Math 3A Notes on Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

An exponential function is a function whose argument appears in the exponent.

The basic example is
f(x) = bx (b a number greater than 0 but not equal to 1).

n n
Note: When x is a fraction m/n, then bx = bm/n means either bm or ( b)m
2
WHAT DOES 3 mean? 2 can’t be written as a fraction. It is an irrational number:
2 ≈ 1.414213562… So what would this power mean?
2 1414213562
3 can be approximated by 31.414213562, which means 3 to the power 1000000000 ,
which says to take a very large power together with a very high-order root.
In order that bx make sense as a continuous function of x, mathematicians had
to demonstrate that these approximations fit together smoothly,
based on a theory of limits.

More generally people call functions of the form

f(x) = c bkx (c and k constants, b as before)
an exponential function.
The five rules of exponents are:
x y x+y ax ⎛ a ⎞x ax
(i) a a = a (ii) y = ax – y (iii) (ax)p = axp (iv) (ab)x = ax bx (v) ⎜b⎟ = x
a ⎝ ⎠ b

(Notice that the first three have the bases all the same; the last two have the exponents all the
same.)
The first three rules result in the following properties of any exponential function f:
f(x)
(i) f(x + y) = f(x)f(y) (ii) f(x – y) = f(y) (iii) (f(x))p = f(xp)
The graph of an exponential function looks like this:

y = (⅓)x
← y = (0.4)x (“exponential decay”) (“exponential growth”)
y = 3x

y = (½)x y = ex

y = 2x

horizontal asymptote horizontal asymptote

Notice that the graphs are different when the base is < 1 than it is when the base is > 1.

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The exponential function whose base is the number
e = 2.718281828…
is very important. It is sometimes called “the” exponential function.
It has the special property that the tangent line to the graph at x = 0 has slope 1.
In calculus, this property results in the fact that
the function f(x) = ex is its own derivative.
For this reason, the function plays a crucial role in calculus.
The number e can be obtained by looking at the sequence (1½)2 , (1⅓)3, (1¼)4, etc.
As you take bigger and bigger values of n in the expression
(1 + 1⁄n)n
you get closer and closer to the number e.
You could also take numbers like 1.110, 1.01100, 1.0011000, etc.
The bigger the power of 10, the closer you get to e.

Notice that
x
–x1 ⎛1⎞
2 = x=⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝2⎠

For this reason, there are TWO ways of expressing exponential decay:
either as exponentials bx with base < 1, or as exponentials written in the form b–x.

Notice that the DOMAIN of the exponential function bx is all real numbers.
The RANGE is all real numbers > 0. Notice that bx will never equal 0: the graph approaches
the x-axis as a horizontal asymptote without ever touching it.

Logarithmic Functions

A LOGARITHM IS THE ANSWER TO A QUESTION.

For example, to find log5 125, ask yourself the question: “5 to what power gives 125?”
ANSWER: 3 (53 = 125).
To find log10 (1/100), ask yourself: “10 to what power equals 1/100?”
ANSWER: –2 (10–2 = 1/100).
This view of logarithms can be expressed by means of either of the following formulas:
(i) logb bx = x (b to what power gives bx? ANSWER: x) EXAMPLE: log4 (48) = 8
(ii) blogb x = x (b to what power gives x? ANSWER: logb x) EXAMPLE: 4log4 8 = 8

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LOGARITHMS CONVERT:
• MULTIPLICATION TO ADDITION (logb MN = logb M + logb N),
• DIVISION TO SUBTRACTION (logb M/N = logb M – logb N),
• POWERS TO MULTIPLICATION (logb Mp = p logb M),
n logb M
• ROOTS TO DIVISION (logb M = n )
There is no rule for converting addition or subtraction (there is no “lower order operation”).
So logb (M + N) can’t be broken down into two logarithms.

A “LOG BASE 10” log10 x is called a “common logarithm”, and is often written without the
base. So log x by itself means log10 x. Prior to the computer age they were used in the form
of extensive tables to aid in calculation.
A “LOG BASE e” loge x is called a “natural logarithm”, and is usually written ln x.
It is “natural” because in calculus this function arises in a simple way in the theory of
integration.
The common logs used to be the basis for numerical computation, before the advent of
electronic calculating machines. Today they aren’t that important.
In higher mathematics, log x by itself is sometimes used for the natural log rather than for the
common log.

