Reasons why do we need to study about the cell and its structures

Learning about the basic building blocks of life is very important under biology. By understanding how cells work in different conditions:
1. Cell biologists working in animal, plant and medical science will be able to develop new vaccines,
2. More effective medicines
3. Plants with improve qualities
4. For improvement of knowledge for a better understanding of how all living things live.

But did you ever wonder who are the person behind these studies, who are the individuals behind the study of cell? They are the
Cytotechnologists, or simply cytologist. They study cytology or the cell biology- the branch of biology dealing with the structure,
function, multiplication, pathology, and life history of cells. Also, cell biology includes both the prokaryotic- the simple cells like the
bacteria- and eukaryotic cells- the complex cells like plants and animals.

Studying the cell requires a various technique such as:

1. Cell culture- or tissue culture is the process by which cells are grown under controlled conditions, generally outside of their
natural environment. Hence, this is usually done in the laboratory. The term “tissue culture” was coined by American pathologist
Montrose Thomas Burrows. This technique is also called “micropropagation”.
2. Microscopy- Microscopy is the field of using microscopes to view and study objects that cannot be seen with the naked eye.
Types of Microscopy:
a. Optical Microscopy- uses the optical microscope or the light microscope to magnify images of small samples with
visible light.
b. Electron Microscopy- uses the electron microscope. This type of microscope uses a beam of electrons as a source
of illumination. They use electron optics that are analogous to the glass lenses of an optical light microscope to control
the electron beam, for instance focusing them to produce magnified images or electron diffraction patterns.
c. Scanning Probe Microscopy- a technique of microscopy that uses a physical probe that scans the specimen. The
SPM technique involves imaging surface structures without ruining the sample at atomic (height) resolution. The type
of imaging provided by SPM microscopes is another reason since the outcomes are shown as a type of 3D image
(also in instances where only 2D information is examined).
d. X-ray Microscopy-is a technique that uses an x-ray microscope. X-ray microscope uses electromagnetic radiation in
the x-ray band to produce magnified images of objects.
3. Cell fractionation- is a method that separates subcellular components and organelles, so that the structures, functions, and
molecular compositions of isolated components may be studied.

These techniques are allowed, and they are used for discoveries and different research pertaining to the function of cells, which gives a
brighter insights and understandings on a larger organism. Learning about the mechanism of cells and how the cell works is very
important to all biological sciences while also being an essential research in the fields of biomedical such as cancer, fetal abnormalities,
for pap smears and to diagnose infectious organisms.

THE TYPES OF CELL

The cell is referred to as the structural and functional unit of all living organisms. The word cell has its origins in Latin, and when
translated, it means “small room” and was first observed by Robert Hooke – an English natural philosopher in the year 1665.

PROKARYOTIC CELL
The term “prokaryote” is derived from the Greek word “pro“, (meaning: before) and “karyon” (meaning: kernel). It translates to “before
nuclei.“
Prokaryotes are one of the most ancient groups of living organisms on earth, with fossil records dating back to almost 3.5 billion years
ago.
These prokaryotes thrived in the earth’s ancient environment, some using up chemical energy and others using the sun’s energy. These
extremophiles thrived for millions of years, evolving and adapting. Scientists speculate that these organisms gave rise to the eukaryotes.

Prokaryotic cells are comparatively smaller and much simpler than eukaryotic cells. The other defining characteristic of prokaryotic cells
is that it does not possess membrane-bound cell organelles such as a nucleus. Reproduction happens through the process of binary
fission.

Structurally, prokaryotes have a capsule enveloping their entire body, and it functions as a protective coat. This is crucial for preventing
the process of phagocytosis (where the bacteria gets engulfed by other eukaryotic cells, such as macrophages) The pilus is a hair-like
appendage found on the external surface of most prokaryotes and it helps the organism to attach itself to various environments. The
pilus essentially resists being flushed, hence, it is also called attachment pili. It is commonly observed in bacteria.
Right below the protective coating lies the cell wall, which provides strength and rigidity to the cell. Further down lies the cytoplasm that
helps in cellular growth, and this is contained within the plasma membrane, which separates the interior contents of the cell from the
outside environment. Within the cytoplasm, ribosomes exist and it plays an important role in protein synthesis. It is also one of
the smallest components within the cell.
Common examples of Prokaryotic organisms are bacteria and archaea. Also, all members of Kingdom Monera are prokaryotes.
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
The term “Eukaryotes” is derived from the Greek word “eu“, (meaning: good) and “karyon” (meaning: kernel), therefore, translating to
“good or true nuclei.” Eukaryotes are more complex and much larger than prokaryotes. They include almost all the major kingdoms
except kingdom Monera.

Structurally, eukaryotes possess a cell wall, which supports and protects the plasma membrane. The cell is surrounded by the plasma
membrane and it controls the entry and exit of certain substances.

The nucleus contains DNA, which is responsible for storing all genetic
information. The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear membrane. Within
the nucleus exists the nucleolus, and it plays a crucial role in synthesizing
proteins. Eukaryotic cells also contain mitochondria, which are
responsible for the creation of energy, which is then utilized by the cell.

