differential capability and roles while
actively trying to remove all types of discriminations and stereotypes that affect the growth of
a person particularly female is referred to as gender sensitivity. Gender sensitivity is the
awareness and insight into the state of the other sex, with reference to historical roots of
sexist stereotyping, discrimination and violence. Another definition would be the awareness
and acceptance of the roles and duties of each, as expected from them and from the people that
they work with. It acknowledges the different roles and responsibilities of women and men in
the community and the relationships between them. Men and women are different; therefore
their experiences, needs, issues and priorities are different. Strategies are also different to
achieve equitable outcomes for women and men.

4.4.1.1 Significance of gender sensitivity in education

How can teachers and other stake holders in education avoid being gender insensitive?

• Demonstration of awareness of gender issues in their participation in class discussions,

and the questions they raise.

21
4.4 Gender sensitivity

• Development of non-stereotypical definitions of gender roles and demonstrate through

their practices in classrooms.
• Planning curriculum and organizing classrooms with educational materials & plays that
foster a biasfree environment.

4.4.1.2 Poor performance in science

1. Factors contributing to students’ poor performance in science related disciplines.

2. Inappropriate policies, that is, science should be made compulsory.
3. Poor motivation of teachers (under/poor pay).
4. Lack of equipment and exposure to practical work by students.
5. Lack of well-trained science teachers.
6. Poor teaching methods. Most of them discourage learners.
7. Large classes affect the teaching of science.
8. Inadequate supervision by the ministry of education and sports.
9. Poor attitude of students towards science.
10. Peer and parents influence.
11. Abstract nature of science concepts.
12. Too much content to covered in the available time which is usually short.
13. Inadequate instructional materials.
14. Lack of innovation in teachers.
15. Lack of enough science administrators in schools.
16. Poor assessment methods.

4.4.1.3 Ways of improving students’ poor performance in science

1. Incorporating ICT in the teaching-learning process

Helping schools to enhance teaching and learning process using Information

Communication Technology (ICT) through provision of affordable computers. This will
aid in improving the performance as the accessibility of science materials will also be eased.

2. Training and recruitment of more science teachers

So many schools in the country are still lacking the necessary teaching staff to handle
science subjects, so if government can aid in the training, recruitment and posting of science
teachers the teaching learning process would be enhanced and hence improved
performance.

3. Improvement of the instructional/teaching methods

Teaching methods have greatly affected the teaching and learning of science and once
improved upon, the performance will go up.

4. Improvement of teachers’ pay

22
4.4 Gender sensitivity

The central government of Uganda to consider revising the salaries of teachers as one of
the measures aimed at proving on the service delivery in the education sector. Most teachers
especially those in private schools are subjected to low payments which renders them
reluctant to work hard to have their students pass.

5. In-service science workshops, seminars and training

These should be organized by both the ministry of education and schools to help teachers
get acquainted with the new innovations and methods in science teaching and related
developments in the science curriculum.

6. Science preference policy

This is a policy under which there is preferential selection of students to be sponsored by

the Government in higher institutions of learning. Those who have done science should
have high chances to be sponsored say 80 %. The Government should strengthen this policy
and more students will enroll into science disciplines hence increased performance.

7. Sensitization of parents and the public

The attitude of parents and the public is such that sciences are so difficult and thus they
always discourage their children from doing them. It is thus important that parents and the
general public is sensitized over this issue so the students are encouraged to take on science
right from home.

8. Curriculum review

The science curriculum is overcrowded and at the same time with abstract and irrelevant
materials. Such a curriculum should be revised so as to suit the learners’ experience.

9. Emphasis on practical approach in the teaching-learning process

Much of the content is always taught theoretically and this makes it very complicated to
learners. It’s therefore important that teachers teach these disciplines practically rather than
theoretically.

10. School facilities

The government should facilitate schools with the necessary facilities to be able to handle
the teaching and learning of science at all levels.

11. Adequate supervision

The ministry should carry out proper supervision of schools and teachers, more so to ensure
that schools have qualified teachers to teach the science discipline.

