Understanding Food Systems

UNDERSTANDING FOOD SYSTEMS
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Understanding Food Systems: Agriculture, Food Science, and Nutrition in the United States
Ruth MacDonald and Cheryll Reitmeier
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UNDERSTANDING
FOOD SYSTEMS
Agriculture, Food Science, and
Nutrition in the United States
Ruth MacDonald
Professor and Chair, Food Science and Human Nutrition,
Iowa State University, Aimes, IA, United States
Cheryll Reitmeier
Professor Emeritus, Food Science and Human Nutrition,
Iowa State University, Aimes, IA, United States
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Acknowledgments by Ruth MacDonald
This book was a result of the many interac- Many colleagues were called upon to review
tions and discussions I have had with my coau- text and provide information for this book, and
thor Cheryll Reitmeier over the past decade. for their willing assistance I am very grateful.
I deeply respect her perspectives about food Dr. Paul Lasley, Dr. Dana Dinnes, Dr. Cornelia
science and agriculture and her high standards Flora, Mr. Doug Svendsen, Dr. Stephanie Clark,
for teaching quality. She continually inspires Dr. Pamela Riney-Kehrberg, and Dr. Gary
me to be a better teacher and to encourage stu- Munkvold each provided critical assessment of
dents to think creatively and independently. sections or made themselves available to me to
The material in this book also reflects the input discuss aspects of the text. In addition, all of
of the many students that have provided their my colleagues in the department of Food
candid feedback and suggestions. Science and Human Nutrition and other
Much thanks to Jeni Maiers, graphic designer departments at ISU have provided me both
for the Iowa State University (ISU) Center for directly and indirectly with information about
Crops Utilization Research, for her valuable food systems that has contributed to my under-
assistance with all of the graphic design and standing and perspectives while preparing
photos used in the text. She was always avail- this book.
able to provide assistance with questions about I wish to express special gratitude to my
images and provided her technical talents husband, Dr. Ted MacDonald, for his patience
throughout the development of the book. The and support throughout the writing of this
illustrations in the text were created by Reannon book. He spent many hours reviewing text and
Overbey, an ISU student majoring in graphic assisting me with research on a wide range of
design. I greatly appreciate her talent and hard topics. My two sons, Neal and Scott, also
work to meet the publication deadlines and her deserve thanks for their encouragement and
willingness to do many revisions and changes. support as I undertook this significant project.
vii
Acknowledgments by Cheryll Reitmeier
I am thankful to the students in the food much appreciated. Farmers Don Andringa,
systems course at Iowa State University who, Paul Reitmeier, and Doug Svendsen helped
over the past 6 years, have asked intelligent interpret technical information about agricul-
questions, listened respectfully, struggled with tural methods, government programs, and eco-
ethical dilemmas, and developed their scien- nomics; any mistakes in translation of their
tific thinking skills. Their concerns and inter- explanations are mine alone. Their honesty,
ests provided the basis for this book. I am integrity, and investments in sustainable prac-
hopeful for the future because of these stu- tices, and that of many farmers like them, con-
dents’ thoughtful and creative solutions to pro- firm my confidence in the US food system.
blems of the food system. I also thank helpful librarians at the Detroit
I am personally grateful to Linda Svendsen Lakes Public Library (Lake Agassiz Regional
for listening to me every week and providing Library), Iowa State University, North Dakota
valuable feedback about topics in this book. State University, and especially, the National
Reviews of Chapter 6, Food Processing, by Agricultural Library, US Department of
Dr. Julie Goldman and Dr. Pat Murphy were Agriculture.
ix
Introduction to Understanding Food
Systems: Agriculture, Food Science,
and Nutrition in the United States
Throughout the day we engage in activities contained. Rarely do students engage in dis-
associated with food. We start the day with cussions or expand their coursework to learn
breakfast, maybe pack a lunch, meet friends about the interconnectedness of these areas.
for dinner, and grab a midnight snack. Trips to Within our students we saw a lack of knowl-
the local pizzeria, grocery store, or farmer’s edge about how food is grown and produced,
market are regular social outings for many misunderstandings about food processing
people. We know that food is necessary for technology, and a mistrust of nutrition and
life, but we also recognize that what and how diet recommendations. Furthermore, the public
much we eat affects our health. The choices we discussions about food and health or the role
make about food are determined by our social of agriculture are politically and socially polar-
and cultural backgrounds, preferences, and ized. This has led to a unique social environ-
experiences. Where and how food is produced ment in which decisions about food and the
may not be the first thing on people’s minds, food system are made with diminishing regard
but increasingly the term “food system” has for facts or evidence.
become integrated into everyday conversa- To provide a structure for students to learn
tions. Understanding of the complex intercon- about food systems, we created an undergrad-
nections that comprise the US food system uate course that brought together scientifically
requires a broad perspective of agriculture, based information about agriculture, food sci-
food science, human nutrition, and the envi- ence, human nutrition, and the environment.
ronment, which are the topics of this textbook. This textbook was built from the content we
We have spent many years teaching food developed for the course along with input
science and human nutrition, at a land-grant from many students and colleagues. Our goal
institution (Iowa State University), in a state is to facilitate understanding of how the US
(Iowa) where agriculture is a dominant eco- food system evolved and to raise awareness
nomic and social component. This has given among students of the imperative to make
us a broad awareness of the interactions sound, scientifically based decisions about
among these disciplines. The curricula offered food.
to students in agriculture, food science, and We begin our course and this textbook with
human nutrition at most academic institutions a discussion about ethics. Ethical perspectives
have developed over time to become self- are an essential component of the food system
xi
xii INTRODUCTION TO UNDERSTANDING FOOD SYSTEMS
at all levels. Any topic raised within a food information provided for instructors, we recom-
system discussion will have an ethical compo- mend discussion topics and assignments that
nent. Our application of ethical principles is by allow students to engage in personal reflections
necessity superficial, and we strongly encour- and debate controversial issues. We strongly
age further study of these principles. Only encourage that this textbook be used as a frame-
with a deep appreciation for ethics can we work from which further discussion takes place.
hope to address the complexities of a sustain- There is clear evidence that US food produc-
able and equitable food system for the United tion has been highly effective and efficient and
States and the world. that Americans enjoy safe, abundant, and low-
We also reintroduce the concepts of scien- cost food. We have applied technology to our
tific thinking. While most students are taught food production and processing systems that
scientific thinking in grade school, we find that have enhanced the quality, safety, and nutri-
a reminder of the process of the scientific tional value of foods. Yet chronic illnesses
method and providing a framework to apply associated with diet and lifestyle choices
these methods are helpful to learn about the including obesity, cardiovascular disease, and
food system. The ready access to information type 2 diabetes are significant public health
on the Internet and expanding number of self- concerns. Concurrently, a significant number
identified experts have blurred the distinctions of Americans, including children, are food
about factual information. We encourage insecure. The balance of creating a food system
thoughtful assessment of sources of informa- that ensures the right nutritional needs for
tion and provide standards to gauge the reli- everyone is a challenge.
ability of those sources. On a global scale, concerns about rising
The main chapters of the textbook address world population, climate change, environ-
the historical perspectives and current status of mental damage, and water scarcity have a
agriculture in the United States, animal food direct impact on the US food system. While
production, human labor in agriculture, food our focus in this textbook is on the US food
processing and technology, human nutrition, system, we fully recognize that food is global.
and the connection between food and the envi- The world situation has and always will influ-
ronment. By providing the background of his- ence the US food system. The last chapter cov-
torical events, we aim to develop an ers some of these topics and provides context
understanding of how political, economic, and from which the US food system will need to
social situations have influenced the food sys- function as part of the global food system. We
tem. We created a table, provided in the have provided the background from which
Appendix, that outlines important historical the concept of a sustainable food system may
events that have impacted the US food system. be defined. Sustainability is complex and mul-
Students are encouraged to refer to this tifaceted and will require integration of many
table frequently to gain a solid perspective of the agricultural practices, food production sys-
ways social, political, economic, and cultural tems, and consumer behaviors. It will be criti-
events have impacted the food system. It is cal that scientific thinking and ethics are well
essential that students, who will be future lea- applied as we attempt to address the future of
ders and decision makers, have this comprehen- food production.
sive perspective. Throughout these chapters, we Throughout the textbook, we encourage stu-
attempt to present factual information and dents to reflect and consider their personal
refrain from personal perspective or judgment food choices and perspectives about food.
about topics or issues. In the supplemental Consumers have a significant voice in the food
INTRODUCTION TO UNDERSTANDING FOOD SYSTEMS xiii
system, which needs to be used wisely. enjoyment as well as nourishment and is an
Applying scientific thinking and considering integral part of our daily lives. By working
ethical principles are as important at the indi- together across the disciplines of agriculture,
vidual level as at the global level. Making food science, nutrition, and environmental sci-
demands on the food system that are not ence we can ensure a sustainable, safe, abun-
based on scientific evidence may do more dant, nutritious, and enjoyable food supply
harm than good in the long run. Food provides today and into the future.
C H A P T E R
1
Ethics and Scientific Thinking
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE resulted from famines due to crop failures, such
FOOD SYSTEM as the Irish potato blight in the 1800s, when nearly
one million people fled Ireland and came to the
Human survival depends on an adequate United States. Adequately feeding military per-
intake of foods that provide essential nutrients sonnel led to either success or failure of conquests
and energy. That simple statement belies the throughout history. Napoleon Bonaparte is cred-
much wider and diverse influence of food on ited with saying, “An army marches on its stom-
human lives. Food defines the history, culture, ach.” French scientists found a way to preserve
religion, and identity of populations. We readily food by canning, which allowed Bonaparte’s
recognize the Chinese culture of food as being army to be successful. Also, English sailors sur-
distinct from the Italian culture of food. Special vived long sea voyages to reach distant lands
foods are linked to celebrations and events. What because they drank a citrus concoction containing
would Thanksgiving in the United States be with- vitamin C that prevented them from succumbing
out turkey or Christmas in the United Kingdom to scurvy, earning them the nickname “limeys.”
without mince pies? If you love gumbo, you are The history of human civilization is defined
probably from Louisiana and if you think lutefisk by food. Early humans were hunter-gatherers
is great, you may be from Minnesota. and their survival depended on securing food
Food brings comfort, enhances celebrations, every day. Over time, humans learned how to
and connects us to each other. Sharing food cultivate crops and raise animals to produce a
and meals are integral components of social more consistent and reliable source of food.
networks. Potluck suppers are the foundations A higher-quality food supply may have contrib-
of many church events and neighborhood uted to advances in human brain development
gatherings. We celebrate birthdays with cake and certainly allowed more time for other activi-
and ice cream and the 4th of July with hot ties and intellectual pursuits. Food production
dogs and hamburgers. Research has shown technology has advanced significantly leading
that families that eat dinner together most to better quality and higher yields. But commer-
nights of the week have stronger connections cial food production has environmental impacts
and children perform better in school. and consumes natural resources. The capacity to
Wars have been waged over food and access to feed a growing population, expected to reach
land to grow food. Population migrations have nine billion people by 2050, will depend on
Understanding Food Systems.

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-804445-2.00001-6 1 © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 1. ETHICS AND SCIENTIFIC THINKING
making the right choices in how we produce population (Fig. 1.1). “From field to fork” is a
food and use our natural resources. popular phrase that describes the food system.
The production, processing, distribution, mar-
keting, and consumption of foods constitute the
1.1.1 Definition of the Food System food system and within each aspect are multiple
A food system encompasses all the compo- layers of complexity. Production encompasses
nents involved in providing food to a the interaction between food crops and animals
FIGURE 1.1 A food system is a complex network that starts with the producers of food, processors that preserve and
modify the food, transportation and distribution systems, and markets that make food available to consumers. Influences
from the realm of economics, ethics, politics, environment, and society are part of the food system and must be consid-
ered. Source: Illustration by Reannon Overbey.

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE FOOD SYSTEM 3
with natural resources and climate, types and processed into mozzarella cheese. The pizza
locations of food production, and human ingredients must be delivered to the shop
engagement in agriculture. Processing includes (which would have to be built, equipped, and
harvesting, storing, manufacturing of foods and managed), the pizza prepared and cooked (by
food ingredients, and controlling food waste trained workers), packaged, and delivered to
and loss. Distribution and marketing involve your door (most likely via a person driving a
getting food from producers and processors to car on roads). Each ingredient has a produc-
consumers. And food consumption spans per- tion system that requires multiple economic
sonal choices to human health. Integrated and environmental decision points and people,
within the food system are political, sociological, as well as infrastructure and transportation.
ethical, economic, environmental, and cultural Some steps may involve following government
pressures and influences. regulations, health codes, and industry stan-
A stakeholder is a person or group who has dards. Various, possibly controversial, inputs
a share, an investment, or an interest in an may be required, such as irrigation of the
issue. In the case of the food system, there are wheat, migrant workers to pick the tomatoes,
many stakeholders. In fact, because everyone or confinement housing for the hogs, which
eats, everyone is a stakeholder in the food sys- have social, ethical, political, environmental,
tem. Groups that are directly involved with and cultural implications. These decision
the food system include producers (farmers, points have broad and lingering implications.
growers, ranchers, and workers), processors So while you are enjoying your next pizza,
(who convert raw materials into foods and stop to think about everything that had to hap-
food ingredients), distributors (transportation, pen before it arrived on your table.
warehouses, and storage), marketers (farmers
markets, grocery stores, restaurants), and
finally consumers (people who eat the food).
In addition, government, corporations, private
1.1.2 Influences on the Food System
foundations, universities, healthcare organiza- The concept of food systems has entered the
tions, local organizations, schools, and a wide public discussion as people realize the implica-
range of advocacy groups are engaged both tions of their own food choices and want to
directly and indirectly in the US food system. understand where their food comes from and
As an illustration of the food system, con- how it is produced. While farmers and food
sider what has to happen for you to get a sau- producers, food scientists, and food manufac-
sage pizza delivered from your local pizzeria. turers are obviously engaged in food systems,
Wheat must be planted, tended, harvested, the implications of understanding food reach far
and transported to a mill, where it is ground beyond these professions. Government leaders
and processed into flour. The flour is then and policy makers, economists, environmental-
packaged and delivered to the dough proces- ists, and healthcare professionals including
sor, who prepares it with yeast and other nutritionists and dietitians, nurses, physicians,
ingredients. Tomatoes must be planted, and research scientists make decisions and set
tended, harvested, and transported to a pro- policies that influence the broad food system.
cessor to make the sauce (consider also the Journalists, chefs, and even celebrities influence
added spices that are grown, packaged, and how food is perceived and create trends that
transported). Hogs must be bred, fed, and may have a wide impact on the food system.
cared for, and then harvested and processed And individual consumers, who make food
into sausage. Dairy cattle must also be bred, choices each and every day, directly impact the
fed, and cared for; milk must be collected and food system through their economic and

