MUSCULAR AND SKELETAL SYSTEMS AS SCAFFOLDS: The musculoskeletal system

(locomotor system) is a human body system that provides our body with movement, stability, shape, and
support. It is subdivided into two broad systems:
 Muscular system, which include all types of muscles in the body. Skeletal muscles, in particular,
are the ones that act on the body joints to produce movements. Besides muscles, the muscular
system contains the tendons which attach the muscles to the bones.
 Skeletal system, whose main component is the bone, Bones articulate with each other and form
the joints, providing our bodies with a hard-core, yet mobile, skeleton. The integrity and function
of the bones and joints are supported by the accessory structures of the skeletal system; cartilage
and ligaments.

MUSCULAR SYSTEMS AS SCAFFOLDS

The muscular system is a complex network of tissues that allows movement and stability within the
body. The muscular system is a highly organized and intricate network of muscles that enables
movement, supports the body's structure, and ensures proper organ function. It plays a crucial role in
providing support, generating force, and enabling locomotion. There are three main types of muscles
found in the human body:
 Skeletal Muscles: These muscles are attached to bones via tendons and are responsible for
voluntary movements, such as walking and reaching. They have a striped appearance due to the
arrangement of actin and myosin filaments and are under conscious control.
 Smooth Muscles: These muscles form the walls of organs, blood vessels, and other internal
structures. They are involuntary muscles, meaning they contract automatically without conscious
effort. Smooth muscles play a vital role in maintaining organ function and regulating blood flow.
 Cardiac Muscles: Cardiac muscles are found exclusively in the heart and are responsible for
pumping blood throughout the body. They are involuntary, highly specialized, and possess
unique rhythmic contractions to ensure efficient pumping.

ARCHITECTURE
Skeletal muscles are a type of voluntary muscle that plays a crucial role in body movement, posture, and
stability. Skeletal muscle tissue is the most abundant tissue type, totaling 40-45% of the body weight.
Blood vessels and nerves run to every muscle, helping control and regulate each muscle’s function.
They are connected to bones through tendons and work in pairs to produce controlled movements
around joints. The architecture of skeletal muscle is highly organized and consists of several key
components:
 Muscle Fiber: The basic unit of a skeletal muscle is the muscle fiber, also known as a myofiber.
These are long, cylindrical cells that run the entire length of the muscle. Muscle fibers are
multinucleated, which means they contain multiple nuclei. They have a striated appearance.
Muscle fibers are organized into bundles supplied by blood vessels and innervated by motor
neurons A typical myofiber is 2–3 centimeters long and 0.05millimeters (1/500 inch) in diameter
and is composed of narrower structures – myofibrils.
 Fascicles: Muscle fibers are bundled together into groups called fascicles. Each fascicle is
surrounded by connective tissue called perimysium, which provides support and protection.
 Sarcolemma: The sarcolemma is the cell membrane of the muscle fiber. It encloses the muscle
fiber and is responsible for controlling the movement of substances in and out of the cell.
 Myofibrils: Inside the muscle fiber, there are numerous myofibrils, which are cylindrical
structures, composed of two types of protein filaments - actin and myosin. These filaments are
responsible for the muscle's contractile properties.
 Sarcomeres: Myofibrils are made up of repeating units called sarcomeres, which are the
functional units of muscle contraction. Sarcomeres contain actin and myosin filaments that slide
past each other during muscle contraction, resulting in shortening of the muscle fiber.
 Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: This is a specialized type of endoplasmic reticulum found in muscle
fibers. It stores and releases calcium ions, which are essential for the muscle contraction.
 The hierarchical arrangement of muscle fibers, fascicles, and tendons, along with the presence of
sarcomeres and motor units, allows skeletal muscles to function efficiently and generate the necessary
force for movement and various physical activities.

MECHANISM:
Muscle contraction is a complex process that involves the interaction of various cellular components. It
happens when the muscular system and the nervous system work together. Signals are sent from the
cerebral cortex (brain) to specific skeletal muscles through the spinal nerves.
1. Neuromuscular Junction: Muscle contraction begins when the nervous system generates a signal.
The process of muscle contraction begins with a nerve signal (action potential) from the brain or
spinal cord. This signal travels down the motor neuron until it reaches the neuromuscular
junction, a specialized synapse where the motor neuron connects with the muscle fiber.
2. Release & Binding of Neurotransmitter: At the neuromuscular junction, the nerve signal triggers
the release of a neurotransmitter called acetylcholine (ACh) from vesicles in the motor neuron
into the synaptic cleft. Acetylcholine binds to specific receptors on the surface of the muscle
fiber. This binding leads to the generation of another action potential along the muscle fiber's
membrane.
3. Sarcolemma Depolarization: The action potential spreads across the cell membrane of the muscle
fiber and deep into the muscle fiber through the network of tubules.
4. Myosin-Actin Interaction: A multistep molecular process within the muscle fiber begins when
acetylcholine binds to receptors on the muscle fiber membrane. Calcium ions membrane
channels open and the process of contraction of the muscle fibers begins. Myosin heads, part of
the thicker myosin filaments, form cross-bridges with the exposed active sites on the thinner
actin filaments.
5. Sliding Filament Mechanism: The myosin heads undergo a conformational change and pull the
actin filaments towards the center of the sarcomere (the basic functional unit of a muscle). This
sliding mechanism shortens the sarcomere and contracts the muscle fiber.
6. Muscle Relaxation: When the nerve signal stops, acetylcholine is broken down by an enzyme
(acetylcholinesterase), terminating the stimulation at the neuromuscular junction. Calcium ions
are then pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, leading to the re-covering of the active
sites on the actin filaments

