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Electric Machines
Class EEE-5B
Lecture No.1-3

Instructor: Dr. Faisal Khan

Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad Campus

September 15, 2021

Abbottabad
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1. Electrical Machine
A device that can convert either mechanical energy to electrical energy or electrical energy to mechanical energy

Mechanical energy to electrical energy- generator

Electrical energy to mechanical energy- motor

Almost all practical motors and generators convert energy from one form to another through the action of a
magnetic field

The transformer is an electrical device that is closely related to electrical machines

It converts ac electrical energy at one voltage level to ac electrical energy at another voltage level

These three types of electric devices are ubiquitous in modern daily life

Electric motors in the home run refrigerators, freezers, vacuum cleaners, blenders, air conditioners, fans, and
many similar appliances

Generators are necessary to supply the power used by all these motors

1.1 ROTATIONAL MOTION, NEWTON'S LAW, AND POWER RELATIONSIHPS

Almost all electric machines rotate about an axis, called the shaft of the machine

Rotational nature of machinery, basic understanding of rotational motion is required

Angular Position ϴ

The angular position 9 of an object is the angle at which it is oriented, measured from some arbitrary reference
point
Angular position is usually measured in radians or degrees

Angular Velocity ω

Angular velocity (or speed) is the rate of change in angular position/angular displacement with respect to time

If the units of angular position are radians, then angular velocity is measured in radians per second.

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1.1 ROTATIONAL MOTION, NEWTON'S LAW, AND POWER RELATIONSHIPS

Angular Acceleration α

Angular acceleration is the rate of change in angular velocity with respect to time

If the units of angular velocity are radians per second, then angular acceleration is measured in radians per second
square

1.1 ROTATIONAL MOTION, NEWTON'S LAW, AND POWER RELATIONSHIPS

Torque Ƭ
The torque on an object is defined as the product of the force applied to the object and the smallest distance
between the line of action of the force and the object's axis of rotation
T = (force applied)(perpendicular distance)
= (F) (r sin ϴ)
= rF sinϴ
Unit Nm
Newton's Law of Rotation
F =ma
Ƭ=Jα
Work W
Work is defined as the application of a force through a distance
W=Fr
W=Ƭϴ
Power P

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1.2 THE MAGNETIC FIELD

Magnetic fields are the fundamental mechanism by which energy is converted from one form to another in motors,
generators, and transformers

Four basic principles describe how magnetic fields are used in these devices:

1. A current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field in the area around it.

2. A time-changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a coil of wire if it passes through that coil. (This is the basis
of transformer action.)

3. A current-carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a force induced on it. (This is the basis of motor
action.)

4. A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a voltage induced in it.
(This is the basis of generator action.)

1.3 Production of a Magnetic Field

The basic law governing the production of a magnetic field by a current is Ampere's law:

B=μH
B= μNi/lc
Ø=BA
Ø=μNiA/lc
A simple magnetic core

1.4 Magnetic Circuits

Why magnetic circuits important?

-Model the transformer analytically and evaluate its

performance
-Model AC and DC machines analytically

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Magnetic Circuits Reluctance in series and parallel

Equations: Reluctance in series- Equivalent reluctance is just the sum of
individual reluctances
N=number of turns, i=current
Req=R1+R2+R3+….

Reluctances in parallel-
=flux, R=reluctance
1/Req=1/R1+R2+R3+…..

Flux in a core
Calculation of flux in a core performed by using magnetic circuit concepts
are approximation due to following reasons:
Small fraction of flux escapes from core to surrounding low permeability
air-Leakage flux
Calculation of reluctances assumes a certain path length and cross-
sectional area of core –not good especially at corners
In ferromagnetic materials, the permeability varies with the amount of
flux already in the material- Reluctances used in magnetic circuit
calculation depend on the permeability of material
If there are air gaps in the flux path in a core, the effective cross-
sectional area will be larger than the iron-core on either side-Fringing
effect
Fringing effect

Problem 1. A ferromagnetic core is shown in Figure. The depth of the core is 5 cm. The other dimensions of the core are as
shown in the figure. Find the value of the current that will produce a flux of 0.005 Wb. With this current, what is the flux
density at the top of the core? What is the flux density at the right side of the core? Assume that the relative permeability of
the core is 1000.