political influence. Discussions about food, how challenges will be addressed in Chapter 8,
it is produced, and how it affects health likely Sustainability of the Food System. Throughout,
arise daily in your life. Controversies in the we encourage the use of scientific thinking and
food system are abundant, complicated, and the consideration of ethical principles in each
often draw strong emotional responses. Many area of discussion. We will describe policies
of these will be highlighted in the following that affect food, outline the connection of these
chapters. Providing a solid reference, based on complex issues, and suggest the impacts on
the available scientific evidence, for framing the overall food system. Readers are encour-
decisions about food is the intent of this book. aged to challenge their beliefs and understand-
Our primary goal is to provide an overview ing of food within their own lives and to
of the US food system within the context of consider how their political views, cultural,
societal influences. From an historical perspec- ethical, and religious beliefs and personal
tive to present day, we explore how the US choices impact the overall food system.
food system developed. There are increasing Because all aspects of the food system are
complexities within our food production sys- interconnected, a change in one aspect may
tems that influence how much food and what have broad, even global, repercussions. For
types of food we produce; how food is grown, example, the grain quinoa (pronounced keen-
processed, marketed, and consumed; and how wah) became a trendy food in the United States
food affects human health. We begin in because of its high nutrient value and per-
Chapter 2, History of US Agriculture and Food ceived health benefits. Quinoa is a staple food
Production, with defining agricultural history of native South Americans living in the high
and the evolution to our modern farming plains of the Andes Mountains, primarily in
systems. In Chapter 3, Innovations in US Bolivia and Peru, and these countries account
Agriculture, innovations in farming practices for over 90% of the world’s production.
are discussed including advances in technol- Traditionally, quinoa has been produced by
ogy and biotechnology in agriculture. The pro- small-scale farmers for their own consumption.
duction of food from animal sources is Increasing the global demand for quinoa raises
covered in Chapter 4, Animals in the Food concerns as to whether commercial production
System including discussion of animal rights. for export will squeeze out these farmers and
The role of human agricultural workers and alter the economic and environmental balance
the political, ethical, and economic factors sur- of the region. There is evidence that, as the
rounding labor are covered in Chapter 5, local price of quinoa increased, indigenous
Human Resources in the Food System, In populations were unable to afford quinoa and
Chapter 6, Food Processing, the role of food forced to consume less nutritionally balanced
science in the current food system will include foods. Debates have arisen between govern-
information about techniques for food preser- ments as to who owns the right to the quinoa
vation, additives, nutrients, safety, labeling, germplasm. Many countries want to develop
waste, and health and economic benefits, as quinoa production but Bolivia controls much
well as concerns regarding the food supply. of the quinoa seed and has set treaty limits on
The integration of food with human health what it will share, concerned that the country
and disease and the complexity of food secu- will suffer economically if quinoa production
rity are discussed in Chapter 7, Nutrition and becomes widespread elsewhere. The social-
Food Access. Finally, the sustainability of food cultural and political issues around this one
production, processing, and accessibility and food item are very complex and most consu-
current environmental and climate change mers may be unaware of the implications of

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE FOOD SYSTEM 5
their decision to purchase a box of quinoa at 1.1.3 Consumer Engagement
their local grocery store. With the Food System
Much attention has been focused on creat-
ing a sustainable food system. In addition to Everyone is a consumer of the food system
the aspects of food production, processing, dis- and as such yields great influence. An indivi-
tribution, and access, the importance of natural dual’s buying power, needs, and desires
resources (genetics, soil, land, water, air, and regarding food will change over a lifetime, but
energy) is emphasized in a sustainable food people will always need healthy and safe food
system model. Sustainability must include to survive. It is important for all consumers to
the interactions between society (human have knowledge about food, not only what is
resources, values, and trends), economics (capon the plate in front of you but also a view of
ital resources), and the environment (natural the larger food system. Your food decisions
resources). A system that fails in any one of have an impact well beyond your kitchen.
these areas cannot be sustained. A policy that Consumers make decisions based on inputs
enhances an economic return but damages the from a wide range of sources so it is very
environment is not sustainable; similarly one important to assess the credibility of those
that protects the environment but cannot be sources. One of the primary goals of this book
achieved economically is not sustainable. And is to provide a framework from which recom-
policies that are socially unacceptable, regard- mendations about food and diet choices offered
less of their economic or environmental value, by popular books, television, movies, maga-
will not be sustained. Interactions between zines, and social networks can be evaluated.
people and their resources are delineated in There are countless documentaries, books,
policy, education, politics and government, movies, blogs, and websites about agriculture,
and research and technology. These interac- food, and health. Celebrities have taken up
tions influence each of the spheres and deter- these topics and used their access to the public
mine the priorities for the uses of natural, to promote various diets and philosophies and
human, and capital resources for food. promote agendas. While she was First Lady,
Sustainability can occur only when the com- Michelle Obama used her influence to encour-
peting interactions between society, economics, age exercise and eating vegetables from a
and the environment are in balance (Fig. 1.2). home garden. Many researchers have investi-
gated the reasons for consumer behaviors rela-
tive to their food choices. The major influences
for most consumers when making decisions
about food are messages from the media and
advice from friends and family, according to a
2016 International Food Information Council
(IFIC) survey. Healthcare professionals; dieti-
tians; agricultural, nutrition, and food scien-
tists; and governmental agencies have a lesser
influence on consumer choices (Fig. 1.3).
Consumers also exert influence on the
behavior of other aspects of the food system.
FIGURE 1.2 A sustainable food system must satisfy They demand, via their purchasing choices,
environmental, economic, and societal demands. Source: convenient, low cost, healthful foods, and
Illustration by Reannon Overbey. recently, organic and local products. Food

FIGURE 1.3 Decisions consumers make about food are influenced more by their family and friends, social networks,
and the media than by healthcare professionals, government resources, and educators. Source: Illustration by Reannon
Overbey.
companies, as businesses seeking profits, The fact that all parts of the world participate
respond to these demands by marketing foods in the global food system should be continually
that consumers will buy. When low-fat foods kept in mind while considering the contents of
were demanded, thousands of new products this book.
appeared on the market seemingly overnight.
Similar trends were seen in the marketplace
with food products labeled organic, gluten- 1.2 ETHICAL THEORIES AND
free, non-GMO, natural, sustainably raised, PRINCIPLES IN FOOD SYSTEMS
local, or other appealing descriptors. In many
cases, consumer trends outpaced government Meatless Mondays! Locally grown food!
regulations. For example, consumers were Organic food! No GMOs! Confinement crates!
demanding these products long before regula- Pesticides! Chemical additives! Migrant
tors had formulated a means of appropriately workers! SNAP benefits! No CAFO in my
labeling them. Without standards for labeling neighborhood! School lunch! Processed foods!
products as natural, sustainably raised, or These terms highlight some of the many com-
local, consumers were left on their own to plex, emotional, and often contentious, contro-
determine the accuracy of these messages. versies within the US food system.
The US food system is highly integrated It is difficult to know how to resolve such
with the global food system and influenced by conflicts around these issues. Ethical theories
social, economic, and political factors in other and principles can provide a framework to
countries as well as trade agreements, environ- decide how to behave and resolve controver-
mental treaties, and business decisions between sies. Even though food decisions and behaviors
US and foreign entities. Energy policy, gas and are greatly influenced by emotion, culture,
oil production, transportation, weather, and habits, social conventions, family traditions,
other global factors have significant effects on and religion, discussions about ethics can help
US food policy and trade. Although the US determine common values and lead to resolu-
food system is the focus of this book, the US tion of problems by encouraging the exchange
food system does not function in isolation but of opinions, sharing ideas and experiences, and
both influences and interacts with global forces. recognizing the ultimate purpose and goal.

1.2 ETHICAL THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES IN FOOD SYSTEMS 7
1.2.1 Definition of Ethics There are many factors that influence per-
sonal decisions about food (Fig. 1.4). The major-
Ethics is a moral operating system to ity of people in the world are constrained in the
determine right and wrong. It is a branch of availability of food by their life situation (subsis-
philosophy that involves the study of argu- tence farmers or poverty). Obtaining enough
ments and theories about what actions are food is the primary goal rather than being selec-
right or wrong, moral intuitions, and rules of tive about how the food was grown or pro-
moral reasoning, but transcends differences cessed. Economically secure people living in
in religion, law, and customs. Laws may be stable environments are free to engage in broad-
based on ethics but do not define an ethical er issues about their food choices. Consideration
position. In some people’s view, some things of lifestyles, preferences, and ability above eco-
are legal but may not be ethical (abortion); nomics and access arise in affluent societies.
others may be ethical but not legal (assisted This generates debate about how food choices
suicide). It is common to assume ethics is the made by privileged societies impact food access
same as religious belief or doctrine, but these of underprivileged societies: “Food choices
tenets do not comprise an ethical argument. become ethical when they intersect with com-
Decisions about right and wrong require seri- plex economic supply chains in ways that cause
ous thinking and hard work and are not better or worse outcomes for other people, for
based on opinion, religious conviction, or nonhuman animals, or for the environment”
“gut feelings.” (Thompson, 2015, p. 5). Local and personal deci-
Ethics should inform, seek facts, and pro- sions about how and what food is produced,
pose norms for behavior. The intent behind processed, distributed, and consumed have
actions and the surrounding environment global impacts and must be made with full
that influences behavior must also be consid- understanding of these outcomes.
ered: “Ethics is a discipline for asking better A dilemma is an argument or situation
questions about societal dilemmas and cer- necessitating a choice between equally unfa-
tainly should be applied to food” (Thompson, vorable alternatives. Ethical dilemmas are con-
2015, p. 7). flicting issues or situations that are not easily
FIGURE 1.4 Many factors influence the

decisions people make about food. Family
and cultural factors tend to be the earliest
influencers on food choices, and people may
change their preferences and habits as they
move through life. Source: Illustration by
Reannon Overbey.

resolved. Many food system decisions are ethi- Society for Nutritional Sciences, and others) as
cal dilemmas. The decision about whether or well as in codes of behavior for veterinary,
not to eat meat poses an ethical dilemma. Meat medical, and healthcare professionals.
provides essential nutrients that are important Beneficence is the principle involved when
for health and meat is an enjoyable food. providing food to the needy and hungry or
Large-scale meat production systems require when teaching nutrition to school children.
substantial amounts of grain and water and Food companies who assure that preserved
can have negative effects on the environment. food is safe to consume are practicing the prin-
Should the nutritional benefits outweigh the ciple of nonmaleficence. Allowing consumers
environmental damage? This discussion has to choose the types of food they prefer is an
many other layers that further add to the ethi- example of autonomy and providing farm
cal dilemma, such as animal rights, antibiotic workers an equitable wage is an example of
resistance, and greenhouse gases in contrast to the ethical principle of justice. Parents who
right to livelihoods for cattlemen, production select wholesome and nutritious foods for their
of manure for fertilizer, and efficient use of children are practicing paternalism.
pasture land. Applying ethical principles can The interrelationship among components
help address such ethical dilemmas. of the food system and the occurrence of obe-
sity is one example of an ethical dilemma
that requires the application of ethical princi-
1.2.2 Ethical Principles ples. From the position of autonomy, some
A principle is a standard for behavior or will argue that individuals should be able
general rule of conduct. Principles explain to make their own decisions about what,
approved practices for everyday situations as when, and how they consume food and there
well as for difficult problems. For example, should be no oversight to direct their food
children are taught to tell the truth in spite of choices. From the position of nonmaleficence,
the consequences. This ethical principle, truth- others argue that the harm to individuals’
fulness, is generally seen as a positive behavior health and costs of obesity to society are
and rule of conduct. Beneficence, nonmalefi- significant, and oversight of the types,
cence, autonomy, justice, and paternalism are portion sizes, or times/locations for availabil-
the primary ethical principles involved in dis- ity of certain foods is needed to reduce
cussions about food system issues. There are calorie consumption and benefit the majority.
other ethical principles, no less important, The position of paternalism may be more
such as charity, mercy, peace, fidelity, com- acceptable when children are the target of the
passion, integrity, honesty, courage, honor, obesity issue but not the adult population.
respect, and responsibility that may also be Whether or not snacks and soft drinks
considered. should be sold in school vending machines is
Beneficence is doing good, nonmaleficence an ethical dilemma between the autonomy of
is doing no harm or avoiding harm, autonomy students to select their own foods and the
is allowing people self-determination, justice is paternalistic responsibility of administrators
treating people fairly, and paternalism is and parents to provide the most nutritious and
deciding for others when necessary. These eth- appropriate foods for students. It was pro-
ical principles figure importantly in the codes posed that individuals in New York City as
of ethics for food science and nutrition profes- well as the whole community would benefit
sionals (Institute of Food Technologists, (with an improved quality of life and reduced
Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, American healthcare costs) if residents reduced their

consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages, important to include all members of society,
but adoption of laws (which did not pass) to especially those who are usually unheard, in
reduce the size of soft drinks may violate the the conversation about needed changes.
autonomy of citizens to consume the types of
drinks they want. Overlain on these ethical
dilemmas is evidence of efficacy of the pro- 1.2.3 Ethical Theories
posed policies. It would be important to know
Ethical principles are the tenets or basic
if limiting the access of students to sodas and
truths upon which ethical theories are built.
snacks or NYC residents to large sodas would
Ethical theories can provide guidance for mak-
have a positive effect on body weight or over-
ing personal decisions about food and oversight
all health. Scientific thinking must also be part
of the entire food system. A theory is a
of the ethical decision process.
doctrine based on observations and reasoning.
Other aspects of food choice dilemmas
Mathematics, physics, medicine, language, psy-
include the autonomy of food producers (those
chology, and other fields of arts and sciences
that make cookies and doughnuts) or restau-
use theories to understand, explain, and predict
rants (fast food outlets, bakeries, candy stores)
ideas and concepts about people and the natu-
to make a living and earn a profit by selling
ral world. Theories can be constructed from
what some might consider “junk food.” Is it
hypotheses, evidence, and scientific experimen-
the role of the government, parents, school
tation, leading to a fact-based framework for
superintendents, or employers to determine
the description of a phenomenon such as grav-
the acceptability of foods? Proposed bans on
ity and evolution. Philosophical theories,
junk food arise frequently in discussions about
formed through discussion, questioning, argu-
the food system. Defining when a food falls
ment, and logic, are developed into systematic
into the junk category is complicated. Clearly,
methods to solve problems. Ethics and ethical
foods that are low in nutritive value and high
theories are one branch of philosophy. Ethical
in calories, fat, sugar, and salt should be con-
theories, similar to theories in other areas of sci-
sumed in moderation. Moderate intake of
entific inquiry, have been developed over cen-
cookies, candy, salty snacks, and fast food is
turies by many practitioners and have resulted
unlikely to cause obesity or chronic disease in
in different schools of thought. Consider ethics
most people, but the risks increase with over-
a guide for discussion of questions, dilemmas,
consumption, especially for children. Because
and problems related to human behavior.
some people overconsume these foods, should
A review of ethical theories can provide a basis
those who do not overconsume or those who
for discussion of the many-faceted issues
do not suffer from obesity or chronic disease
related to our obligations, as food and nutrition
related to their consumption be prevented
professionals, citizens, parents, and consumers,
from consuming them? The decisions regard-
to provide adequate and nutritious food for our
ing food choice involve complex ethical ques-
families and communities.
tions and are playing out in society today.
Access to food is considered a basic human
Well-meaning laws designed to protect consu-
right, so changes in the food system do have
mers from themselves, and/or the food sys-
ethical dimensions.
tem, imply that paternalism and beneficence
should be implemented. But are the principles
Everyone has the right to a standard of living
of autonomy and justice being equally served? adequate for the health and well-being of self and of
As food system changes are made in an family, including food, clothing, housing and medi-
attempt to provide optimal foods, it is cal care and necessary social services, and the right

to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, strengths and weaknesses will lead to
disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of live- informed decisions about ethical dilemmas.
lihood in circumstances beyond personal control.
Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special
Some believe that no ethical theory fits all
care and assistance. All children, whether born in or situations and that each situation depends
out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social on the context, culture, or time. Certainly
protection. ethical decisions about food made during
United Nations Universal Declaration of war or famine will differ from those made
Human Rights (http://www.un.org/en/universal-
declaration-human-rights/)
during peace or abundance. This is referred
to as “relativism.” Often, in discussions of
A right to food does not mean free food for food system issues, many variables will
all but rather it is an “opportunity right” or a influence the outcome. However, even if one
claim that a just society owes its citizens the theory does not provide succinct answers,
opportunity to nourish themselves. A just soci- knowledge of ethical theories and the argu-
ety would also support providing food to the ments used to support them will provide
poor and needy to prevent starvation and guidance for analysis of the food system, a
human suffering. basis for discussion of complex issues and
Issues of world hunger, obesity, malnutri- valid reasons for decisions that need to be
tion, food safety, and environmental well- made.
being require serious consideration by people, A brief overview of four ethical theories is
communities, and nations. In order to have presented here for the beginning student of
rational and reasoned discussions about com- food systems. For more detailed discussion,
plex issues, an understanding of the morals readers are encouraged to read Comstock
and values that are important to the people (2002) and Thompson (2015). Ethical theories
involved is necessary. A civil society, by defi- for human behavior have been debated and
nition, solves problems peacefully, using per- analyzed for centuries and have formed the
suasion rather than coercion, as well as sound basis of many civilizations. Rights, utilitarian-
reasoning and factual information developed ism, virtue and environmental theories, or
through the scientific process. parts of these ethical theories, will likely be
Ethical theories provide a framework the most useful in discussions of the food
for making ethically based decisions. An system (Table 1.1). Several other ethical theo-
understanding of each ethical theory with its ries exist (deontology, egalitarianism, and
TABLE 1.1 Ethical Theories Useful in Discussions of the Food System

Ethical theory Philosopher Premise
Rights Locke Society determines inherent rights for each citizen.

Utilitarianism Mill, Singer, Choose the greatest good for the greatest number, increase happiness and reduce
Bentham pain, weigh the benefits and harm.
Virtue Plato, Aristotle, Moral behavior is dependent on the goodness of the individual.
MacIntyre
Environmental Callicott, Norton Nature, species, and the ecosystem have rights and are intrinsically valuable.
ethics

care ethics) but are beyond the scope of this individual autonomy and said that intellec-
discussion. tual and moral pleasures were superior to
Rights theory holds that certain protected physical pleasures, indicating that happiness
privileges are universally applied to everyone was quantifiable. An “act-utilitarian” per-
and are inherent for human beings, such as the forms acts that benefit the most people,
right to life, to self-determination, to not be regardless of laws or personal feelings.
injured, and to not be exploited. Society deter- A “rule-utilitarian” seeks to benefit the most
mines which rights, duties, and responsibilities people but through the fairest and most just
are ethically correct and valid. These rights means available, meaning that justice, auton-
must be based on the society’s goals and ethi- omy, and beneficence are part of the bene-
cal priorities, yet within a society each human fit/harm calculation.
is a free and autonomous agent. For example, Utilitarianism strives for the most good or
rights theory would uphold the right of farm- least possible evil in the universe to produce
ers to determine which agricultural methods the most pleasure and least pain for the
they use and how they use the land they own. greatest number of people. The amount
Some philosophers may accord rights to ani- of happiness and suffering created by a per-
mals, plants, nature, and the environment. son’s actions is considered most important.
Critics contend that rights theory offers little Utilitarianism is useful for making balance
guidance for complex situations when there sheets or checklists about the benefits and
are conflicting obligations and problems may risks of food system problems but does not
arise if society determines rights for certain always consider rights, justice, relationships,
individuals or groups to the exclusion of and feelings that are more highly valued in
others. In the example of farmers’ rights, it is other theories. It is difficult to use utilitarian-
not clear if one farmer’s right to apply syn- ism for some decisions that require future
thetic chemicals to a field using an airplane predictions (such as the benefits and impacts
would override the rights of a neighboring of certain pesticides) or when various conse-
farmer who uses organic practices and whose quences cannot be compared on a similar
crops might be contaminated by the spraying. scale (short-term livelihoods of farmers ver-
Utilitarianism is a type of consequentialism sus long-term risks to the environment).
as it is based on the ability to predict the conse- Some acts determined by utilitarian theory
quences of an action. The choice that yields the may violate individual rights (one or few
greatest benefit to the most people is seen as the people) in order to benefit society (many peo-
choice that is ethically correct. Utilitarianism ple). For example, use of synthetic pesticides
finds the greatest good for the greatest number and fertilizers by conventional farmers may
and optimizes happiness in society while mini- increase the amount of food produced and
mizing pain. Similar predicted solutions can be provide good for many people but could vio-
evaluated by a point system, which provides a late the rights of organic farmers, supplying
logical and rational argument for each decision. foods to a small group of local consumers,
This theory promotes evaluation of expected whose crops might be contaminated.
consequences and chooses the best consequence Utilitarian theory supports optimization of
for the majority. food production to feed billions of people as
John Stuart Mill, a 19th century English the most important goal, but, critics say, if
philosopher, revised utilitarianism to con- implemented for money or glory associated
sider pleasure as the good and pain as the with scientific prestige, it is in opposition to
evil. Mill stressed the importance of virtue and other ethical theories.

Virtue theory asserts that ethical decisions system issues because moral character is hard
will be made if a person is kind, fair, wise, to uncover and separate from other motiva-
courageous, and of good moral character. tions. But increasingly, consumers are
Character matters above all else and good demanding truthfulness and integrity within
character will lead to ethical behavior. Living the food system and stakeholders are taking
an ethical life, or acting rightly, requires devel- heed. Being recognized as virtuous is essen-
oping and demonstrating the virtues of cour- tial to gaining consumer trust.
age, compassion, wisdom, and temperance. It Environmental ethics extends ethical consid-
also requires the avoidance of vices like greed, eration to the nonhuman world and nature.
jealousy, and selfishness. A person’s morals, It is a relatively new area of philosophy
reputation, and motivation are evaluated when that grew out of the environmental movement
rating ethical behavior. The Greeks considered in the 1970s. There are different ethical
gluttony (eating for pleasure rather than approaches to environmental ethics. Aldo
nourishment) a mortal sin and certainly not Leopold described “The Land Ethic” in A Sand
virtuous. County Almanac (1949) and considered the nat-
The Greek philosopher Plato is credited ural world, including farms, as an ethical
with saying that if you “know good, you will entity. Frances Moore Lappé advocated vege-
do good” and that there were objective and tarianism in Diet for a Small Planet (1975) in a
universal truths. Another Greek philosopher, utilitarian argument that stressed efficient use
Aristotle, thought that good character was of natural resources and offered the greatest
developed through practice and that excel- benefits to the most people. Lappé’s reasoning
lence and personal perfection were desirable now includes the impact of livestock produc-
while pleasures and emotions should be tem- tion on climate change and illustrates a shift
pered. Aristotle believed ethics could not be in thinking about the environment itself as
calculated like math theorems (as did Plato) worthy of ethical consideration.
but depended on judgments and the context Examples of ethical dilemmas related to
of the situation. Self and the relationship with food and nutrition with the ethical theories
others are of primary importance rather than that support each are summarized in Table 1.2.
following rules. Be a good person, have good There is little argument against providing food
character, be generous, affectionate, and cou- for the hungry. How food should be provided
rageous; this behavior leads to happiness. In to those in need, and who should pay for it,
this view, some people are more moral than are different but related ethical arguments.
others. Thomas Jefferson’s view of agrarian When it comes to the ethics of consuming
democracy, based on farmers and rural com- meat and genetically modified foods, well-
munities, is compatible with virtue ethics. established ethical theories provide support
Farmers were virtuous in their goals and for each contrasting position. Some theories
intentions because they provided food and provide support for both sides of the issue,
nourishment to others, albeit tarnished by depending on reasoning, the methods used to
the unjust and immoral practice of slavery. tabulate the costs or harms and benefits, and
The presentation of the family farm as a vir- the constituents to be considered. This exami-
tuous enterprise continues to be prominent in nation of ethical positions illustrates the com-
advertisements for seed and herbicides and plexity of food system issues and the necessity
promotional messages about agriculture. This of discussing values before resolution of food
theory may be difficult to apply to food dilemmas can occur.

TABLE 1.2 Ethical Justification for Food System Dilemmas
Dilemma Ethical theories and principles to support Ethical theories to not support
Should society provide food/ We have a duty to help the less fortunate
money to feed poor children? (rights, virtue).
There should be equitable distribution of food

(utilitarianism).
All citizens have a right to food (rights).
Our relationships in the community require us

to help (virtue).
Children should be cared for (paternalism,
beneficence).
Should people eat meat? The benefits to humans outweigh the costs to Animals have a right to life (rights).
animals (utilitarianism).
We have a duty to protect animals and
the environment (virtue, rights).
Should we eat genetically The benefits to farmers, environment, and Costs to the environment outweigh the
modified foods? hungry outweigh the risks (utilitarianism). benefits (utilitarianism).
Consumers should have the right to
choose (rights).
Control of seeds and plants is unjust
(rights, justice).
Unfortunately, ethical philosophy is not which is the application of autonomy and

the basis for typical conversation when pro- rights. Recognition of the ethical principles
blems or dilemmas arise around the food sys- that form the foundations of both parties
tem. Too often, public discussions, even might reduce the divisiveness of many politi-
about food, tend to become polarized into “us cal debates. Civil society must continually
versus them.” Identifying values in political strive for compromise between conflicting
discourse may aid resolution of disagree- values and opposing interests. The premise
ments and, in turn, lead to thoughtful and that decisions about the food system must be
effective governmental policies. Democratic rooted in sound scientific evidence is also
Party tenets promote fairness and equality essential. Ethical dimensions must be always
with statements such as “everyone gets a fair in mind as we make personal decisions about
shot, everyone does their fair share, and the food we eat and as we define public pol-
everyone plays by the same rules,” which is icy, laws, and regulations. Becoming edu-
the application of utilitarianism and benefi- cated about food and all of the components
cence. The Republican Party defends inde- that comprise the food system is the responsi-
pendence and personal rights in their party bility of everyone and is essential for finding
platform with statements such as “free from solutions to food system problems. Each
government intrusion” and “healthcare deci- rational and moral being has a duty and obli-
sions should be made by us and our doctors,” gation to do something!