BIOENGINEERING SOLUTIONS FOR MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY: There is no definitive cure

for muscular dystrophy, as it is a group of genetic disorders characterized by progressive muscle
weakness and degeneration. However, there are ongoing engineering and medical research efforts to
develop treatments and therapies that can alleviate symptoms and improve the quality of life for those
affected by muscular dystrophy. Here are some of the engineering solutions that have been explored:
 Gene Therapy: Gene therapy aims to replace or repair the faulty genes responsible for muscular
dystrophy. It involves delivering healthy copies of the gene into the affected cells using viral
vectors or other delivery mechanisms. By introducing functional genes, it is hoped that the
production of missing or defective proteins in the muscle cells can be restored.
 Exon Skipping: Some types of muscular dystrophy are caused by genetic mutations that disrupt
the reading frame of specific exons in the gene, leading to non-functional proteins. Exon
skipping is an engineering approach that attempts to restore the reading frame by "skipping" over
the faulty exon during gene transcription. This technique aims to produce a partially functional
protein that may help improve muscle function.
 Cell Therapy: Engineering solutions involving cell therapy include the use of stem cells to repair
or replace damaged muscle cells. Stem cells can be directed to differentiate into muscle cells and
integrated into the affected muscle tissue, potentially promoting muscle regeneration.
 Muscle Engineering and Regeneration: Tissue engineering techniques are being explored to
create artificial muscle tissue using biocompatible materials and stem cells. These engineered
tissues can be implanted into the body to replace damaged muscle and restore function.
 Drug Therapies: While not strictly engineering solutions, the development of pharmaceutical
drugs targeting specific aspects of the disease is an essential part of the fight against muscular
dystrophy. Medications may aim to slow down disease progression, reduce inflammation, or
alleviate specific symptoms associated with the condition.
 Assistive Technologies: Engineering solutions in the form of assistive technologies play a crucial
role in enhancing the mobility and independence of individuals with muscular dystrophy. These
can include customized braces, wheelchairs, and other adaptive devices designed to improve
daily living and mobility.

SKELETAL SYSTEMS AS SCAFFOLDS

The skeletal system acts as the structural scaffold for the human body, providing structure,
support, protection, and enabling movement. It is a complex arrangement of bones and the connective
tissue, including cartilage, tendons, and ligaments that ensure the body's stability and functioning
throughout life.
The key components of the skeletal system include:
1. Bone: The main part of your skeletal system consists of the bones, the hard structures that create
body’s framework — the skeleton. There are 206 bones in an adult human skeleton. Each bone has
three main layers:
 Periosteum: The periosteum is a tough fibrous membrane that covers and protects the outer
surface of the bone.
 Compact bone: Below the periosteum, compact bone is white, forms the hard, dense outer
layer of bones throughout the human body.
 Spongy bone: inner layer of the bone is softer than compact bone. It has small holes called
pores to store bone marrow.

The bony skeleton is divided into 2 parts: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.
 Axial Skeleton: The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body and includes the skull,
vertebral column, and ribcage. The skull protects the brain, and the vertebral column (spine)
supports the body's weight and houses the spinal cord. The ribcage encloses and protects the
heart, lungs, and other thoracic organs.
  Appendicular Skeleton: The appendicular skeleton comprises the bones of the limbs and the
shoulder and pelvic girdles. The upper limbs (arms) consist of the humerus (upper arm bone),
radius and ulna (forearm bones), and the hand bones. The lower limbs (legs) include the femur
(thigh bone), tibia and fibula (lower leg bones), and the foot bones. The shoulder and pelvic
girdles attach the limbs to the axial skeleton.
2. Cartilage: Cartilage is a smooth and flexible connective tissue found in certain joints and structures
such as the ears and nose. It acts as a cushion between bones, reducing friction and absorbing shock.
It enables bones to move without friction (rubbing against each other). When cartilage wears away,
as in arthritis, it can be painful and cause movement problems.
3. Ligaments: Ligaments are tough bands of fibrous tissue that connect bones to other bones in joints,
providing stability and preventing excessive movement.
4. Tendons: Tendons are strong fibrous tissues that connect muscles to bones, enabling movement by
transmitting the force generated by muscles.
5. Joints: Joints are the points where bones meet and allow for movement. There are different types of
joints, including hinge joints (e.g., elbow and knee) that enable bending and straightening, ball-and-
socket joints (e.g., hip and shoulder) that allow for a wide range of motion, and pivot joints (e.g.,
between the atlas and axis vertebrae) that allow rotational movement.
The skeletal system works in conjunction with muscles, tendons, and ligaments to allow for
movement, protect internal organs, support the body's weight, and provide a structural framework for the
body.