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Sol:

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Problem 2: A ferromagnetic core with a relative permeability of 1500 is shown in Figure. The dimensions are
as shown in the diagram, and the depth of the core is 7 cm. The air gaps on the left and right sides of the core
are 0.070 and 0.020 cm, respectively. Because of fringing effects, the effective area of the air gaps is 5
percent larger than their physical size. If there are 400 turns in the coil wrapped around the center leg of
the core and if the current in the coil is 1.0 A, what is the flux in each of the left, center, and right legs of
the core? What is the flux density in each air gap?

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Solution:

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Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials

Although permeability is constant in free space, this most certainly is not true for iron and other ferromagnetic
materials
To illustrate the behavior of magnetic permeability in a ferromagnetic material, apply a direct current to the
core shown in Figure

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1.5 Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials

 Starting with 0 A and slowly working up to the maximum permissible current

 Flux produced in the core is plotted versus the magnetomotive force producing it
 This type of plot is called a saturation curve or a magnetization curve

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1.6 Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

 Now apply an alternating current to the winding of core
 Assume that the flux in the core is initially zero
 As the current increases for the first time, the flux in the core
traces out path ab
 When the current falls again, the flux traces out a different
path from the one it followed when the current increased
 As the current decreases, the flux in the core traces out path
bcd, and later when the current increases again, the flux
traces out path deb
 The amount of flux present in the core depends not only on
the amount of current applied to the windings of the core, but
also on the previous history of the flux in the core (Residual
flux)
 This dependence on the preceding flux history and the
resulting failure to retrace flux paths is called hysteresis
 Path bcdeb traced out in Figure as the applied current
changes is called a hysteresis loop
 To force the flux to zero, an amount of magnetomotive force
known as the coercive magnetomotive force must be applied
to the core in the opposite direction.
 The hysteresis loss in an iron core is the energy required to
accomplish the reorientation of domains during each cycle of
the alternating current applied to the core
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1.7 FARADAY'S LAW- INDUCED VOLTAGE FROM A TIME-CHANGING MAGNETIC FIELD

Faraday's law states that if a flux passes through a turn of a coil of wire, a voltage will be induced in the turn of
wire that is directly proportional to the rate of change in the flux with respect to time. In equation form,

where
eind = voltage induced in the coil
N = number of turns of wire in coil
ø= flux passing through coil

The minus sign in the equations is an expression of Lenz's law. Lenz's law states that the direction of the voltage
buildup in the coil is such that if the coil ends were short circuited, it would produce current that would cause a
flux opposing the original flux change.
The magnitude of the voltage in the ith turn of the coil is always given by

If there are N turns in the coil of wire, the total voltage on the coil is

Where

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1.8 PRODUCTION OF INDUCED FORCE ON A WIRE

 One of the major effect of a magnetic field on its surroundings is that it induces a force on a current carrying
wire within the field
 The figure shows a conductor present in a uniform magnetic field of flux
density B, pointing into the page
 The conductor itself is l meters long and contains a current of i amperes.
 The force induced on the conductor is given by
F = i(l X B)

where
i = magnitude of current in wire
l= length of wire, with direction of l defined to be in the direction of
current flow
B = magnetic flux density vector

F = il BSinϴ

Where ϴ is the angle between the wire and flux density vector

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1.9 INDUCED VOLTAGE ON A CONDUCTOR MOVING IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

If a wire with the proper orientation moves through a magnetic field, a voltage is induced in it

The voltage induced in the wire is given by

eind = (v X B) • l

where
v = velocity of the wire
B = magnetic flux density vector
l = length of conductor in the magnetic field

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2. Transformers

 A transformer is a device that changes ac electric power at one frequency and voltage level to ac electric
power at the same frequency and another voltage level through the action of a magnetic field

 It consists of two or more coils of wire wrapped around a common ferromagnetic core

 These coils are (usually) not directly connected and the only connection between the coils is the common
magnetic flux present within the core

 One of the transformer windings is connected to a source of ac electric power, and the second (and perhaps
third) transformer winding supplies electric power to loads

 The transformer winding connected to the power source is called the primary winding or input winding, and
the winding connected to the loads is called the secondary winding or output winding

 If there is a third winding on the transformer, it is called the tertiary winding

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2.1 WHY TRANSFORMERS ARE IMPORTANT?