EXPANSION BOX 1.1
C A N M Y E AT I N G H A B I T S B E J U D G E D E T H I C A L LY ?
Kevin, a vegetarian and Eagle Scout from being wasteful is beneficial for the community.
New York City, was paired with Nancy, a for- Nancy says that raising animals for food uti-
mer County Pork Queen and 4-H participant lizes land that is not suitable for crop produc-
from Denison, Iowa, for a project in their nutrition and is a beneficial use of resources. Kevin
tion class. The objective of the project was to provided statistics that support the idea that a
evaluate the nutritional adequacy of each of vegetarian diet uses fewer resources than a
their diets. In their discussion about their eating meat-based diet, and that a meat-based diet is
habits, Kevin and Nancy began to argue about not sustainable. They agree that they should
whether or not it was ethical to eat meat. Kevin investigate the validity of these statistics about
said eating meat was barbaric while Nancy utilization of resources (discussed in Chapter 8:
claimed eating meat was natural. Their teacher Sustainability of the Food System).
intervened and suggested they first determine Kevin and Nancy wonder which type of diet
the “goodness” of their diets. They reviewed would work for everyone on Earth, that is,
the ethical principles they had previously what kind of diet would treat everyone fairly
learned and tried to determine if eating had an (justice). They could send aid for those who
ethical dimension. From their research and dis- have less food than they do, but does it matter
cussion they made several observations. what they themselves eat every day? Nancy
Four ethical principles are beneficence, non- knows that Heifer International helps farmers
maleficence, justice, and autonomy. Autonomy in less developed countries obtain animals for
means that I can make decisions for myself, as food production. Kevin mentions that every
long as I don’t interfere with the autonomy of culture has different types of food and there
others. Kevin said killing animals for food are many economic and political factors that
interferes with the autonomy of animals, which affect the availability of food. The students
are sentient beings and have a right to life. agree that they are fortunate to be able to afford
Nancy replied that animals used for food are and choose the food that they eat.
treated humanely during their lives and Utilitarianism and rights are philosophical
respectfully at slaughter. They had a lively dis- theories that can be used to sort out ethical
cussion about methods of animal production decisions. Utilitarians would contend that
but Nancy contended that animals have a good Kevin and Nancy should weigh the risks and
life on her parents’ farm and people who benefits of specific dietary habits. Consuming
choose to eat meat should be free to do so. meat provides important nutrients and sup-
Beneficence is the principle of doing good ports the livelihood of producers and proces-
for others. Kevin and Nancy both agree that sors, yet does present some environmental
their eating habits are healthful and, by staying concerns. How serious is the environmental
fit, they can do the most good for others. As impact and do some people benefit more than
students preparing to be registered dietitians, others?
they are very aware of the types of food they Those who support animal rights believe
eat and want to help others eat well too. Not that animals feel pain, can suffer harms, and
consuming more than one’s share and not “have a life,” which make them morally

1.3 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD 15
EXPANSION BOX 1.1 (cont’d)
significant. The degree to which all types of and determining diets for an entire society
animals have moral status may vary among would be a complicated matter. They also agree
philosophers. Animal rights proponents oppose that they should learn more about ethical phi-
animal agriculture and the use of animals for losophy; find more facts about agriculture,
scientific experiments and favor vegetarian food, and nutrition; and be open to new ideas
diets. Animal rights theories are generally in and ask more questions.
conflict with animal welfare ideas, which are
based on utilitarian views. Suggested reading: Life Science Ethics (Comstock, 2002).
Kevin and Nancy agree that choosing “the

right foods” to eat for themselves is confusing
1.3 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD observations (what actually happens); (3)

interpreting the information or data (which
At the heart of science is an essential tension usually involves application of statistical anal-
between two seemingly contradictory attitudes—an ysis); (4) comparing findings to previous
openness to new ideas, no matter how bizarre or
knowledge and observations and to the
counterintuitive they may be, and the most ruthless
skeptical scrutiny of all ideas, old and new. This is stated hypothesis; and (5) accepting or reject-
how deep truths are winnowed from deep ing the hypothesis and asking new questions
nonsense. (Fig. 1.5). Science is an iterative process of con-
Carl Sagan (1997, p. 304). tinually refining hypotheses, defining new and
better experiments and technologies, and
As children, we learn that science is a pro- building on previous work. Scientists ask ques-
cess that involves asking questions or stating tions and seek information, then interpret and
a hypothesis, carrying out an experiment or debate their findings.
observation that leads to collecting data, anal- When enough data and scientists agree, a the-
ysis of the data typically with a statistical ory or theorem may be proposed, but even these
assessment, and interpretation of the data to are subject to continued refinement, or even dis-
either support or refute the stated hypothesis. missal, as new ideas and information are
At the core of science is the testing of ideas, obtained. For these reasons, some may consider
which begins with gathering data. Science science to be confusing and unreliable.
creates, builds, and organizes knowledge in Skepticism about science often arises in food sys-
testable explanations and predictions. tems discussions. For example, since the 1960s
Scientific method is a disciplined way to scientists recommended people eat fewer eggs
study the natural world. because they were high in cholesterol. With new
The basic components of the scientific information about heart disease and recognition
method are (1) establishing a hypothesis usu- that eggs are a good source of nutrients, this rec-
ally based on an observation or question; (2) ommendation was removed from the 2015 2020
predicting the expected results (what should Dietary Guidelines. Because of the nature of the
happen, based on the hypothesis) and design- scientific process, new ideas and concepts will
ing ways to collect actual measurements or continually arise. This doesn’t mean that

FIGURE 1.5 The scientific method is a defined series of steps that provide a means for testing a hypothesis. Scientific
inquiry is iterative and never completed because new questions or ways to measure outcomes are always developing.
Source: Illustration by Reannon Overbey.
scientists “got it wrong,” but rather that the sci- essential for science to progress so that data
entific process worked by allowing new ideas can be used and interpreted by others. Within
and information to refine the conclusions. the scientific community, the process of peer
review is a core component of the reporting
process. Scientists submit their findings, typi-
cally to a scientific journal or to a professional
1.3.1 Peer Review meeting, and other scientists who have exper-
Of great importance is the understanding tise in a similar area evaluate the quality of
that science occurs in a community. Reporting the work and the appropriateness of the inter-
and communicating experimental outcomes is pretation. The peer reviewers’ identity is not

shared with the authors of the work to allow With the ready availability of the Internet,
them to be unbiased in their assessment. These online publications have become common.
peer reviewers will look for a clearly defined These journals may not have the same rigor of
hypothesis, suitable and well-controlled exper- peer evaluation as those published by profes-
imental design, accuracy in the data, and the sional scientific organizations. Articles that
quality of statistical interpretation. They will are published by non-science-based groups
also determine if the authors have appropri- are called “lay publications.” These include
ately interpreted their data within the larger magazines, newspapers, or newsletters. Being
context of previously published work. The able to determine the quality of information in
peer reviewers may suggest the authors of the a publication is an important component of
study redo some of their experiments, change scientific thinking.
their description of the outcomes, or modify Maybe you are a runner and wonder if eat-
their interpretation. In some cases, the peer ing breakfast would improve your perfor-
reviewers may find the work to be flawed and mance at racing events. A scientific study to
not acceptable for publication or presentation. define the effect of eating breakfast on perfor-
This approach of peer evaluation within the mance would include a large number of sub-
scientific community is intended to ensure the jects, a well-defined and standard meal, test
scientific method is maintained and the quality and control groups, verified measures of per-
of published research is high. Within any disci- formance, quantification of the data, and statis-
pline of science, there is a hierarchy of journals tical analysis. From such a study, it could be
that are considered by scientists in that disci- concluded, within the parameters of the study,
pline as being the most well-respected places that people who ate breakfast were more pro-
to have their work published. Peer-reviewed ductive than those who did not. Notice that
journals are managed by an editorial board the previous sentence included the qualifying
and a core of scientists who provide manu- phrase “within the parameters of the study.”
script reviews, typically on a volunteer, unpaid This phrase is seldom seen in newspaper head-
basis. These individuals are usually listed on lines. Instead, we are more likely to read
the journal’s website or cover. Some journals, “Run faster by eating bacon for breakfast!” The
such as Science, Nature, or the New England interpretation of scientific publications by the
Journal of Medicine are very highly regarded media may be superficial and not provide
and publish some of the most influential enough information to adequately understand
research. And each scientific discipline has a the work. It is therefore important to seek out
list of top tier publications, such as the Journal the original publication and read the study
of Food Science, American Journal of Nutrition, for yourself rather than rely on summaries
Journal of Animal Science, and Journal of provided by others. PubMed, which is freely
Horticulture. Peer review is an important and available online, provides searchable access to
essential part of the scientific method, but does the scientific literature related to human health
not completely prevent inaccurate or flawed (US National Library of Medicine).
research from being published. Newer infor-
mation or ways of studying some aspect of the
research may completely change how the orig-
inal work is understood. However, the open
1.3.2 Credible Sources
peer assessment process allows for ongoing In modern society, there are many avenues
dialog and interpretation to ensure advance- to publish ideas and information without the
ment of knowledge. peer review process. Websites, blogs, and

various other social media postings allow peo- base their expert interpretation and assessment.
ple to share their thoughts and ideas freely. Food and nutrition websites by the Mayo
These avenues are clearly important for society Clinic, USDA, food and nutrition departments
and allow a wide range of information to be at universities, the Academy of Nutrition
quickly and broadly disseminated. However, and Dietetics, and the Institute of Food
without the process of peer assessment, Technologists have websites with reliable infor-
the integrity of the information may be ques- mation. Dietary information does change so
tionable. Finding ways to use and interpret using current data is recommended.
information is critically important when con- These same criteria can be used to evaluate
sidering these sources of information. Some popular magazines, movies, television programs,
factors to consider when assessing information and books. Many books are written by journal-
on the web include: ists whose intent is to make the public aware of
a particular issue, and to sell books. Some
1. Who has generated the website—an
explain valid criticisms of the US food system
individual, a group/organization, a
but may rely on emotion or anecdotal evidence,
government agency?
or only tell one side of the story. We recommend
2. How is the website funded?
when reading books such as The Omnivore’s
3. Does the website provide contact
Dilemma (2007) by Michael Pollan, Fast Food
information?
Nation (2001) by Eric Schlosser, Salt Sugar Fat
4. When was the website updated?
(2013) by Michael Moss, Pandora’s Lunchbox
5. Does the website provide links to references
(2013) by Melanie Warner, or A Bone to Pick
or sources of information? Are these linked
(2015) by Mark Bittman, that critical evaluation
to the original website authors?
and scientific thinking are used to keep the pre-
It is essential that websites list a reference sented information in context with the complex
and include authors and date of publication if relationships that make up the food system.
they are to be considered credible (Table 1.3).
A credible reference is defined by their educa-
tion and work experience from which they
1.3.3 Conflicting Studies
Scientific findings from research studies
TABLE 1.3 Characteristics of a Credible Reference are being generated at an increasing rate and
Person gained expertise by education or relevant recommendations about supplements, diets,
experience and components of food and their role in
health are constantly evolving. Consumers
Person is recognized as an expert by others
are often frustrated with conflicting food and
Person or organization has gained reputation as a nutrition information in the news and con-
knowledgeable source
fused about lifestyle changes they should
Person has current or recent publications in peer-reviewed make. Research has shown that confused con-
journals sumers tend to ignore all health recommen-
Person or organization relies on tested information, not dations because they lose confidence in the
opinion only scientific method.
Person or organization has no conflict of interest It is within the nature of scientific inquiry for
studies to generate conflicting results. When an
Person or organization cites original sources and uses
experiment is designed, the researcher must
valid evidence
make important decisions about which variables

will, or can be, controlled, and which variables 1.3.4 Antiscience and Pseudoscience
cannot be controlled. Decisions about the study
population demographics (e.g., if humans will Antiscience arguments reject the scientific
be studied, the age, gender, ethnicity, state of method as an objective way to learn about the
health, lifestyle, geographic location, economic world. Throughout history, there have been
status, and education level) are made. various movements and conspiracy theories
Furthermore, it is necessary for studies involv- that criticize scientific methods as materialistic,
ing humans to determine if they will be allowed heretical, antireligion, and antispiritual. Galileo
to remain “free-living” during the study or if Galilei (1564 1642), often called the “father of
they would need to be more carefully moni- science,” was only one of many scientists criti-
tored using a clinical testing site. The type of cized or even put to death for professing theo-
data to be collected and how it will be collected ries contrary to common knowledge of the
must be defined. Questions such as Will the sub- time. Galileo was condemned by the Catholic
jects be fasted or fed prior to drawing blood? or Will Church for supporting the theory, originally
the subjects be allowed to exercise during the study? put forth by Copernicus, that Earth moved
must be addressed. If there will be laboratory around the sun because the theory conflicted
analyses conducted, for example, quantifying a with biblical references. Most people accept
metabolite in the blood, the type of assay used that science and spiritual or religious beliefs
and its reliability must be determined. An are necessary for understanding human exis-
important consideration is also how many sub- tence and can be compatible aspects of
jects will be studied. This is referred to as the thought, but clear distinction must be main-
“power” of the study design. If there are too tained between belief and evidence.
few subjects from whom data is obtained, the A current antiscience trend is that of pseudo-
study would be “underpowered” and even if science. One of the earliest people to discuss the
differences are observed they may not be “sta- philosophical aspects of scientific inquiry was
tistically significant” based on the degree of var- Karl Popper, who wrote extensively in the
iation in the population or experimental 1930 60s about the process of distinguishing
measurement. The outcome of the study will be scientific from nonscientific theories. In his
dependent upon those decisions. Differences in view, those people who develop scientific theo-
study design and variables can, in part, lead to ries create testable ideas and understand that
conflicting results in research. the theory may eventually be found to be false
Interpretation of research must be done when new data or observations are made (the
with all of these potential variables in mind, scientific method). In contrast, those people
and with an understanding that no one experi- who develop nonscientific theories attempt to
ment will be sufficient to define a theory or make observations fit the predictions of the the-
prove or disprove a hypothesis. Scientists must ory. Current pseudoscience ideas include dis-
integrate the results from many experiments, counting the theory of evolution or denying
taking into consideration the strengths and that climate change has been influenced by
limitations of each, before drawing a conclu- human activity. Opposition to considering the
sion. Research findings must be continually evidence that supports these theories and
reassessed based on new studies, better techni- refusal to examine new evidence are examples
ques to measure variables, and clearer under- of nonscientific thinking. Scientific inquiry
standing of molecular, cellular, or organismal requires rigorous and careful verification of
behavior. This is the iterative process of the information and facts followed by thoughtful
scientific method. interpretation.

1.3.5 Applying Scientific Thinking thinking to continually grow. Scientific thinkers

make decisions based on evidence, consider
Scientific method is a very organized and applications and implications of decisions, and
structured activity that is essential for conduct- incorporate multiple perspectives. Practicing
ing research. While most people do not apply these suggestions to address facets of complex
the scientific method in their daily lives, most problems will help you understand the problem
of us do use scientific thinking without fully more fully and be able to make good decisions.
recognizing it. For example, you may have Application of scientific thinking skills allows
learned, through experience, that eating break- more effective responses to problems and ques-
fast in the morning gives you more energy for tions for which the solutions and answers are
running and an ability to focus during the day, not immediately known.
and that certain types of foods make you feel Consider how you might use scientific
better than others. Using scientific thinking to thinking in this scenario. Your friend is con-
address issues we face in our lives is helpful suming coconut oil because “it’s supposed to
because it separates evidence and facts from be healthy” and s/he thinks you ought to try it
belief and emotion. too. You want to lose a few pounds and the
There are many scientific thinking (or criti- websites you have viewed say it increases the
cal thinking or rational thinking) techniques body’s metabolic rate by reduction of stress on
to help sort accurate from erroneous informa- the pancreas therefore causing you to burn
tion and make sense of the physical world. more calories. Plus people in tropical countries
Educators use analysis, reflection, and critical who consume coconut oil aren’t overweight.
thinking strategies to help students evaluate On YouTube, Dr. Oz described a research
information. Skills and behaviors such as study that showed women who consumed
observing, questioning, and hypothesizing can coconut oil had reduced abdominal fat. You
be taught. These skills can be learned in the read that coconut oil has more saturated fatty
context of disciplines as diverse as chemistry acids than lard and a high content of medium
and communication, by integrating thinking chain triglycerides.
skills with scientific concepts, and by doing Here are some steps to apply scientific
experiments or research projects. thinking to make a decision about coconut oil.
Costa and Kallick (2000) proposed the con-
cept of scientific habits of mind, which • Learn the facts about the composition of
encourages the use of scientific thinking (ratio- coconut oil and compare it to other types of
nality or intelligence) to learn and solve every- fat (use the USDA food composition
day problems. Asking questions, managing website: www.ndb.nal.usda.gov).
emotions, striving for accuracy, being flexible • Seek reliable information from experts such
and persistent, and applying past knowledge as a registered dietitian nutritionist (www.
are key components of scientific thinking. When eatright.org), healthcare professional, or
teamwork is required, scientific thinkers will lis- nutrition scientist.
ten actively, communicate clearly and concisely, • Read the scientific literature about coconut
and respect and maintain the dignity of others. oil and health (PubMed (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
Scientific habits of mind include using all the gov/pubmed) or Google Scholar).
senses to gather data, being creative, responding • Evaluate and assess your current diet and
with wonderment and awe, using humor, learn about weight loss strategies using the
taking risks, thinking interdependently, being USDA SuperTracker (www.supertracker.
open to learning, exerting effort and allowing usda.gov).