12. Career guidance

23
4.4 Gender sensitivity

Schools should carry out career guidance so as to help students know the importance of
excelling in science and also for them to discover their potential and be able to change their
negative attitude towards sciences.

24
5.1 Theory

CHAPTER 5. Theories of learning and their implications to the teaching

and learning of chemistry

5.1 Theory

A theory is a general principle that explains or predicts facts, observations or events. A theory
is generally accepted as valid having survived repeated testing.

Note: A theory can never be established beyond all doubts.

5.2 Learning

Learning is commonly defined as a process that brings together cognitive, emotional and
environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing or making changes in one’s
knowledge, skills, values, and world views. Learning as a process focuses on what happens
when the learning takes place. Explanations of what happens constitute learning theories. A
learning theory is an attempt to describe how people and animals learn, thereby helping us
understand the inherently complex process of learning.

Evidences of learning have always been observed and many theories have been formulated to
account for the learning process. Every theory of learning evolved through a process which
depended upon the intellectual and experimental background of its author. Therefore there is
no need for struggling to establish whether or not the theory is correct or not.

It’s rather important to determine the viability of the particular theory in a particular context.
There are three main categories or philosophical frameworks under which learning theories
fall:

• Behaviourism which focuses on the objectively observable aspects of learning.

• Cognitive theories which look beyond behaviour to explain brain based learning.
• Constructivism theory which views learning as a process in which the learner actively
constructs or builds new ideas or concepts.

5.2.1 Behaviourism

Behaviourism is a worldview that operates on the principle of “stimulus-response.” All

behaviour is caused by external stimuli (operant conditioning). All behaviour can be explained
without the need to consider internal mental states or consciousness.

Originators and important contributors: John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, E. L.
Thorndike (connectionism), Bandura, Tolman (moving toward cognitivism).

Keywords: Classical conditioning (Pavlov), operant conditioning (Skinner), stimulus-response

(S-R).

25
5.2 Learning

Behaviourism assumes a learner is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli.

The learner starts off as a clean slate (i.e. tabula rasa) and behaviour is shaped through positive
reinforcement or negative reinforcement. Both positive and negative reinforcement increase
the probability that the antecedent behaviour will happen again.

In contrast, punishment (both positive and negative reinforcement) decreases the likelihood
that the antecedent behaviour will happen again. Positive indicates the application of a
stimulus; negative indicates the withholding of a stimulus. Learning is therefore defined as a
change in the behaviour of the learner. Lots of early behaviourist work was done with animals
(e.g. Pavlov’s dogs) and generalized to humans.

Behaviourist theory presents learning in short manageable blocks that build on previously
learned behaviours. Kearsley (1994) identified three fundamental principles common in
behaviourist learning:

1. Positive reinforcement of the desired behaviour will most likely prompt the same
behaviour.
2. Learning should be presented in small manageable blocks.
3. Stimulus generalization of learning can produce secondary conditioning.

The goal of this learning method is to transform the learner’s behaviour to a “desired”
behaviour. The learner is rewarded often for exhibiting the desired behaviour when they
accomplish a learning block. In essence, three basic assumptions are held to be true;

1. Learning is manifested by a change in behaviour.

2. The environment shapes behaviour.
3. The principles of contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond to be
formed) and reinforcement (any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will
be repeated) are central to explaining the learning process.

For behaviourism, learning is the acquisition of new behaviour through conditioning.

Conditioning is a process by which an organism’s behaviour becomes associated when the
stimulus is presented, thus the behaviour occurs.

Behaviourists use two kinds of conditioning, that is, classical and operant conditioning.

5.2.1.1 Classical conditioning

In classical conditioning the behaviour becomes a reflex response to stimulus as in the case of
Pavlov’s dogs. Pavlov was interested in studying reflexes when he saw that the dogs drooled
(dropped saliva uncontrollably from the mouth) without their proper stimulus. Although no
food was in sight, their saliva still dribbled. It turned out that the dogs were reacting to lab coats
and every time the dogs were served food, the person serving had a lab coat. Therefore the dog
reacted as if food was on its way whenever they saw a lab coat.