 120-V dc system invented by Thomas A. Edison in 1882- low voltage, large current
 Huge Voltage drop and power losses in transmission line
 If a transformer steps up the voltage level of a circuit, it must decrease the current to keep the power into
the device equal to the power out of it
 Voltage stepped up for transmission over long distances at very low losses, and its voltage stepped down
again for final us
The transmission losses in the lines of a power system are proportional to the square of the current in the
lines, raising the transmission voltage
 Reducing the resulting transmission currents by a factor of 10 with transformers reduces power transmission
losses by a factor of 100

2.2 TYPES AND CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMERS

 Transformers are also used for a variety of other purposes (e.g. , voltage sampling, current sampling, and
impedance transformation)
 Power transformers are constructed on one of two types of cores
One type of construction consists of a simple rectangular laminated piece of steel with the transformer
windings wrapped around two sides of the rectangle. This type of construction is known as core form
 The other type consists of a three-legged laminated core with the windings wrapped around the
center leg. This type of construction is known as shell form

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 In either case, the core is constructed of thin laminations electrically isolated from each other in order to
minimize eddy currents
 The primary and secondary windings in a physical transformer are wrapped one on top of the other with the low-
voltage winding innermost, Two purposes
1. It simplifies the problem of insulating the high-voltage winding from the core.
2. It results in much less leakage flux than would be the case if the two windings were separated by a distance on
the core.

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Unit transformer: A transformer connected to the output of a generator and used to step its voltage up to
transmission levels (110 + kV)

Substation transformer: The transformer at the other end of the transmission line, which steps the voltage down
from transmission levels to distribution levels (from 2.3 to 34.5 kV)

Distribution transformer: The transformer that takes the distribution voltage and steps it down to the final
voltage at which the power is actually used (110, 208, 220 V, etc.)

 In addition to the various power transformers, two special-purpose transfomer are used to measure voltage
and current in electric machinery and power systems.
 The first of these special transformers is a device specially designed to sample a high voltage and produce a
low secondary voltage directly proportional to it. Such a transformer is called a potential transformer
 A power transformer also produces a secondary voltage directly proportional to its primary voltage
 The difference between a potential transformer and a power transformer is that the potential transformer is
designed to handle only a very small current
 The second type of special transformer is a device designed to provide a secondary current much smaller than
but directly proportional to its primary current. This device is called a current transformer

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2.3 THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER

 An ideal transformer is a lossless device with an input winding and an output winding
 The relationships between the input voltage and the output voltage, and between the input current and the
output current, are given by two simple equations

2.4 Dot Convention

1. If the primary voltage is positive at the dotted end of the winding with respect
to the undotted end, then the secondary voltage will be positive at the dotted
end also. Voltage polarities are the same with respect to the dots on each side
of the core.
2. If the primary current of the transformer flows into the dotted end of the primary
winding, the secondary current will flow out of the dotted end of the
secondary winding.
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2.5 Power in an Ideal Transformer

The real power Pin supplied to the transformer by the primary circuit is given by the equation

The real power P out supplied by the transformer secondary circuit to its loads is given by the equation

Since voltage and current angles are unaffected by an ideal transformer, ϴp = ϴs = ϴ

The primary and secondary windings of an ideal transformer have the same power factor

Apply

Thus, the output power of an ideal transformer is equal to its input power

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2.6 Impedance Transformation through a Transformer

The impedance of a device or an element is defined as the ratio of the phasor voltage across it to the phasor current
flowing through it

If the secondary current is called Is and the secondary voltage Vs, then the impedance of the load is given by

The apparent impedance of the primary circuit of the transformer is

With a transformer, it is possible to match the magnitude

of a load impedance to a source impedance simply by
picking the proper turns ratio

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Problem 1:A single-phase power system consists of a 480-V 60-Hz generator supplying a load Zload=4+j3Ω through
a transmission line of impedance Zline = 0.18 + j0.24Ω. Answer the following questions about this system.
(a) If the power system is exactly as described above as shown in Figure a?, what will the voltage at the load be?
What will the transmission line losses be?
(b) Suppose a 1: 10 step-up transformer is placed at the generator end of the transmission line and a 10:1 step-down
transformer is placed at the load end of the line (as shown in Figure b). What will the load voltage be now? What
will the transmission line losses be now?