Present in only plant cells, chloroplasts are the subcellular sites of

photosynthesis. The endoplasmic reticulum helps in the transportation of
materials. Besides these, there are also other cell organelles that
perform various other functions and these include ribosomes,
lysosomes, Golgi bodies, cytoplasm, chromosomes, vacuoles and
centrosomes.

Examples of eukaryotes include almost every unicellular organism with a

nucleus and all multicellular organisms.

Cell Structure and Function

Over the past years our ideas about cell structure have already changed.
Early biologist saw the cells as a simple membranous sac that contains fluid and a few floating particles. Today’s biologists know that
cells are extremely more complex than this.

There are many different types, sizes, and shapes of cells in the body. For descriptive purposes, the concept of a "generalized cell" is
introduced. It includes features from all cell types. A cell consists of three major parts: the cell membrane, the nucleus, and, between the
two, the cytoplasm. Within the cytoplasm lie intricate arrangements of fine fibers and hundreds or even thousands of miniscule but
distinct structures called subcellular organelles.

Every cell in the body is enclosed by a cell (Plasma) membrane. The cell membrane as discussed in the lesson one, separates the
material outside the cell, extracellular, from the material inside the cell, intracellular. It maintains the integrity of a cell and controls
passage of materials into and out of the cell. All materials within a cell must have access to the cell membrane (the cell's boundary) for
the needed exchange. The cell membrane is a double layer of phospholipid molecules. Proteins in the cell membrane provide structural
support, form channels for passage of materials, act as receptor sites, function as carrier molecules, and provide identification markers.

The nucleus, formed by a nuclear membrane around a fluid nucleoplasm, is the control center of the cell. Threads of chromatin in the
nucleus contain deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the genetic material of the cell. The nucleolus is a dense region of ribonucleic acid (RNA)
in the nucleus and is the site of ribosome formation. The nucleus determines how the cell will function, as well as the basic structure of
that cell.

The cytoplasm is the gel-like fluid inside the cell. It is the medium for chemical reaction. It provides a platform upon which other
organelles can operate within the cell. All the functions for cell expansion, growth and replication are carried out in the cytoplasm of a
cell. Within the cytoplasm, materials move by diffusion, a physical process that can work only for short distances.

Subcellular organelles are "little organs" that are suspended in the cytoplasm of the cell. Each type of subcellular organelle has a definite
structure and a specific role in the function of the cell.

The different subcellular organelles are centrioles, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosome, microtubules, mitochondrion
(singular of mitochondria), ribosomes.

• Centrioles- they contain the microtubules that help separate chromosomes and move them during cell division among animals.
• Endoplasmic Reticulum- it forms an interconnected network of flattened sacs. Like some of the other organelles found in eukaryotes,
ER is enclosed in a membrane. The ER is divided into two regions that vary in structure and function.
a. Smooth ER- it lacks in ribosomes, making it to be smooth. It is involved in synthesis of lipids and carbohydrates that are used
to build the cell membrane. It is also involved in transportation of vesicles, enzyme production in the liver, contraction of muscle
cells in the muscle, and synthesis of hormones in the brain cells.
 b. Rough ER- it contains ribosomes making it to be called rough. It is involved in the manufacture of various proteins in the cell.
It is also involved in the production of antibodies, insulin as well as transportation of proteins into the smooth ER.
• Golgi Apparatus- it is known as the packaging plant of a cell. The primary function of this organelle is to process and package the
macromolecules, which would include proteins and lipids, after their synthesis but before they make their way to their destination. In
short it sorts, package and distributes macromolecules.

• Lysosome- they are like little stomachs moving around the cytoplasm. They break up waste materials and cellular debris. They function
as a garbage collector of the cell.

• Microtubules- are long, hollow tubes serves as girders and give the cell it shapes. They may also help send signals from membrane
to nucleus.

• Mitochondrion- one of the largest organelles within the cell. It contains the DNA which makes them semiautonomous. It also contains
a double membrane with the inner membrane folding to form cristae. It is also known as the powerhouse of the cell. It plays an important
role in respiration where they generate ATP. Using their DNA, they can encode for some of the components they require to perform their
function. (Mitochondria, plural)
• Ribosomes- they are tiny organelles that contains RNA and specific proteins within the cytoplasm. They directly involved in the
manufacture of proteins by using their RNA and amino acids. This process involves decoding the information contained in the mRNA
and using amino acids to produce the required proteins.
• Peroxisomes are small vesicles, single membrane-bound organelles found in the eukaryotic cells. They contain digestive enzymes
for breaking down toxic materials in the cell and oxidative enzymes for metabolic activity.

• Secretory vesicles play an important role in moving molecules outside of the cell, through a process called exocytosis.
What is the difference of the different types of cells?

ANIMAL CELL

PLANT CELL

COMPARISON OF PLANT CELL AND ANIMAL CELL