Logarithmic functions are INVERSES of exponential functions:

x = logb y

y = bx
The arrows show how to get from one equation to the other: Keep the base b the same,
but switch the roles of x and y (the value x of the log becomes the argument (the exponent)
of the exponential, and the argument y of the log becomes the value of the exponential).
The rules of exponents (see p. 1) result in the following properties of any log function f:
⎛x⎞
(i) f(x) = f(x) + f(y) (ii) f⎜y⎟ = f(x) – f(y) (iii) f(px) = (f(x))p
⎝ ⎠
Recall that when f and g are inverses of each other, then
f( g(x) ) = x and g( f(x) ) = x
for all x for which the composite function in question is defined.
For exponentials and logs, this relationship takes the form:
logb (bx) = x and blogb x = x
With base e these equations are:
ln (e x) = x and e ln x = x

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 The exp Notation

To emphasize the inverse relationship between exp and log, the function y = bx is
occasionally written
y = expb x or with base e: y = exp x
This makes the composite function equations look like this:
logb (expb x) = x and expb (logb x) = x
ln (exp x) = x and exp (ln x) = x
Do you see how this makes the inverse relationship clearer?
Unfortunately, you won’t see the exp notation much. It is used primarily when the exponent
is a complicated expression. For example it is easier to work with

x2 + 3x – 2
exp x – 1
then it is to work with
x2 + 3x – 2
x–1
e
y = 2x
Graphically, when b > 1,
the inverse relationship is as shown in this picture→ y = log2 x
As with any inverse functions, the two functions
are symmetric about “the 45◦ line” y = x.
y=x
From the picture we see that for any base b:
DOMAIN(bx) =ℝ RANGE(bx)= (0,∞)
DOMAIN(logb) = (0,∞) RANGE(logb) = ℝ
bx is always > 0. Also, lim bx = 0.
x→–∞
logb x is undefined for x ≤ 0. Also, lim logb x = – ∞
x→0
Notice that for the exponential, the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote (but only on the left), and
for the logarithm, the y-axis is a vertical asymptote (but only at the bottom).

WARNING: Your graphing calculator will not show the asymptotic nature of a log
graph clearly. It will appear that the graph just stops at a point near the y-axis. That’s
because the grapher draws only one pixel for each column of pixels on the display.
DON’T DRAW IT THAT WAY. Draw the curve all the way down to the bottom of
your picture.

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 The Change-of-base Formula

Logarithms with different bases are related as follows:

loga x
logb x = log b
a

If we think of these as functions of x, then the two functions differ only by a constant factor:
1
I.e. if f(x) = logb x and g(x) = loga x then f(x) = c g(x), where the constant c is log b .
a
For this reason, people sometimes think that there is really only “one” log function.

Finding logb x on your calculator: There are two ways to do it, using the log key or using the
ln key:

log x ln x
logb x = log b or logb x = ln b

log 12 1.079181246
Example: Find log5 12. Solution: log 5 = .6989700043 = 1.543959311.

We can check that this is correct by changing the equation

log5 12 ≟ 1.543959311
from log to exp form:
51.543959311 ≟ 12

If you already have 1.543959311 on your calculator display, you can simply type

5^Ans
and read the answer: 12 9

NOTE ON “ORDER OF OPERATIONS” with functions like log, exp, sin, cos-1, etc.
Usually multiplication and powers take precedence over function evaluation.
So for example log MN means log (MN) rather than (log M) · N, and log Mp means log (Mp).
But addition doesn’t take precedence:
For example log M + N means (log M) + N rather than log (M + N).

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SOME FORMULAS INVOLVING EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS:

COMPOUND INTEREST
If a principle of P dollars is invested at an annual rate of interest r, and the interest is
compounded n times per year, then the amount of money A(t) generated at time t is:
⎛ r ⎞nt
A(t) = P⎜1 + n⎟
⎝ ⎠
CONTINUOUS COMPOUND INTEREST
If a principle of P dollars is invested at an annual rate of interest r, and the interest is
compounded continuously, then the amount of money A(t) generated at time t is:
A(t) = Pert

UNLIMITED POPULATION GROWTH

If a population consisting initially of N0 individuals grows without limit, then the population
N(t) at any later time t is given by
N(t) = N0ekt (k is a constant to be determined)

LOGISTIC POPULATION GROWTH

If a population consisting initially of N0 individuals grows with a limited population of P
individuals (due to limited resources), then the population N(t) at any later time t is given by
N0P
N(t) = (k is a constant to be determined)
N0 + (P – N0)e–kt
1
Sometimes the equation for logistic growth is just given as N(t) = .
1 + c e–kt

RADIOACTIVE DECAY
If an amount Q0 of a radioactive substance is present at time t = 0, then the amount Q(t) of the
substance present at any later time t is given by
Q(t) = Q0e–kt
(We sometimes change to a different base than e here).

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