26
5.2 Learning

• Pavlov went further to study such a behaviour/response for instance; he struck a bell when
the dogs were fed. If the bell was sounded in close association with their meal, the dogs
learned to associate the sound of the bell with food. After a while at mere sound of the bell,
they responded by drooling.
• Watson used Pavlov’s conditioning to explain how learning occurs including that of human
beings.

5.2.1.2 Operant conditioning

Although influenced by Watson’s idea, Skinner recognized that classical conditioning explains
only how a behaviour that has been acquired (already) can occur in the presence of a new
stimulus e.g. Food can be represented by the ring of a bell. Therefore B. F. Skinner developed
operant conditioning to account for how new behaviours are learnt. The word operant refers to
the way in which behaviour operates on an environment. Briefly a behaviour may result either
in re-enforcement, which increases the likelihood of behaviour recurring.

Applications of behaviourism theories

Educational approaches, such as applied behaviour analysis, curriculum based measurement

and direct instruction have emerged from this model. The theories have found wide application
in behaviour modification.

• Classroom management techniques.

• Programmed instruction and all the computed based assisted instruction. Classroom
management techniques.

5.2.2 Cognitive theories

Cognitive is a term used to describe all our mental processes such as perception, memory and
judgment. The fundamental difference between behaviourism and cognitive approaches to
learning are the role thinking plays. Gestalt psychologists proposed looking at the patterns
rather than isolated events. The Gestalt theory of the psychology of learning states that every
stimulus in learning is perceived by humans in its most simple form, also known as the law
of simplicity.

5.2.2.1 What two assumptions underlie the cognitive approach?

1. The memory system is an organized processor of information.

2. Prior knowledge plays an important role in learning. Cognitive theories look beyond
behaviour to explain brain-based learning.

Cognitivists consider how human memory works to promote learning, e.g. The psychological
process of sorting and encoding information and events into short term memory and long term
memory are important to education and working under the cognitive theory. The major
difference between Gestalt lists is the locus of control over the learning activity. The individual
learner is more key to the Gestaltists than the environment that behaviourists emphasize.

27
5.2 Learning

5.2.2.2 Cognitive theories of learning science and their application

Views that have contributed to the theories and governing learning of science include.

1. Bruner 1960/1990 discovery learning.

2. Ausubel 1963 - Ausubel Novak & Haneion 1978 - meaningful – verbal learning.
3. Gagne 1962, 1967, 1985 conditioning of learning.
4. Osborn & Wiltrock 1985 generative learning.
5. Posner Strike Hernson & Hertzog 1982, Posner & Strike 1985, 1992 conceptual change
learning.

Note: All the above views emphasize those teaching and learning and active processes.
Teachers are not viewed as transmitters of knowledge/information nor students are viewed as
passive receivers waiting to record knowledge in a rote fashion.

5.2.2.3 Bruner

According to Bruner, learning is more relevant, applicable and memorable for students if they
understand the structure (ideas & relationship). In order to acquire this structure, students must
be active. Bruner proposes that learners construct their own knowledge and do this by
organizing and categorizing information using a coding system. Bruner believed that the most
effective way to develop a coding system is to discover it rather than being told by the teacher.
The concept of discovery learning implies that students construct their own knowledge for
themselves (also known as a constructivist approach). The role of the teacher should not be to
teach information by rote learning, but instead to facilitate the learning process. This means
that a good teacher will design lessons that help students discover the relationship between bits
of information. To do this a teacher must give students the information they need, but without
organizing for them. The use of the spiral curriculum can aid the process of discovery learning.
By Bruner’s view, discovery learning helps students to be active by encouraging them to think
inductively using examples using general principles.

What we can get from Bruner’s view.