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Solution
Here IG = Iline =Iload
The line current in this system is given by

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(b) Figure b shows the power system with the transformers. To analyze this system, it is necessary to convert it to a common
voltage level. This is done in two
steps:
1. Eliminate transformer T2 by referring the load over to the transmission line's voltage level
2. Eliminate transformer T1 by referring the transmission line's elements and the equivalent load at the transmission line's
voltage over to the source side.

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Notice that raising the transmission voltage of the

power system reduced transmission losses by a
factor of nearly 90

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2.7 THEORY OF OPERATION OF REAL SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS

 Figure shows a transformer consisting of two coils of wire

wrapped around a transformer core.
 The primary of the transformer is connected to an ac power
source, and the secondary winding is open-circuited

The basis of transformer operation can be derived from Faraday's law:

If the total flux linkage in all the turns of the coils is λ and if there are N turns, then the average flux per
turn is given by

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2.8 The Magnetization Current in a Real Transformer

When an ac power source is connected to a transformer, a current flows in its primary circuit, even when the
secondary circuit is open circuited. It consists of two components:
1. The magnetization current iM , which is the current required to produce the flux in the transformer core, and
2. The core-loss current i h+ e , which is the current required to make up for hysteresis and eddy current losses
in the core.

Notice the following points about the magnetization current:

1. The magnetization current in the transformer is not sinusoidal. The higher
frequency components in the magnetization current are due to magnetic saturation
in the transformer core.
2. Once the peak flux reaches the saturation point in the core, a small increase in
peak flux requires a very large increase in the peak magnetization current.
3. The fundamental component of the magnetization current lags the voltage applied
to the core by 90°.
4. If transformer core is driven into saturation, the larger the harmonic components
will become

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 The other component of the no-load current in the transformer is the current required to supply power to make
up the hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core. This is the core-loss current.
 Assume that the flux in the core is sinusoidal.
Since the eddy currents in the core are proportional to dø/dt, the eddy currents are largest when the flux in the
core is passing through 0 Wb. Therefore, the core-loss current is greatest as the flux passes through zero

Notice the following points about the core-loss current:

1. The core-loss current is nonlinear because of the nonlinear effects of hysteresis.
2. The fundamental component of the core-loss current is in phase with the voltage applied to the core.

The total no-load Current in the core is called the excitation current of the transformer. It is just the sum of the
magnetization current and the core-loss current in the core:

In a well-designed power transformer, the excitation current is much smaller than the full-load current of the
transformer

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2.9 The Current Ratio on a Transformer and the Dot Convention

 A current flowing into the dotted end of a winding produces a positive magnetomotive force F
 A current flowing into the undotted end of a winding produces a negative magnetomotive force
 Two currents flowing into the dotted ends of their respective windings produce magnetomotive forces that add
 If one current flows into a dotted end of a winding and one flows out of a dotted end, then the magnetomotive
forces wil1 subtract from each other

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2.10 Assumptions to Convert Real Transformer to Ideal Transformer

1. The core must have no hysteresis or eddy currents.

2. For an unsaturated core the net magnetomotive force Fnet =0, implying that Npip = Nsis
3. The leakage flux in the core must be zero, implying that all the flux in the core couples both windings.
4. The resistance of the transformer windings must be zero
2.11 THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER
The losses that occur in real transformers have to be accounted for in any accurate model of transformer behavior.
The major items to be considered in the construction of such a model are

1. Copper (I2R) losses. Copper losses are the resistive heating losses in the primary and secondary windings of
the transformer. They are proportional to the square of the current in the windings.

2. Eddy current losses. Eddy current losses are resistive heating losses in the core of the transformer. They are
proportional to the square of the voltage applied to the transformer.

3. Hysteresis Losses. Hysteresis losses are associated with the rearrangement of the magnetic domains in the core
during each half-cycle. They are a complex, nonlinear function of the voltage applied to the transformer.