FURTHER READING 21
It is important to not rely on the opinion of References
others as your health can be at risk. Practice
Bittman, M. (2015). A bone to pick (p. 247). New York, NY:
scientific thinking skills and learn to make Penguin Random House LLC.
independent decisions about your health and Comstock, G. L. (Ed.), (2002). Life science ethics Ames, IA:
the foods you eat. Iowa State University Press, Blackwell Publishing Co.
Costa, A. L., & Kallick, B. (2000). Habits of mind (p. 108).
Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Moss, M. (2013). Salt, sugar, fat: How the food giants hooked
1.3.6 Ethics and Scientific Thinking us (p. 423). New York, NY: Random House Trade
Paperbacks.
Ethics uses reason and logic and is based Pollan, M. (2007). The omnivore’s dilemma: A natural history of
on facts, not on opinion. Philosophers use four meals (p. 455). London: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.
Sagan, C. (1997). The demon-haunted world: Science as a candle
debate and argument to convey their thinking
in the dark (p. 457). New York, NY: Ballantine Books.
about ethical behavior. These arguments rely Schlosser, E. (2001). Fast food nation: The dark side of the all-
on factual information and are supported by American meal (p. 345). New York, NY: Houghton
valid scientific processes. Determining the Mifflin Company.
accuracy of facts requires scientific method as Thompson, P. B. (2015). From field to fork-food ethics for every-
one (p. 329). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
well as scientific thinking. Aristotle used the
Warner, M. (2013). Pandora’s lunchbox: How processed food
scientific method to deduce universal rules took over the American meal (p. 251). New York, NY:
from his observations (data). Ethicists may Simon & Schuster, Inc.
use thought experiments to test and explain
ethical theories, similar to hypotheses used
by scientists. Further Reading
Ethical and scientific thinking concepts rely ADA (2007). Position of the American Dietetic Association:
on questioning to reach conclusions. Many Food and nutrition professionals can implement
food system issues, such as use of biotechnol- practices to conserve natural resources and support
ogy, ways to reduce food waste, and rules for ecological sustainability. Journal of the American Dietetic
advertising nutrition messages to children Association, 107(6), 1033 1043.
Anderson, M. D. (2014). Beyond food security to realizing
present problems for which even experts can- food rights in the U.S. Journal of Rural Studies, 29,
not agree on the best solution. Skills required 113 222.
for addressing such problems include seeking Barnhill, A., King, K. F., Kass, N., & Faden, R. (2014). The
and evaluating new information, integrating value of unhealthy eating and the ethics of healthy eat-
new information into what is known, and ing policies. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal, 24(3),
187 217.
organizing information for presentation and Brand, S. (2010). Whole earth discipline: Why dense cities,
discussion with others, which are all key com- nuclear power, transgenic crops, restored wildlands and geoen-
ponents of scientific thinking. The goal of this gineering are necessary (p. 337). London: Penguin Books.
book is provide the framework to construct Democratic Party. (2015). Democratic party platform 2012.
Available from ,http://www.democrats.org/party-
and defend reasonable solutions to issues
platform..
regarding food production, processing, access, FAO (2004). The ethics of sustainable agricultural intensifica-
health, and sustainability through application tion (p. 37). Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization
of ethical theories and principles and the use of the United Nations.
of scientific thinking. A well-educated con- FAO (2013). Food outlook: A biannual report on global food
sumer who is able to apply these tools is best markets (p. 140). Rome: Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations.
suited to make decisions about food that will Gottwald, F., Ingensiep, H. W., & Meinhardt, M. (Eds.), (2010).
create a sustainable food system for them- Food ethics New York, NY: Springer Science 1 Business
selves and future generations. Media.

Grynbaum, M. (September 13, 2012). Health panel approves Ogien, R. (2015). Human kindness and the smell of warm crois-
restriction on sale of large sugary drinks. New York Times. sants: An introduction to ethics (p. 230). New York, NY:
Horowitz, D. (2011). We need a “moral operating system”. Columbia University Press.
6:11 min, Stanford, CA. Available from ,http://www. Rainbow, C. (2002). Description of ethical theories and princi-
ted.com/talks/damon_horowitz?language5en.. ples. Available from ,http://www.bio.davidson.edu/
Huba, M. E., & Freed, J. E. (2000). Learner-centered assess- people/kabernd/indep/carainbow/Theories.htm..
ment on college campuses (p. 286). Needham Heights, Republican Party. (2012). Republican platform. Available
MA: Allyn & Bacon. from ,https://www.gop.com/platform/..
International Food Information Council. (2016). 2016 Food United Nations. (1948). The universal declaration of human
and health survey, food decision 2016: The impact of a grow- rights. Available from ,http://www.un.org/en/
ing national food dialogue. Washington, DC. Available universal-declaration-human-rights/index.html..
from ,http://www.foodinsight.org/articles/2016-food- Wiersema, J. A., Licklider, B., Thompson, J. R., Hendrich,
and-health-survey-food-decision-2016-impact-growing- S., Haynes, C., & Thompson, K. (2015). Mindset about
national-food-dialogue.. intelligence and meaningful and mindful effort: It’s not
Korthals, M. (2008). Ethics and politics of food: Toward a my hardest class any more!. Learning Communities
deliberative perspective. Journal of Social Philosophy, 39 Research and Practice, 3(2). Article 3. Available from
(3), 445 463. ,http://washingtoncenter.evergreen.edu/lcrpjournal/
Mepha, B. (Ed.), (1996). Food ethics London, UK: Routledge. vol3/iss2/3..

C H A P T E R
2
History of US Agriculture
and Food Production
2.1 THE BEGINNINGS OF animals. The spread of agriculture likely began

AGRICULTURE in the Fertile Crescent (which is now Iraq and
Syria) around 9500 BC, where wheat, barley,
About 4 million years ago, early humans flax, lentils, figs, dates, grapes, olives, lettuce,
survived by searching for food in the environ- onions, cucumbers, melons, fruits, and nuts
ment and migrating to follow food sources. were cultivated. Later, around 8500 BC, crops
When food was abundant, life was good, but such as rice, soybeans, citrus, coconut, taro,
when food was scarce, survival was threat- yams, bananas, and sugarcane were being
ened. Humans eventually learned to manage grown in the Far East (China and Indonesia).
and use plants and animals for their benefit. Around 7800 BC, millet and soybeans were
This domestication of plants and animals crops raised in China, and in 7200 BC, squash,
allowed for a more consistent and reliable food beans, peppers, amaranth, and maize were
supply and reduced the need for migrations. It grown in Mesoamerica (Central America).
also reduced the amount of time and attention The first approach to domesticating crops
needed for gathering food, allowing other involved the process of hybrid selection. Of
skills to be developed. Some historians mark course, early adopters of these techniques were
the start of domestication in agriculture at unaware of the scientific principles of trait trans-
around 12,000 years ago. Domestication refers fer or the genetic code, but did recognize that
to changes from native forms that make pro- selective breeding led to stronger plants with
duction of crops or livestock dependent on desirable characteristics. A classic example is the
human intervention. It has been estimated that breeding of teosinte, which Native Americans
humans were altering characteristics of plants transformed over thousands of years from a thin,
to improve yield as early as 11,000 years ago, grass-like plant to modern maize plants (Fig. 2.1).
and breeding animals (sheep, goats, cattle) for The many varieties of wheat are thought to
specific traits as early as 10,500 years ago. have evolved from crossing of two or three dif-
The process of domesticating crops and food ferent plants, with careful selection over time
animals can be geographically mapped from by humans. Understanding of the scientific
DNA comparison analysis of current plants and basis for hybrid transfer began in 1866 with

24 2. HISTORY OF US AGRICULTURE AND FOOD PRODUCTION
FIGURE 2.1 Early civilizations used selective breeding to transform the native grass called teosinte into maize. The
corn we recognize today is very different from the native plant, illustrated here, which had many stalks and very small
seeds. Source: Photo from Dr. Sherry Flint-Garcia, University of Missouri-Columbia.
Gregor Mendel, who carefully cataloged how they hoped to get rich, and spent more time
traits were passed from parent to offspring in looking for gold and other precious metals
his famous sweet pea experiments, but under- than growing food. But colonists in the north-
standing the genetic code did not occur until ern regions of New England eventually
the mid-1950s with the pioneering work of learned to fish, hunt, and grow crops with the
Watson, Crick, and Franklin, who described help of Native Americans. Because of the poor
the structure of DNA. soil and harsh growing conditions, farming
emerged as a subsistence lifestyle in the New
England colonies. Crops included maize, sweet
2.2 COLONIAL ERA potatoes, tomatoes, pumpkins, gourds, squash,
watermelons, beans, grapes, berries, pecans,
Europeans arriving in North America in the black walnuts, peanuts, and maple sugar. As
1600s settled along the East Coast and estab- more European settlers, many of whom were
lished colonies that were largely self-sufficient, farmers, became drawn to the colonies, they
although food shortages were common in the brought domesticated animals including pigs,
early years. Sir Thomas Dale established the chickens, cattle, and sheep. In the late 1700s,
Bermuda Hundred settlement (“hundred” is a Merino sheep were imported to New England
colonial term for a tract of land that could sup- and as demand for wool sharply increased,
port 100 households) in Virginia in 1613 as the this led to one of the first specialized agricul-
first system of free farming and private land tural markets in the United States.
ownership in the New World. This idea of pri- In the southern colonies, the production of
vate, rather than communal, land ownership tobacco, which was being grown by Native
became the basis for agricultural development Americans, and a process to cure it were estab-
and expansion throughout US history. lished soon after settlers arrived. When the first
Most of the early settlers did not come to African slaves were brought to Virginia to work
America seeking to become farmers. Rather the fields in 1619, tobacco production rapidly

2.3 REVOLUTIONARY WAR ERA 25
increased. Tobacco was the major cash crop of avoiding the British navy and bands of pirates.
the Chesapeake Bay colonies and the Carolinas The fight for independence from Great Britain
for most of the 1700s, along with rice and was, in part, initiated because of growing frustra-
indigo (a blue dye extracted from Indigofera tions with taxes and trade restrictions imposed
plant). The techniques for growing rice, indigo, by Great Britain. During the war years, some
and cotton were established by African slaves farmers benefited by selling their products to
who were experienced in these crops. As both British and American armies, but others suf-
wealth increased, cotton and sugar plantations fered from the destruction of crops and loss of
developed. Typical plantation planters, or own- thousands of slaves from southern plantations.
ers, were noted by the amount of land and After the war ended, the nascent US economy
number of slaves they owned. Many of these was in shambles, mainly from debt incurred dur-
planters became very wealthy and influential. ing the war and the absence of a stable currency.
Perhaps one of the most well-known planters Many of the policies, and even the governing
was Thomas Jefferson (1743 1826), who owned structure of the United States, that were devel-
the Monticello plantation in Virginia and oped following independence, including parts of
became the third president of the United States. the Constitution, were influenced by the signifi-
The expansive plantations of the antebellum cant role of agriculture and the farmers that had
South (in the pre-Civil War era) were noted for led the fight for independence. In fact, the first
their architecture and aristocratic lifestyles. But President, George Washington, considered him-
the majority of southern farmers did not own self a farmer and experimented with new crops,
slaves or live on large plantations. Rather they fertilizers, crop rotations, and livestock breeding
were struggling to survive on small acres. at his Mount Vernon, Virginia estate throughout
These frontier farmers were known for their his life.
independence and self-reliance. The Louisiana Purchase in 1803 increased
the size of the United States by 828,000 square
miles. President Thomas Jefferson sent
2.3 REVOLUTIONARY WAR ERA Meriwether Lewis and William Clark on the
Corps of Discovery Expedition (1804 06) to
Between the time the first settlers arrived in find a passage across the continent and to
the United States and the start of the record the resources of this newly acquired
Revolutionary War (1775 83), agriculture in the land. Agriculture during this time was labor
13 colonies flourished. Soon production intensive and difficult. There were some early
exceeded demand, due to the small population. innovations such as the cotton gin invented in
Exporting routes to Europe, the West Indies, 1793 by Eli Whitney, which made harvesting
Africa, and the Mediterranean became profit- cotton much more efficient, and the steel plow
able. In 1772 exports from the Colonies included introduced by John Deere in 1837, which
large amounts of tobacco, corn, wheat, rice, beef replaced cast iron versions. By the mid-1800s,
and pork, and indigo (Fig. 2.2). wheat and corn belts began to develop in the
But Great Britain imposed strict regulations on Midwest. In 1870 Illinois, Iowa and Ohio were
the colonists. For example, all tobacco and indigo the top producers of wheat, and the Great
had to be shipped directly to Britain, while fish, Plains began to develop the cattle industry.
grain, and other food crops were forbidden to During the 1800s, the amount of agricultural
enter Britain to prevent competition. American products arriving from the newly developed
merchants had to access markets for their agricul- farms in the West caused New England farm-
tural products across the ocean, which required ers to specialize in products such as dairy and