1. Structure of the subject matter (ideas and relationship).

2. Active learning by learners.
3. Discovery method.
4. Simple to complex.

Implications of Bruner’s theory on the learning process

Bruner’s learning theory has direct implications for teaching practices. Here are some of these
implications:

1. Instruction must be appropriate to the level of the learners. E.g. being aware of the
learners’ learning modes (enactive, iconic, symbolic) will help you plan and prepare

28
5.2 Learning

appropriate materials for instruction according to the difficulty that matches learners’
level.
2. The teachers must revisit the material to enhance knowledge. Building on pre-taught
ideas to grasp the full formal concept is of paramount importance according to Bruner.
Feel free to re-introduce vocabulary, grammar points, and other topics now and then to
push the students to deeper comprehension and longer retention.
3. The material must be presented in a sequence giving the learners the opportunity to:
a) Acquire and construct knowledge,
b) Transform and transfer his learning.
4. Students should be involved in using their prior experiences and structures to learn new
knowledge.
5. Help students to categorize new information to able to see similarities and differences
between items.
6. Teachers should assist learners in building their knowledge. This assistance should fade
away as it becomes unnecessary.
7. Teachers should provide feedback that is directed toward intrinsic motivation. Grades
and competition are not helpful in the learning process. Bruner states that learners must
“experience success and failure not as reward and punishment, but rather as
information” (Bruner 1961, p. 26).

5.2.2.4 Ausubel

Ausubel like Bruner emphasized the structure of the subject matter and the importance of the
hierarchical organization. He recommended the Socratic question method or advanced
organizers or introductory materials that support learning by activating the relevant existing
knowledge and connecting that knowledge to new knowledge. Unlike Bruner, Ausubel
advocates for expository teaching and meaningful reception learning that encourages students
to think deductive reasoning from general principles to specific examples. Ausubel's theory
suggests that if a learner is to acquire new concepts from verbal material he must have an
existing cognitive structure upon which new concepts can be subsumed or anchored. If the
requisite cognitive structure is not available it can be provided with an advance organizer.

This learning should be active, however it can become rote, when learners are unwilling the
necessary active effort involved in struggling with the subject matter, looking at it from
different angles or perspectives reconciling it with related and contradictory knowledge and
translating it into the learners’ own frames of reference. Ausubel's learning theory is one of the
most important for teaching/learning the more content in short time. Developing thinking
skills in students requires specific instruction and practice rather than application. What we can
get from Ausubel

• Structure of subject matter (ideas & relationship).

• Active learning.
• Expository(use of advanced organizers).
• Simple to complex.
• Deductive

29
5.2 Learning

Tips to apply Ausubel's subsumption theory in learning

✓ Lead off with the key takeaways.

✓ Encourage learners to apply previously acquired knowledge.
✓ Include both receptive and discovery-based activities.
✓ Make it meaningful.

Assignment. Using a specific example of an O’level topic/concept show how you would teach
that concept using Ausubel ideas.

5.2.2.5 Gagne

Like Ausubel, Gagne believes that meaningful learning which makes connection between new
knowledge and existing knowledge can only occur when relevant existing knowledge has been
attracted. This theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of learning.
Gagne identifies five major categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills,
cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Different internal and external conditions are
necessary for each type of learning. In Gagne’s view, learning should be supported by
instructional events such as motivation, communication of learning objectives, directing
students’ attention, promoting transfer and providing feedback.

How to use Gagne’s ideas

1. Probing or eliciting students ( prior knowledge).

2. Motivation by relevant examples and adequate preparation.
3. Communication i.e. telling about the scope.
4. Directing students’ attention.
5. Promoting transfer into the real world of what is being taught.
6. Providing feedback i.e. by evaluating, marking, and assignment and going through what
has been done.

Gagne suggested nine events of instruction that may enhance student learning: gain attention,
inform leaners of objectives, stimulate recall of prior learning, present stimulus, provide
learner guidance, elicit performance, provide feedback, assess performance, and enhance
retention and transfer.

5.2.2.6 Osborne and Wiltrock

They maintained that meaningful learning involves organization of relations between new and
prior knowledge or information constructed. They emphasize processes that students use to
generate meaning and understanding. In their view the process include motivation, attention,
pre-conceptions and generation of relationships. They view teaching as helping learners to
use their generative process to constructive meaning and plans of action.