4. Leakage flux. The fluxes øLP and øLS which escape the core and pass through only one of the transformer
windings are leakage fluxes.
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2.12 The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer

The Transformer model referred to its primary voltage The transformer model referred to its secondary voltage
level level

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2.13 Approximate Equivalent Circuits of a Transformer

Approximate transformer models. (a) Referred to the primary side; (b) referred to the secondary side; (c) with no
excitation branch, referred to the primary side; Cd} with no excitation branch, referred to the secondary side

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Electric Machines
Class EEE-5B
Lecture No.4

Instructor: Dr. Faisal Khan

Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad Campus

September , 2021
Abbottabad
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2.14 Determining the Values of Components in the Transformer Model

It is possible to experimentally determine the values of the inductances and resistances in the transformer model

 Two Tests: Open Circuit Test and Short Circuit Test

 In the open-circuit test, one transformer winding is open-circuited, and the other winding is connected to full
rated line voltage
 Under the conditions described, all the input current must be flowing through the excitation branch of the
transformer
 The series elements, Rp and Xp are too small in comparison to Rc and XM to cause a significant voltage drop, so
essentially all the input voltage is dropped across the excitation branch
 This measurement is normally done on the low voltage side of the transformer, since lower voltages are easier
to work with

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In the short-circuit test, the low-voltage terminals of the transformer are short circuited, and the high-voltage
terminals are connected to a variable voltage source
 This measurement is normally done on the high-voltage side of the transformer, since currents will be lower on
that side, and lower currents are easier to work with
 The input voltage is adjusted until the current in the short circuited windings is equal to its rated value
 Be sure to keep the primary voltage at a safe level. It would not be a good idea to burn out the transformer's
windings while trying to test it
 Since the input voltage is so low during the short-circuit test, negligible current flows through the excitation
branch
 If the excitation current is ignored, then all the voltage drop in the transformer can be attributed to the series
elements in the circuit

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2.15 THE PER-UNIT SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENTS

In the per-unit system, the voltages, currents, powers, impedances, and other electrical quantities are not
measured in their usual SI units (volts, amperes, watts, ohms, etc.). Instead, each electrical quantity is measured
as a decimal fraction of some base level. Any quantity can be expressed on a per-unit basis by the equation
It is customary to select two base quantities to define a given per-unit system. The ones usually selected are
voltage and power (or apparent power).

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2.16 TRANSFORMER VOLTAGE REGULATION

Full-load voltage regulation is a quantity that compares the output voltage of the transformer at no load with
the output voltage at full load. It is defined by the equation

 It is a good practice to have as small a voltage regulation as possible

 For an ideal transformer, VR = 0 percent
2.17 The Transformer Phasor Diagram
To determine the voltage regulation of a transformer, it is necessary to
understand the voltage drops within it.

Lagging power factor

VR >0

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Unity power factor

VR >0
smaller number than
it was with a lagging
current
Leading power factor
VR <0

2.18 Transformer Efficiency

Transformers are also compared and judged on their efficiencies. The efficiency of a device is defined by the
equation

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There are three types of losses present in transformers:

1. Copper (I2R) losses. These losses are accounted for by the series resistance in the equivalent circuit
2. Hysteresis losses. These losses are included in resistor Rc
3. Eddy current losses. These losses are included in resistor Rc

2.19 THE AUTOTRANSFORMER

 On some occasions it is desirable to change voltage levels by only a small amount

 It may be necessary to increase a voltage from 110 to 120 V or from 13.2 to 13.8 kV
 These small rises may be made necessary by voltage drops that occur in power systems a long way from
the generators
 In such circumstances, it is wasteful and excessively expensive to wind a transformer with two full
windings each rated at about the same voltage.
 A special-purpose transformer, called an autotransformer is used instead.

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2.20 Voltage and Current Relationships in an Autotransformer

The voltage on the high side of the The current relationship between the two sides of the
autotransformer is given by transformer can be found by noting that

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2.21 The Apparent Power Rating Advantage of Autotransformers

 It is interesting to note that not all the power traveling from the primary to the secondary in the
autotransformer goes through the windings
 As a result, if a conventional transformer is reconnected as an autotransformer, it can handle much
more power than it was originally rated for

The apparent power in the transformer windings is

The autotransformer would have windings rated at only about 1015kVA,

while a conventional transformer doing the same job would need windings
rated at 5000 kVA. The autotransformer could be 5 times smaller than the
conventional transformer and also would be much less expensive

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Problem 1

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References
1. Electrical Machinery Fundamentals by Stephen J. Chapman, 4th Edition
2. Electric Machines by Charles. I. Hubert (2nd Edition)
3. Electric Machines by Fitz Gerald

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Thank You

Q & A Session

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