FIGURE 2.2 By the late 1700s colonists were export-

ing large amounts of tobacco and corn. Wheat and rice
were exported, along with somke beef and pork. Indigo
was popular for use as a blue dye. Source: USDA Census
of Agriculture (www.usda.gov); Shepherd (1970).
FIGURE 2.3 Regional con-

centrations of agricultural pro-
duction in the United States
began in the 1800s as farmers
ttle
Dai
moved away from urban centers

y ca
air
ry c
and began to specialize in crops

D or livestock. Source: Illustration by
Corn
attle
Wheat soybeans Reannon Overbey. University of

Beef cattle Wheat South Florida Maps ETC (www.etc.
cco usf.edu); Hurt (1994), Schlebecker
Toba
(1975).
Cotton
Sugar
cheese. And the fertile land and access to slave labor-saving types of farm machinery had been
labor created a positive environment for south- developed but were not widely used. As the
ern agriculture to produce cotton, tobacco, war progressed, many farmers and young men
sugar cane, and rice (Fig. 2.3). left their land to join either the Confederate or
Union armies, leaving fewer people to manage
the farms. Turning to mechanization allowed
2.4 CIVIL WAR ERA farmers to maintain, or even increase, their pro-
duction despite the loss of laborers. The value
The Civil War (1861 65) is generally consid- of farm machinery on Iowa farms nearly dou-
ered to have been a catalyst for advancing the bled between 1860 and 1865 and Wisconsin was
mechanization of agriculture in the United able to increase wheat production mainly
States. In the years preceding the war, several because of the mechanical reaper. In the South,

2.4 CIVIL WAR ERA 27
FIGURE 2.4 Prior to 1846 the western region of the United States was held by Mexico, and Russia controlled Alaska.
Thereafter these regions were ceded to the United States. Source: Illustration from User: Golbez CC BY 2.5 (http://creativecom-
mons.org/licenses/by/2.5), via Wikimedia Commons.
however, mechanization of cotton was delayed for pioneers to obtain tracts of unappropriated
due to laws that allowed land owners to con- public land (160 acres initially, then raised to
tinue using African slave laborers. During the 320 and 640 acres) to settle on and farm. It is
secession of the South, Congress was able to estimated that 270 million acres or 10% of the
pass key laws that enhanced the pace of agri- United States was claimed and settled as a
culture advancement, including establishing the result of this act. The Homestead Act was in
United States Department of Agriculture, the effect until it was repealed in 1976, but a provi-
Homestead Act, and the Morrill Act. They also sion for homesteading in Alaska continued
were successful in supporting the construction until 1986. The Guadalupe Hidalgo treaty
of the transcontinental railroad. These measures drew an end to the Mexican American War
were resisted by Southern states because they (1846 48) and ceded the land that is now
considered them as taking power away from California, New Mexico, Arizona, and parts of
individual states. Utah, Nevada, and Colorado to the United
The Homestead Act, signed into law by States (Fig. 2.4). Mexico also released all claims
Abraham Lincoln in 1862, created opportunities on Texas and the Rio Grande river became the

southern boundary of the United States. Settlers representative from Vermont, introduced a bill
were encouraged to head westward into this to allocate public land within each state to be
new territory, taking over many farms and used for an agricultural college. The Morrill
ranches that had been owned by Mexicans. By Act was passed by Congress in 1859 but
1912, there were 48 states making up the conti- vetoed by President James Buchanan. In 1861,
nental United States (Alaska and Hawaii gained Morrill resubmitted the act with the amend-
statehood in 1959). ment that the institutions would teach military
In the mid-1800s, a political movement tactics as well as engineering and agriculture
arose with the goal to create academic institu- and it was signed into law by President
tions to promote education in agriculture. It Abraham Lincoln in July 1862. However, the
was apparent that the problems of farming federal government, in the midst of war, had
were primarily the need to understand nature no funds to build colleges. The Morrill Act
and this required scientific knowledge. made each state eligible to receive a total of
Michigan governor Kinsley S. Bingham was 30,000 acres of federal land credit to establish
the first to approve such an institution by an educational institution and these schools
establishing the Agricultural College of the became known as “land-grant” institutions.
State of Michigan in 1855 making Michigan Today, many land-grant colleges have a
State University the first college of agriculture Morrill Hall to commemorate this legislation
in the United States. Soon after, other states (Fig. 2.5).
recognized the need for such an institution to By this time, the Civil War was well under-
provide education and research about agricul- way and a provision of the Morrill Act was that
ture. In 1853, Justin Smith Morrill, the state “no state while in a condition of rebellion or
FIGURE 2.5 Morrill Hall on the Iowa State University campus honors the creation of the land-grant college system,
and is named for Justin Smith Morrill, who introduced the bill to provide public land for agricultural colleges. Source:
Photo from Iowa State University Relations.

insurrection against the government of the
United States shall be entitled to the benefit of
this act,” referring to several Southern states
that had seceded during the war. In September
1862, Iowa was the first state to accept the
terms of the Morrill Act, which provided
funding to support their State Agricultural
College and Model Farm, which eventually
became Iowa State University of Science and
Technology. Kansas State University soon fol-
lowed in 1863. After the Civil War, the Morrill
Act was opened to all states and over 17 million
acres of land were provided for these institu-
tions. To maintain their status as land-grant
institutions, programs in agriculture and engi-
neering, as well as a Reserve Officers’ Training
Corps, must be continually provided.
Even after the Civil War ended the practice
of slavery, some land-grant colleges, particu-
larly in Southern states, remained segregated.
A second Morrill Act was passed in 1890 that
required each state to allow entry of all people FIGURE 2.6 George Washington Carver made impor-
regardless of race to their institutions or to des- tant contributions to agriculture, including development of
ignate a separate land-grant institution. This led new ways to use soybeans and peanuts for foods and pro-
to the creation of the historically black colleges ducts while on the faculty at Tuskegee University. Source:
and universities (HBCUs or 1890 schools) Photo from the USDA History Collection of the National
Agricultural Library.
mostly in the southern United States. There are
currently 19 HBCU institutions. Tuskegee
Institute, now Tuskegee University, was directly to African American farmers to
founded in 1881 by Booker T. Washington, first improve farming methods. In 1994, funds were
in a church and then on a plantation that he also allocated for land-grant colleges to serve
purchased with his own money. Tuskegee grew Native Americans. Today there are thirty-five
and prospered, at first with funding mainly 1994 tribal land-grant colleges and universities
from private sources, and is now a major edu- recognized by the USDA.
cational institution. George Washington Carver In the midst of the Civil War, efforts were
(Fig. 2.6), the first African American to earn a put forth to build a railroad network to con-
master’s degree from Iowa State College in nect the entire US territory from east to west
1894, had oversight of the Agricultural and north to south. Between 1866 and 1916
Experiment Station farms at Tuskegee. With his this monumental feat was accomplished and
careful research and innovative approaches, created new opportunities for agriculture and
Carver developed new uses for peanuts, sweet markets. The development of the railroads is
potatoes, and soybeans, which diversified agri- discussed in Chapter 3, Innovations in US
culture in the South. In collaboration with Agriculture (Fig. 2.7).
Booker T. Washington, then president of The years following the Civil War were dif-
Tuskegee, they took agricultural education ficult for farmers because of the political

FIGURE 2.7 Advances in US agriculture developed rapidly after construction of the railroads by providing fast and
efficient transport of goods from rural areas to urban centers. The expansion of railroads from the Midwest to the West
Coast, as shown in this map, had been completed by 1906. Source: From Albert Bushnell Hart, L.L.D. (1919). The Amercian
Nation (Vol. 25). New York, NY: Harper and Brothers. Downloaded from Maps ETC, on the web at http://etc.usf.edu/maps (map
#02803). Illustration from the University of South Florida Center for Instructional Technology, www.etc.usf.edu/maps/pages/2800/
2803/2803.htm.
uncertainty, low prices for commodities, high were less self-sufficient because they accrued
fees charged by railroads, and shortage of debt from purchasing machinery, which made
credit. The situation was exacerbated by a them dependent on creditors, merchants, and
series of droughts that occurred between 1870 the railroads. Many farms were foreclosed
and 1900 throughout the northern prairie and when debts could not be paid. The unrest of
Midwest, grasshopper plagues in 1874 76 in this period led farmers to form alliances to
the West, and blizzards in the Great Plains in promote legislation that would improve their
1886. Changes in the organization of farming situation. One such group was effective in
had occurred during the war as well. Farmers several midwestern states, mainly Minnesota,

Dairy cattle
Sugar
tle
y cat
Fr
Dair
uit
s&
Wheat
ve
Corn/soybeans
ge
Poultry
tab
les
Beef cattle Cotton Tobacco
Sugar
Fruits &
vegetables
FIGURE 2.8 During the 1900s regional agriculture concentrations began to develop across the United States depending
on access to land, transportation routes, and markets. Source: Illustration by Reannon Overbey. USDA Economic Research
Service, Census of Agriculture, www.usda.ers.gov.
Iowa, Wisconsin, and Illinois, in passing the research stations. Some refer to this period as
Granger laws to control prices charged by rail- the “golden age,” with a change from self-
road and grain elevator companies to make sufficiency to one-crop agriculture, the adoption
them more favorable for farmers. These laws of new practices, and use of equipment for
were challenged and eventually overturned profitability. With these changes, regionaliza-
and replaced by the Interstate Commerce Act tion of agricultural production across the
of 1887, which gave oversight of railroads to United States began to develop (Fig. 2.8). In the
the federal government rather than individual Midwest, farming remained largely done by
states. manual labor on small family-based farms.
Advances in agriculture were occurring rap- Cotton, tobacco, and rice were the primary
idly during this period. Improved equipment crops of the South, grown on small farms
was being developed such as gang plows and (,50 acres) by sharecroppers or tenant farmers,
steam tractors, silos, and the horse-drawn com- some of whom were African American. In the
bine to harvest wheat. The simple invention of Northeast, farmers were leaving for employ-
barbed wire in 1870 transformed cattle ranching ment in urban communities and agriculture
by defining land ownership, and by keeping shifted to sheep, dairy, eggs, poultry, and
animals fenced in, eliminating the need for vegetables. Agriculture in the Pacific West was
cowboys to round them up. Many of the state specialized to grow citrus and vegetables on
land-grant colleges were starting to carry out large-scale commercial farms. The West Coast
experimental research on agricultural problems provided fertile lands, cheap labor (Mexican,
with federal funding provided through the Mexican American, and Filipino) and plenty of
Hatch Act (Section 3.2.1) to support agricultural water. Western growers relied on the railroad

to transport crops to the East and developed raising and feeding of working animals, allow-
cooperative exchanges such as Sunkist to mar- ing these acres to be used for food production.
ket fruits and vegetables. Tractors were a profitable investment because
the new models could do soil preparation, dril-
ling, and cultivation for small grains and were
2.5 WORLD WAR I ERA needed because of the post-WWI shortages of
men and horses for farm work. By 1930, 1.2
At the turn of the 19th century industrializa- million tractors were in use nationwide, and in
tion was rapidly changing all aspects of life Illinois and Iowa 30% of famers owned a trac-
in the United States, including agriculture. tor. Midwestern farms had an average of
A farmer in the Midwest in 1900 did most 130 acres, large enough to justify investment in
work by hand, burned wood for heat, used this new technology.
kerosene lamps for light, and pumped water Developments in plant breeding were
with windmills. Farmers were fully engaged beginning to enter US agriculture in the mid-
in agriculture and did not hold jobs off 1930s (discussed in Chapter 3: Innovations in
the farm. Commodity farming was often not US Agriculture). Farmers had always engaged
profitable so there was a continued migration in plant breeding, but not in a systematic or
to better employment in cities. Most eastern scientific manner. By the early 1900s experi-
and midwestern farmers felt that schooling mentation with corn breeding was beginning
meant escape from the farm and encouraged to show promise for increased vigor and high-
their children to get an education and pursue a er yields. Corn was the dominant crop of the
life in town that was viewed as better than life United States at the time, but yields had been
on the farm. The farm family was sustained by stagnant. Research efforts in land-grant univer-
the food they produced or that could be traded sities focused on corn hybridization, the process
with neighbors. In 1900, 41% of the US popula- in which controlled cross-pollination of plants
tion was employed in agriculture but over the to selectively define the genetic makeup of the
next 30 years that number was cut in half. seeds, was being refined, leading to crops with
Industrialization was being developed that higher yield and more uniformity (Fig. 2.9).
allowed more work to be done by fewer peo- Between 1935 and 1960 the percentage of acres
ple. The first production tractor (“traction planted with hybrid corn varieties rose from
machine”) was manufactured by Hart-Parr in 0 to near 100%.
1902. International Harvester sold its first trac- Electricity had been provided to urban areas
tor in 1906 and built 1000 by 1910 but they of the United States by the early 1930s but
were too heavy and too expensive except for rural areas lagged behind. The challenge of
plowing, threshing, and pulling combines. In stringing electric lines across wide areas was
1917, Ford mass produced a lightweight, low- considered too expensive and risky for private
cost, 2-plow tractor, making it more affordable, electric companies. President Franklin
and the tractor soon became essential farm Roosevelt believed it was necessary for rural
equipment. Between 1920 and 1950, the num- areas to have electricity and he pushed for the
ber of farm animals used for draft work government to step up and provide service
dropped from 25 million to about 7 million across the United States. These were estab-
while the number of tractors rose from 1 mil- lished as local cooperatives rather than govern-
lion to 3.5 million. This decrease in farm- ment agencies or private companies. The Rural
working animals released nearly 70 million Electric Administration (REA) began bringing
acres of cropland that had been needed for the electricity to rural areas in 1935, which created

2.5 WORLD WAR I ERA 33
FIGURE 2.9 Hybridization is the process through which desired traits are developed in plants. Hybrid corn was very
successful because it made the crop uniform and more efficient to grow, and generated higher yield. Source: Illustration by
Reannon Overbey.
opportunities for more modern farming sys- fewer workers per farm and larger farm sizes.
tems. Rural electric cooperatives were estab- In 1900, 10.9 million farmers produced food
lished by the REA, which encouraged private for 76 million people but, by 1950, 7.5 million
utility companies to also build infrastructure. farmers produced food for 151 million people.
The Electric Home and Farm Authority pro- That represents an increased efficiency of 1
vided loans to farmers that allowed them to farmer supporting 7 people to 1 farmer sup-
purchase appliances through their local power porting 27 people within a 50-year period.
companies and electric cooperatives with low- Today that ratio is roughly estimated to be 1
interest loans. By 1950, more than 75% of farmer supporting 155 people (Fig. 2.10).
farms had electricity. Electricity on the farm Between 1900 and 1950, the average farm
made farmers more efficient and aided their size increased from around 146 to over
conversion away from manual labor. Rural 215 acres. The number of farms decreased
electric cooperatives still operate today in mainly in the North and East, the size of farms
many communities across the United States. increased in the Midwest, and more land was
The move to mechanical power profoundly brought into farming in the South and West.
changed the efficiency of farming, leading to A net increase in land used for agriculture