30
5.2 Learning

5.2.2.7 Posner, Strike, Hewson and Gartzogi (Posner et al. 1982)

These people believed that students should be willing to change their minds through the process
of accommodation, displacing old conceptions with new ones. This can take place when the
following conditions of conceptual change are present.

1. Dissatisfaction with existing conceptions.

2. The new conception must be intelligible.
3. The new conceptions must appear initially reasonable or plausible.
4. The new conception should suggest a possibility of fruitful application.

Conceptual change refers to a process in which major parts of existing conception network are
reorganized or displaced with new ones. Many strategies have been suggested facilitating
conceptual change and these may include among others.

➢ Eliciting students’ prior knowledge.

➢ Focusing on students’ explanations.
➢ Probing after students answers.
➢ Using open ended discussions.
➢ Providing students with practice and application.

Conceptual change strategies are effective when using specifically designed curriculum
materials. This view that construction of new knowledge is much influenced by conceptions
already held became a key idea for a variety of things after these people came up with their
work. In science education as well as other fields, this idea is labelled the constructivists’ view
and has been significant influence in assisting the understanding of students’ learning
difficulties and in developing new teaching and learning strategies.

Constructivists view learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds
new ideas or concepts based upon current or past knowledge or experience. In other words,
learning involves constructing one’s own knowledge form ones experiences.

Constructivist learning therefore is a very personal endeavour where by internalized concepts,

rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a practical real world context.
Constructivism emphasizes the importance of each learner’s active construction of knowledge
through the interplay between prior knowledge and new knowledge.

31
5.2 Learning

32
6.1 Types of syllabus

CHAPTER 6. Syllabus

6.1 Types of syllabus

These include:

• The National Teaching syllabus.

• Examination syllabus.
• School Teaching syllabus.

6.1.1 National teaching syllabus

This is a part of a curriculum which is designed for a particular level for a specified period i.e.
O or A’ level.

6.1.1.1 Who determines what is in the syllabus?

• Needs of the society.

• Expectations of people.
• Prominent people, that is, teachers, educators, etc.
• National Curriculum Development Centre (N.C.D.C). These develop the curriculum
through the ministry of education.
• Influence of politicians.
• Other countries.

6.1.1.2 Features of a good national teaching syllabus

• Its aims should be relevant to learners and society.

• The content intended should be suitable to the learners and should also consider the
experience of learners and the work intended for future years.
• It should be interlinked with other subjects in the school curriculum to avoid overlap
and repetition.
• May give a statement of the level of competencies to the learners which should serve
as a perquisite for learners to cope up with that particular subject.

6.1.1.3 Why review the syllabus from time to time?

• Changing needs of the society.

• Some knowledge becomes outdated.
• Advancement in technology.
• Evaluation outcomes, if negative the change is inevitable.

6.1.1.4 Who is responsible for syllabus review?

• N.C.D.C.

33
6.1 Types of syllabus

• Teachers.

• Ministry of Education.

• Education Standards Agency (ESA).

6.1.2 Examination syllabus

It’s a list of topics to be examined in a specific period for a particular level used by an authority
(UNEB).

Note:

• The examination syllabus may not give the order in which topics are to be taught.

• It may not tell how long a teacher should take to cover a particular topic.

• It does not specify which methods a teacher should apply to teach a particular topic and
may not give the depth to which a teacher should go.

6.1.2.1 Features of a good examination syllabus

• Aims should be relevant to learners and society.

• Content intended to be examined should be suitable to the learners.
• It should state how it’s going to be examined, that is, the number of examination papers
to be set.
• It should indicate how long each paper should take and the type of each paper.
• The main parts of the examination syllabus include.
o Aims/objectives.
o Examination format.
o Content.
o Appendices which include apparatus, models, text books and other materials/
teaching resources.

6.1.3 School teaching syllabus

This is basically the same as the national teaching syllabus; the difference is that the school
syllabus gives the order in which topics should be taught in the classroom, and the depth of
coverage of the subject matter.