FUNCTIONS:
1. Support: The primary function of the skeletal system is to provide structural support to the body.
It maintains the body's shape and posture, allowing us to stand upright and bear the body's weight.
2. Protection: Bones act as a protective shield for vital internal organs. For example, the skull
protects the brain, the ribcage shields the heart and lungs, and the vertebral column safeguards the
spinal cord.
3. Movement: The skeletal system, in collaboration with muscles and joints, enables body
movement. Bones serve as levers, and muscles provide the force necessary to move these levers,
allowing us to perform a wide range of activities from walking to complex movements.
4. Storage of Minerals: Bones also serve as a reservoir for essential minerals like calcium and
phosphorus. When the body requires these minerals for various physiological processes, they are
released from the bones into the bloodstream.
 5. Hematopoiesis: The bones house the bone marrow, which is responsible for producing red blood
cells, white blood cells, and platelets through a process called hematopoiesis. This is crucial for
maintaining a healthy blood supply and supporting the immune system.

MECHANISM:
The musculoskeletal system, is the locomotor system of the human body, where the muscular
and skeletal systems work together to provide a scaffold for the body assisting in stability, structure,
support and movement of the body. The skeletal system provides a strong and stable foundation while
the muscular system provides the ability to move and adjust to the changes in the environment. The
bones act as levers, while the muscles generate the forces responsible for moving the bones. When the
brain sends signal to a muscle to contract, the muscle fibers shorten and pull the tendons which in turn
pull the bones and produce the movement at the joints.

BIOENGINEERING SOLUTIONS FOR OSTEOPOROSIS: Osteoporosis is a medical condition

characterized by decreased bone density and increased bone fragility, leading to a higher risk of
fractures. While engineering solutions alone cannot cure osteoporosis, they play a significant role in
managing and improving the quality of life for affected individuals.
1. Biomechanical Engineering: Biomechanical engineers develop devices and tools to assess bone
strength and study the mechanical behavior of bones. Finite element analysis (FEA) and other
computational techniques help simulate bone stresses and identify vulnerable areas prone to
fractures.
2. Diagnostic Imaging Technologies: Engineers have contributed to the development of advanced
imaging techniques like dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) and quantitative computed
tomography (QCT). These non-invasive methods are used to measure bone mineral density and
assess fracture risk in osteoporosis patients.
3. Implantable Devices: Engineers have designed and improved orthopedic implants, such as hip
and knee prostheses, using materials with enhanced biocompatibility and mechanical properties.
These implants help improve mobility and stability for individuals with osteoporotic fractures.
4. Biomedical Materials: Development of biomaterials like bone cement (PMMA) used in
vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty procedures has enabled the repair and stabilization of fractured
vertebrae.
5. Assistive Devices: Engineers have designed assistive devices such as canes, walkers, and braces
to support individuals with osteoporosis and prevent falls that may lead to fractures.
 6. Rehabilitation Technology: Engineering plays a crucial role in developing rehabilitation
technologies, including robotic exoskeletons and virtual reality-based systems, to aid in the
recovery and strengthening of bones and muscles after fractures.
7. Drug Delivery Systems: Engineers have contributed to the development of drug delivery systems
that enable targeted and controlled release of medications used in osteoporosis treatment.
8. Bone Tissue Engineering: Researchers are exploring techniques to engineer bone tissues using
biocompatible scaffolds, stem cells, and growth factors. Growing replacement tissues in the labs
and then implanting them into patient’s body. These engineered tissues hold potential for bone
repair and regeneration in osteoporosis patients.
It is important to note that while engineering solutions can provide valuable tools for diagnosis,
treatment, and management of osteoporosis, a comprehensive approach that includes medical
interventions, lifestyle changes, and proper nutrition is essential for effectively combating the condition.
Osteoporosis requires a multidisciplinary approach involving healthcare professionals, researchers, and
engineers to address its challenges and improve patient outcomes.