FIGURE 2.10 The productivity of US farmers

increased significantly since WWII. The quantity of
agricultural products generated by a single farmer
is nearly 10-fold greater today than in 1940. There
has been a decline in the number of people engaged
in farming while productivity per farm has
increased during this time. Source: USDA Economic
Research Service, www.usda.ers.gov.
occurred during this time with the most signif- rapid advancement in US agriculture by dis-
icant increase occurring in the Great Plains, seminating new technologies and farming
where wheat, cotton, and sorghum farms practices between the land-grant institutions
expanded, and in the Midwest, where drain- and farmers (Fig. 2.11). Extension provided
age of wetlands added highly productive land. education to women about a wide range of
Irrigation also began to be widely used in the topics including food preparation and preser-
South and West, which further expanded land vation, use of new appliances (electric stoves,
capacity. Along with on-farm mechanization, washing machines, pressure cookers, and
changes in infrastructure such as hard-paved microwave ovens), domestic skills, and child
roads developed during this time, allowing care. And for many children, extension was
farmers greater access to markets and materi- introduced to them at a young age through 4-
als. Rural road paving exploded between 1900 H (head, heart, hands, and health) programs
and 1950 from around 387,000 to over 1.65 mil- that taught self-reliance, life skills, and leader-
lion miles (discussed in Chapter 3: Innovations ship. Cooperative Extension continues to
in US Agriculture). operate and is an agreement between the land-
Between 1900 and 1920, the total value of grant institutions and the United States
farm land rose dramatically from around $20 Department of Agriculture (USDA) to provide
to $65 billion. Government policy during this the public with new information about agricul-
time was to encourage farmers to increase pro- ture and home economics. Land-grant colleges
duction. One of the ways this was supported are provided with federal funding, based on a
was with the passing of the Smith-Lever Act formula that considers the proportion of the
Capacity Grant (1914), which established the population that is rural and engaged in farm-
Cooperative Extension Service. The extension ing within the state, and the states provide
system was intended to engage land-grant matching funds. With this new approach,
institutions in sharing practical knowledge extension educators were able to take research
with citizens of their state. Each state created findings and new agricultural approaches to
county extension offices that employed exten- the farmers directly and thereby disseminate
sion agents who provided hands-on education better practices very efficiently.
programs to farmers, homemakers, and youth. The years 1910 14 were known as the
Extension has been credited with assisting the “golden age” of agriculture because prices for

2.6 GREAT DEPRESSION ERA 35
FIGURE 2.11 Cooperative
Extension educators advanced
US agricultural practices
through direct communication
with farmers. In the Midwest,
extension educators traveled to
communities by railroad and
offered classes to farmers on
train cars. Source: Photo from
Iowa State University Special
Collections.
wheat, livestock feed, and cotton were high. the farm sector was a large percentage of
But as WWI came to an end in 1918, farmers the population and farmers were struggling
were left with too much product and shrinking economically, politicians felt the need to act to
markets. Many were in economic trouble hav- prevent unrest but there were other problems
ing incurred debt from high land prices and arising at this time.
investment in equipment. Then in 1920, farm
prices collapsed. With low prices for their pro-
ducts, farmers cultivated more and more acres 2.6 GREAT DEPRESSION ERA
so they could produce enough product to
make a living. There was a perceived need for From the early 1900s increased access to new
the federal government to regulate production lands, and access to mechanical farming equip-
and marketing to control surpluses and ment, allowed production to expand to areas of
increase prices but President Calvin Coolidge the United States that had not previously been
vetoed such legislation in 1927 and 1928. farmed. Large sections of the south-central
President Herbert Hoover approved the United States, including the panhandle of
Agricultural Marketing Act in 1929 but it had Oklahoma and Texas and regions of Kansas,
little effect. That year the stock market crashed Colorado, and New Mexico, attracted home-
resulting in foreclosures, riots, strikes, and steaders who moved in and started farming.
farm auctions. In 1932, cotton sold for 3b per Settlers plowed up the native grasses to plant
pound (down from 6.8b in 1929), wheat for wheat. When WWI began, the increased
38b a bushel (down from $1), and cattle were demand for wheat, the introduction of tractors,
$4 per 100 pounds (down from $12). Because and recent good harvests incentivized

cultivating more land. Additionally, the United grasses, was swept up in the winds creating the
States needed corn and wheat to feed troops Dust Bowl. Over 300,000 square miles of prairie
during WWI so prices were high. Driven by the land in parts of Kansas, Texas, Oklahoma,
promise of a high demand for wheat and the Colorado, and New Mexico were the focal point
access to land, and facilitated by modern farm- of the Dust Bowl. The Dust Bowl has been
ing equipment, thousands of acres of prairie described as the worst manmade environmental
were rapidly tilled and planted. But conversion disaster in US history. So much soil was pulled
of these native prairies to cultivated fields, into the air during the dust storms that it was
without consideration of the historic climate of impossible to plant a crop. People and animals
this region, turned out to be disastrous. The were unable to be outside and dirt buried
Great Plains produced a bumper crop of wheat houses and roads. The continual exposure to
in 1931, which was met with low prices due to dirt in the air led to lung damage and thou-
lack of demand, pushing farmers into debt. sands of people suffered breathing problems,
Then a period of severe drought developed leading to many deaths. The combination of
(1934 37) and the exposed topsoil, which was exposed soil, extreme heat, lack of rain, and
no longer held in place by the native prairie strong winds created intense dust storms over
FIGURE 2.12 The Dust Bowl was an economic and environmental disaster caused by aggressive farming combined
with severe drought. The center of the Dust Bowl occurred in the southwestern United States around the panhandle of
Oklahoma. Clouds of dust periodically engulfed the region, affecting the lives and livelihoods of thousands of people.
Source: Photo from the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, www.htpps://photogallery.sc.egov.usda.gov.

the next 6 years (Fig. 2.12). It is estimated that these years. Many people faced hunger and
in a 2-day period 12 million tons of soil from economic hardship including the loss of their
the plains blanketed Chicago, Illinois, and the homes and land. As many as 2.5 million people
dust reached as far as New York City and fled from these areas, with many going to
Washington DC. Coupled with the Great California hoping for a new life as depicted in
Depression and low farm prices, the economic John Steinbeck’s novel The Grapes of Wrath
situation in the United States was dire during (1939).
EXPANSION BOX 2.1
I M PA C T O F T H E D U S T B O W L O N
U S A G R I C U LT U R E P O L I C Y
The causes of the Dust Bowl were evident conservation methods were successful and by
to scientists and to President Franklin D. 1938 the dust was under control.
Roosevelt (FDR) . Changes were needed to The lessons of the Dust Bowl are a continual
ensure agriculture was in balance with con- reminder of the consequences of ignoring the
servation of land and natural resources. FDR environmental impact of agriculture. It created a
created the Soil Erosion Service, which partnership between farmers and government
showed farmers improved techniques such as agencies to work together to develop better agri-
terracing and strip crops, contour plowing, culture technology and environmental conserva-
crop rotations, and mulch farming and tion. Today, the Farm Bill retains key elements
encouraged planting drought-tolerant crops. that were first implemented during the Dust
The concept of shelter and wind-breaks of Bowl years, including the Grassland Reserve
trees was introduced by the Forest Service Program and the Conservation Stewardship
and miles of trees were planted from Program. The Soil Conservation Service was
Bismarck, South Dakota to Amarillo, Texas. renamed the Natural Resources Conservation
Additional trees covering over 18,000 miles Service in 1994 with an expanded mission to mon-
were planted in shelterbelts across the plains itor water and air quality, wildlife habitat, and
as part of the Prairie States Forestry Project, energy production. Droughts have returned to the
which lasted through 1942. Farmers were plains several times since the 1930s, including a
paid by the government to reduce the severe drought in the 1950s and again in 2012, but
amount of their land that was cultivated to another Dust Bowl has not occurred (Fig. 2.13).
provide windbreaks and reduce soil erosion Hence, the practices that were adopted by farmers
through the Agriculture Adjustment to reduce soil erosion have been successful. But
Administration. In addition, a land-purchase soil erosion continues to be a major problem in
program was initiated to buy the most agriculture and will be discussed further in
severely eroded land from farmers to remove Chapter 8, Sustainability of the Food System.
it from cultivation. These regions today The struggle between agriculture and the
are national grasslands such as Cimarron environment has not ended. Current areas of
National Grassland in Kansas and Kiowa concern include nitrogen run-off into streams
National Grassland in New Mexico. The and rivers, airborne particulates and odors

FIGURE 2.13 The regions affected by the Dust Bowl continue to be affected by drought, as shown in high-
light, but better land management and government oversight has prevented another disaster. Source: National
Climatic Data Center, www.climate.gov.
from confinement operations, soil erosion, and Suggested video: The Dust Bowl, A film by Ken Burns
(PBS, 2012).
pesticide drift. These challenges are not as Suggested reading: The Dust Bowl: An agricultural and social
acute as the Dust Bowl was, but are just as history (Hurt, 1981).
important for the future of food production.
2.6.1 Impact of the Great Depression on

values. US agricultural, financial, and social
Agriculture
policy was in many ways shaped by the
The Great Depression began in October tumultuous years between 1929 and 1941.
1929, when the stock market crashed, leading Between 1930 and 1932, unemployment rates
to an estimated loss of $30 billion in stock increased across the country. During that time,

net farm income dropped from $6.7 billion in Bureau of Reclamation, within the WPA,
1929 to a record low of $3 billion in 1932 due employed thousands of people to build large
to the economic crisis. Farmers were already in dams in 16 western states that provided irriga-
difficult financial status following the end of tion water and hydroelectric power, allowing
WWI as surpluses were high and prices low expansion of agriculture in these regions.
due to decrease in demand as productivity Among them were the Grand Coulee Dam on
was regained in Europe, so their resiliency for the Columbia River (Fig. 2.14) and the Shasta
another economic downturn was tenuous. Dam in California’s Central Valley. These
President Herbert Hoover was ineffective in building projects continue to benefit agricul-
stemming the economic tailspin and was ture today. FDR also signed the Social Security
soundly defeated in the 1932 presidential elec- Act of 1935, which ensured workers would be
tion by Franklin Delano Roosevelt In his inau- provided benefits after their working years
gural speech, FDR promised to take “direct, and the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
vigorous action.” Within his first 100 days in (FDIC) to guarantee bank deposits. Despite
office, a steady stream of bills was passed, these efforts, the US economy remained
beginning with the Emergency Banking Act of unstable through the next 5 years.
1933. Price supports and commodity programs
Concurrently, with the United States deep were put in place based on what farmers had
in the Great Depression, the Dust Bowl was produced before the downturn. Through the
wreaking havoc on agriculture in the 1930s, farmers in the South continued to rely
Southwest. Henry A. Wallace was named the on cotton, rice, and tobacco for cash crops. In
Secretary of Agriculture in 1933 and led US the Northeast, there was a rapid decline in
agriculture through the Dust Bowl years. He farm numbers with an increase in part-time
implemented the Soil Conservation and farmers producing dairy and chickens.
Domestic Allotment Act (1935), which reduced Midwest farms produced corn, pork, and beef
plowing of fields, created windbreaks of trees and the Great Plains produced wheat.
and shrubs, and oversaw the Soil Erosion Chemical fertilizers began to be applied to alle-
Service. A series of programs, referred to as viate depletion of the soils that had occurred
the New Deal, established the Civilian during WWI, although they were still scarce
Conservation Corps (CCC), which put young and relatively expensive, and the use of pesti-
people to work on national projects. The Civil cides such as DDT began.
Works Administration, implemented in 1933, The Agricultural Adjustment Act provided
created jobs for up to 4 million people to build subsidies to farmers for not growing crops or
bridges, schools, hospitals, airports, parks, and animals as a means to manage the amount of
playgrounds. FDR signed legislation creating product produced. Control of production
the Works Progress Administration in 1935, allowed commodity prices to be maintained
which later became the Work Projects consistently and avoid the “boom and bust”
Administration (WPA). The WPA employed cycle of overproduction and low prices or
more than 8.5 million people, including artists, scarce crop production and high prices. An
to work on projects across the country. The additional benefit was that fields taken out of
WPA director Harry L. Hopkins is reported to production were allowed to be used by tenant
have said “Give a man a dole and you save his and sharecropper farmers to raise food for
body and destroy his spirit. Give him a job their families, thereby improving their quality
and pay him an assured wage, and you save of life. The intervention and regulation of
both body and spirit” (Sherwood, 1948). The agriculture by the federal government was

FIGURE 2.14 The Grand Coulee Dam was built during the Depression and opened new areas of the United States for
agricultural production by providing controlled access to water. This photo was taken in 1942 soon after the main dam’s
11 floodgates were completed. Source: Photo from the US Bureau of Reclamation, www.usbr.gov/grandcoulee/history/construction/
gallery/30.html.
criticized because it helped large-scale farmers risk of nationwide malnutrition was high.
more than marginal farmers. These programs This led the federal government to pass the
provided some security and stability, but did Commodity Credit Corporation Charter Act in
not end rural poverty. 1933, which gave loans to farmers and allowed
Ironically, during the Depression years, farm- them to store their nonperishable commodities
ers found themselves with surpluses of food pro- when prices were very low. Commodities is a
ducts because of the widespread unemployment term used by the USDA that refers to agricultural
causing drop in demand. To compensate for low products of economic value, such as corn, soy-
prices, farmers planted more acres leading to beans, rice, cotton, eggs, cheese, or milk. Because
excess supply. Farmers were destroying their of the dire economic situation, some farmers
crops and livestock because they could not sell were unable to repay their loans and were forced
them or afford to maintain them, while people to turn over their commodities to the govern-
were going hungry. Children could not pay for ment. The government then had to find ways
their lunches at schools and families had inade- to distribute these products. To mitigate this
quate resources to provide food at home, so the discrepancy between product availability and