Table 6.1: Examples of school teaching syllabus.

Class Topic Objectives Depth Experiments Requirements References

34
6.2 Scheme of work

6.2 Scheme of work

It’s a list of subtopics/ topics drawn from the topics in the National Teaching Syllabus or School
Teaching Syllabus to be covered in a given period, it specifies the amount of time to be spent
on each topic or subtopic. The subtopics in the scheme of work are usually the series of
activities designed in a logical sequence to facilitate learning.

To draw a suitable scheme of work the teacher should do the following;

1. Study the National Teaching Syllabus/School Teaching Syllabus to know the amount of
work that has to be covered.
2. The teacher should know his/her learners.
3. The scheme of work must reflect the learners, that is, it should suit their ability, interest,
and the rate of their learning.
4. To know the school calendar, that is, he/she should consider the following,
• How long the term is.
• How many periods are for in a week.
• the teacher should know the interruptions.
5. The teacher should know the method of assessment of learners.
6. The teacher should consider the work that has been covered by other teachers in the same
class to avoid repetition.

6.2.1.1 Outline of the scheme of work

Subject: Chemistry

Name of teacher: ………………………………….. School: …………………………………

Class: ……………………... Term: …………...…... Year: ………………….………………..

Number of students: ………………………………...Number of periods per week: …..……...

Table 6.2: Examples of Scheme of work.

Week No. of Topic/ Content Objectives Methods Teaching References Remarks/

No. periods subtopic aids comments

6.3 Lesson plan

A lesson plan is a frame work which shows what a teacher intends to do with his/her learners
during a lesson or it’s just a guideline by which a teacher teaches his/her lessons.

It expands the subtopics in the scheme of work into activities to be carried out in the classroom.

35
6.3 Lesson plan

6.3.1.1 The basic features of a lesson plan include:

Subject, topic, subtopic, class, time when a lesson is to be offered and date when the lesson is
to be taught. it also includes the number of students and number of periods for that particular
lesson. It also includes objectives and this is a specific change in behaviour that you expect to
see in the learners after the lesson. Therefore objectives should be stated in objective terms
using “action verbs” for example to list, to explain. It’s important to describe conditions under
which behaviours are expected to occur. A lesson plan helps teachers teach systematically. It
has four major divisions,

6.3.1.2 Introduction

Lesson introduction depends on what the teacher intends to teach and what he taught in the
previous lesson.

Why introduce the lesson?

• Draw students’ attention and arouse their interest.

• Revise the previous work taught.
• Establish continuity between previous work and the work the teacher intends to teach.
• To assess how well the previous lesson was understood.

How do we introduce the lesson?

• By reviewing the previous work covered.

• Storytelling.
• By brief demonstrations.

6.3.1.3 Lesson development

This forms main body of the lesson and involves gradual unfolding of the topic/ content in a
logical sequence. Lesson development involves a great deal of telling and asking, showing and
doing.

What strategies can a teacher use during the lesson development?

• Demonstrations.
• Practical exercises.
• Lecture.
• Outdoor activity.
• Brain storming.
• Role play.
• Discovery.

It is the task of a teacher to choose the best strategy which will facilitate students’ understanding
of what is being taught.

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6.3 Lesson plan

Variables which influence teacher’s choice of strategy includes

i. Amount of time a teacher has and resources available.

ii. Level of maturity of the learners.
iii. Objectives of the lesson.
iv. The nature of the content.
v. Class size.

6.3.1.4 Conclusion/summary

How to make a Conclusion?

• Review by question.

Conclusion: It is the climax when all different parts are put together.

Why should conclusion be done?

i. Helps learners assimilate and retain what they have learnt.

ii. Helps learners apply the knowledge that has been acquired/ constructed.
iii. It helps the teacher to obtain an assessment of the quality of learners performance and
teachers performance.
iv. It helps learners to see what has been taught as a whole rather than a collection of parts.
v. Helps learners to master the subject matter.

Ways of concluding a lesson learnt

• By asking questions on what has been taught.

• Teacher summarizes the lesson by giving the main points of the content.
• By giving an exercise (not the best way).

6.3.1.5 Self-evaluation

During evaluation the teacher asks himself questions such as;

• Did I achieve what I wanted to achieve?

• Did I make any mistakes?
• Have students participated fully?

These questions help teacher evaluate his lesson successfully.

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6.3 Lesson plan

Table 6.3: Major divisions of a lesson plan.

1 Introduction
2 Lesson development
3 Conclusion
4 Self-evaluation

6.3.1.6 Sample lesson plan: Unit 3

Topic: THE EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY ON SUBSTANCES.

Sub-Topic: Electrolytes and non-electrolytes.

Objectives: By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

1. Distinguish between electrolytes and non-electrolytes.

2. Explain movement of ions during electrolysis.

Table 6.4: Sample lesson plan.

Time Step Content Teacher’s activity Students’ activity

5 min I Introduction Teacher greets students and Respond when their names
Takes roll call. are called.
5 min II Revision of Asks questions on the Answer questions asked.
previous work previous work covered.
15 min III Electrolytes • Defines electrolytes Listen attentively to the
and non-electrolytes. teacher and answer
• Gives examples of questions asked.
electrolytes and non-
electrolytes.
• Compares
conduction of
electricity by metals
with that of
electrolytes.
15 min IV Electrolytic • States conditions Listen attentively to the
process required for teacher, ask questions and
electrolysis and answer questions asked by
draws a diagram of the teacher.
electrolytic process.
10 min V Ionic • Explains movement Listen attentively to the
movement of ions during teacher and answer
electrolysis. questions asked.

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6.4 Specific instructional methods and their applicability in the teaching of chemistry/
science

• Asks questions.
15 min VI Factors which • Asks students to Name the metals in order of
affect ionic recall the reactivity decreasing reactivity in
discharge series of metals. series.
• Gives the order of Listen attentively to the
reactivity of anions. teacher and answer
• Explains how questions asked.
position of an ion in
the reactivity affects
its discharge during
electrolysis.
10 min VII Factors • States two other Listen attentively to the
affecting the factors which affect teacher and answer
discharge of discharge of ions i.e. questions asked.
ions concentration of ions
in the electrolyte and
nature of electrode.
• Asks questions.
5 min VIII Conclusion • Makes a Listen attentively, write
summary of the down the summary.
work covered.

6.4 Specific instructional methods and their applicability in the teaching of chemistry/
science

6.4.1.1 What are the factors considered when choosing instructional methods?

i. Availability of materials.
ii. Class size.
iii. Time.
iv. Learners nature.
v. Nature of the content.
vi. Objectives of the lesson.
vii. Time when the lesson is to be taught.

6.4.1.2 Methods of teaching

• Discussion method.
• Demonstration.
• Role play/simulation gaming.
• Experimentation practical exercise/class experiments.
• Project method.
• Field trips.
• Lecture method.

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6.4 Specific instructional methods and their applicability in the teaching of chemistry/
science
6.4.1.3 Lecture method

It is a verbal method of teaching. It is a one way communication in which the instructor/ lecturer
talks and goes out. It’s mainly used in higher institutions of learning and to a less extent in
secondary schools.

When is it appropriate to use lecture methods to teach school science

• When there is limited time to cover the syllabus.

• When there are enough resource materials.
• Use it to introduce a lesson.

Advantages of lecture method

• It saves time, too much work is covered.

• Encourages students to do research.
• It protects lecturers from embarrassments.

Disadvantages of lecture method

• No evaluation of students; whether they have understood or not.

• No interaction of students.
• It induces students’ passive participation.
• It cannot be used to teach skills.
• Not appropriate where there is scarcity of materials.

6.4.1.4 Demonstration method

• Demonstration is a part of practical work but it has some similarities with the lecture
method.
• In both methods talking/telling takes the largest part of the time.

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6.4 Specific instructional methods and their applicability in the teaching of chemistry/
science

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