2.7 WORLD WAR II ERA 41
markets, Congress passed Public Law 320 in
1935, which provided the secretary of agricul-
ture funds and authority to purchase com-
modities from farmers and distribute them to
schools, nonprofit summer camps for chil-
dren, charitable institutions, and needy fami-
lies. This gave farmers an outlet for their
products at a reasonable cost and provided
people with food that would have otherwise
been wasted. Between 1939 and 1942, there
were over 5 million children benefiting from
this food program. The government donation
of surplus foods to school lunch programs, as
well as to other needy groups (low-income
elderly; women, infants, and children; and
Indian tribal organizations) continues today
through the Commodity Supplemental Food
Program managed by the USDA. Through
these programs, the amounts and price paid
for agricultural commodities are balanced
with market demand and supply to ensure
stabilization of prices.
Another USDA program, the Food Stamp
Program, was first introduced in 1939 by Henry
Wallace to provide food assistance to the needy.
The first administrator of the program, Milo
Perkins, was quoted as saying “We got a pic- FIGURE 2.15 Food stamps were issued during the
Depression and provided a way for the USDA to purchase
ture of a gorge, with farm surpluses on one cliff
excess agricultural commodities from farmers and distrib-
and under-nourished city folks with out- ute them to people in need of food. This program was dis-
stretched hands on the other. We set out to find continued when the United States entered WWII. Source:
a practical way to build a bridge across that Image from the USDA National Agriculture Library Special
chasm” (USDA). The process allowed people Collections, www.nal.usda.gov.
on relief to purchase orange stamps equal to
their normal food expenditures, and for every
$1 of orange stamps purchased, 50b worth of 2.7 WORLD WAR II ERA
blue stamps were given. Orange stamps could
be used to buy any food and blue stamps could The entry of the United States into World
be used to buy food determined to be in sur- War II in December 1941 is credited with jump-
plus (Fig. 2.15). Over 20 million people used the starting the US economy and ending the Great
program within the first 4 years, and likely Depression. Farm incomes reflected the impact
many were spared from starvation and malnu- of the war effort. The 1944 net income from
trition. This first Food Stamp Program was dis- farming had increased to $13 billion, nearly four
continued in 1943 because of reduced food times what it was in 1932. Demand for food and
surpluses and decline in unemployment due to materials for the war boosted farm prices,
the economic demands of World War II. increased the demand for food and fiber, and

provided industrial jobs for farmers not needed oils from other countries. But during the war,
on the land. WWII ended the problems with sur- access to these products was disrupted.
plus production, low prices, and overpopulation Ramping up of soybean production began dur-
in agriculture and provided the stimulus for ing the war years to provide a domestic source
mechanization and less manual labor. of oil as well as glycerin, which was needed for
The war was also primarily responsible for explosives. Soybean is also an excellent source
creating new agricultural products in the United of high-quality protein and was used as a meat
States. Soybean cultivars had been developed by extender in the United States during the ration-
USDA scientists during the 1920s with germ- ing periods of WWII and for food aid to Europe
plasm collected from China, Japan, and Korea, following the war. The nutritional value of
where the plants are native. While small soybeans was studied by Cornell Extension
amounts of soybeans had been grown in the scientists and recipes were disseminated to
United States, they were used mainly for animal encourage consumption of soybeans (Fig. 2.16).
feed through the 1940s. Prior to WWII, the Soybean production continued to expand
United States imported 40% of edible fats and across the Midwest states in particular where
FIGURE 2.16 During WWII food shortages occurred

and rationing of foods, including animal products, was
necessary. Food and nutrition scientists at Cornell
University provided information to consumers about
the health benefits of soybeans as an alternative dietary
protein source. Source: Illustration by Reannon Overbey.
Cornell Extension Bulletin 668, February 1945.

2.8 POSTWAR ERA 43
FIGURE 2.17 The number of acres of soybeans planted in the United States increased significantly during WWII to
meet the needs for cooking oil, glycerin, and animal feed. The production of soybeans continued to increase after the war,
and today soybeans are a major crop for US agriculture. Source: USDA Economic Research Service, www.usda.ers.gov; Ash and
others (2006).
the soil and climate were most suitable, partic- industrialization and technology replaced
ularly Iowa, Illinois, Minnesota, Indiana, Ohio, them. Between 1940 and 1945, net farm
Missouri, and Nebraska. Along with corn, soy- income increased and prices rose, yet per
beans are used primarily as a source of edible capita farm income was still 57% less than
vegetable oil and for animal feed, and increas- nonfarm income. Acreage increased 5% but
ingly as a source of biofuel and biolubricants. productivity increased 11% due to use of
The overall growth in oilseed crop production hybrid seeds, pesticides, insecticides, fertil-
in the United States, mainly corn and soybean, izer, and mechanization.
increased nearly sevenfold between 1948 and
2008, which was much higher growth than any
other food crop (Fig. 2.17). 2.8 POSTWAR ERA
Sugar beet cultivation was also encouraged
during WWII to provide a domestic source of After World War II ended in 1945, the
sugar when tropical sources of sugar cane United States experienced a boom in domes-
were blocked. Farmers were encouraged to tic life. Consumers became a powerful voice
plant sugar beets to support the war effort in food access and demand. The US econ-
(Fig. 2.18) and California was one of the first omy expanded, the gross national product
states to grow sugar beets in high quantity. more than doubled, and government spend-
Today, sugar beet production and processing ing to build schools, public buildings, and
occurs in Midwest and Northwest states, interstate highways created jobs that fueled
accounting for 55% of total domestic sugar the creation of the middle class. Soldiers
production. The majority of sugar cane is returning from World War II received subsi-
grown in Florida and Louisiana. dized education (the GI Bill) that expanded
Five million people left farms during enrollments at colleges and universities and
WWII for the military or jobs in cities. But subsidized mortgages for new housing

Some advocated to retain high fixed price sup-

port to ensure stability for farmers, whereas
others believed a more free-market approach
should be implemented using flexible price
supports. The farm population in 1945 was
about 25 million people (18% of total popula-
tion) and dropped to 21 million by 1959 (12%)
as employment opportunities in urban areas
expanded.
Drought and wind erosion occurred in the
plains states again but irrigation, mainly from
the Ogallala aquifer, prevented disaster. On the
West Coast, specialized agricultural production
occurred on large estates that were irrigated
and supported with migrant labor. During
this time, contract farming became popular,
and processing technology to rapidly preserve
food (canning and freezing) became integrated
with farm production. Consolidation of food
companies began to evolve such that large per-
centages of prune, raisin, wine, orange juice,
and other products were produced by a few
companies. These corporations were very pow-
erful economically and politically, and heavily
FIGURE 2.18 Farmers were encouraged to plant sugar
influenced marketing, labor, water access, and
beets during WWII to provide a domestic source of sugar
when imported sugar was not available. Sugar beet transportation policies.
production continues to be an important crop for the Agricultural policies put in place during
Upper Midwest and Northwest. Source: Image from the the New Deal were intended to buffer farm-
USDA National Agriculture Library Special Collections, www. ers from financial swings of the market.
nal.usda.gov.
During the early 1950s commodity prices
were high in part because these mandatory
developments in suburban neighborhoods price supports continued to be provided.
around the country. This positive economic This created problems for the government,
environment created the “Baby Boom,” with including having to purchase large surpluses
birth rates of 24 live births/1000 people in of certain commodities such as cotton,
1950 60. By comparison, the rate was 14 live wheat, and milk, which cost millions of dol-
births/1000 people in 2008 (US CDC data). lars to manage, and loss of export markets
Baby Boomers make up about 14% of the US due to the high prices. President Dwight
population today. Eisenhower requested that Congress pass a
In contrast to the overall economy, the agri- Farm Bill that would make farm price sup-
cultural economy was tumultuous as demand ports more flexible (rather than mandated at
for commodities adjusted down from the high 90%, which had been implemented since the
levels that occurred during the war years. The New Deal), stimulate exports, and promote
political environment was conflicted about agriculture research. The political situation at
how to provide price support for farmers. the time was not favorable to these changes

2.9 MID-COLD WAR ERA 45
and Eisenhower was not able to make any availability of war-surplus chemicals such as
real impact on agriculture policies. Some nitrogen fertilizer (Chapter 3: Innovations in
laws were implemented that allowed surplus US Agriculture).
commodities to be used for foreign aid pro- The term agribusiness was first introduced in
grams, but surplus production of some com- 1957 by Harvard business professors John
modities continued to be a problem. Davis and Ray Goldberg. Recognizing that
The rapid advances in technology that were farming had transitioned from subsistence to
occurring during this time in agriculture, commercial status in the United States and
including mechanization, hybrid seeds, and that farmers were increasingly connected to
selected animal breeds, as well as methods to business networks, they determined the need
reduce production and labor costs, made farms to describe these changes with better terminol-
more productive. The high production was ogy. In their view, the term agribusiness was
met with decreased demand leading to lower defined as “the sum total of all operations
prices, so overall farm income stagnated involved in the manufacture and distribution
between 1950 and 1960. This led to consolida- of farm supplies; production operations on
tion of farms and greater financial investment the farm; and the storage, processing, and
by farmers in their operations. distribution of farm commodities and items
During the 1960s, a period of unprece- made from them” (Davis & Goldberg, 1957).
dented increase in global crop yields began The concept of a food system that recognized
that has been referred to as the Green the interconnectedness of agriculture to a
Revolution. Plant scientists, including Norman broadening number of businesses, as well as to
Borlaug, who is considered the father of the government and educational institutions, was
Green Revolution, created varieties of wheat introduced. With advances in technology, agri-
that were disease resistant and had better char- culture involved inputs of seeds and animal
acteristics (shorter in height so the plants did stocks, transportation, energy, chemicals (fertil-
not topple over and could be more efficiently izer, pesticides and nutrients), machinery, and
harvested), and established agronomic prac- feed that were provided by companies. New
tices that enhanced yields. Improved varieties ways to process agricultural products were
of rice were also developed. These crops being developed by food companies, and a
turned out to be very successful and provided host of other nonfood industries such as fiber,
food relief for millions of people in India, who textiles, and chemicals for manufacturing and
otherwise would have succumbed to famine. medicine were on the rise.
Overall, the Green Revolution provided people
in developing countries with better nutrition,
increased incomes, and reduced food costs as
well as a more diversified diet. Some parts of 2.9 MID-COLD WAR ERA
the world, notably Africa, did not benefit from
the innovations of the Green Revolution, and The 1970s were a complex period for agri-
cultural, sociological, and political issues culture in US history. Between 1972 and 1974,
dampened the benefits in other regions. The the USSR began to purchase large quantities of
impact of the Green Revolution on US agricul- US grain, eventually draining all of the USDA
ture was to further stimulate research in plant surplus. This sale was engineered by Secretary
breeding and agronomic practices on crops of of Agriculture Earl Butz. The result was a dra-
importance to the United States. This process matic increase in grain prices, leading Butz to
was further enhanced with the increased encourage farmers to plant more, famously

encouraging farmers to plant “fence row to recovered from the decline of population that
fence row” and “to get big or get out.” Butz occurred during this time.
was a proactive secretary of agriculture who
fostered a belief in US farmers that they
should produce as much as possible and sell 2.10 PROGRESS IN US
their surplus globally. His focus was on indus- AGRICULTURE
trialization of agriculture with little regard for
long-term environmental impacts. To accom- Since the 1980s agricultural technology has
plish this, farmers increased their debt load to made significant advances. These are discussed
ramp up their production. The farm policies of in more detail in Chapter 3, Innovations in US
the time included subsidies and other practices Agriculture. Many factors have influenced the
that also encouraged larger operations. But the progression of agriculture in the United States
US economic situation during the mid-1970s and created the system we have today. Key his-
became increasingly unstable. President Jimmy torical events including war and economic and
Carter imposed an embargo on soybean environmental disasters were instrumental in
exports to the USSR to protest their invasion of deciding how and where food is produced
Afghanistan, which led to a dramatic fall in (Table 2.1). Understanding how US agriculture
prices. In addition, the Federal Reserve Board developed is important to inform future deci-
raised interest rates to stem inflation. Prices for sions about the food system.
farm products remained stagnant and many Within the roughly 500 years since the coloni-
farmers found themselves with debt loads that zation of the United States, agriculture has
were unsustainable. This led to the farm crisis evolved and changed dramatically. The abun-
of the 1980s, when many farmers went bank- dant land and natural resources created oppor-
rupt and lost their farms. In addition, banks tunities for food production that were initially
that were holding farm notes failed because of thought to be unlimited. Industrialization
the high number of defaults. allowed more land to be farmed in less time and
The 1980s rivaled the Great Depression increased the amount of food that could be pro-
for the number of farmers who were unable duced per acre, making US farmers the most
to keep their farms. The Midwest was the productive in the world. Infrastructure including
hardest hit, leading to unrest and increased railroads, highways, electricity, and dams and
activism. Farmers drove their tractors to irrigation further advanced agriculture produc-
Washington DC to raise awareness of their tion. Research and education played essential
plight. Country music artist Willie Nelson led roles to facilitate and disseminate technological
Farm Aid concerts around the country to raise advances for agriculture. Farming and politics
money for farm families. Congress eventually have been closely integrated throughout US his-
took action in the late 1980s but by then, sig- tory, and regulations, laws, and government
nificant damage had occurred in rural towns policies greatly influenced the formation of our
where businesses had closed because people current food system (Table 2.2).
left agriculture for jobs elsewhere. The loss of The evolution of agriculture within the
population led to consolidations of school dis- states has been influenced by social, economic,
tricts and local governments. Impacts were and political factors. Each of the 50 states has a
felt by farm machinery suppliers and other history of agriculture production that is inter-
agriculture-related industries as well. Rural woven with the culture and people of that
communities in the Midwest have not yet state. A comparison of two states, Iowa and

2.10 PROGRESS IN US AGRICULTURE 47
TABLE 2.1 Significant Events in US History and Their Impact on Agriculture
Event and year Impact
First colonial settlements in Virginia 1607 Individual land ownership and start of agriculture system in the
United States
World War I 1914 18 Development of chemical pesticides

Great Depression 1929 41 New Deal policies created farm policies that are still in effect today
Drought 1932 40 Environmental disaster brought new social policies and federal
programs for farmers
Dust Bowl 1933 35
World War II 1941 45 Industrialization increased, farmers left farms for military service or
work in defense
Farm crisis 1980s Financial foreclosures of farms and banks, continued migration of
farmers to cities
TABLE 2.2 Federal Legislation that Influenced US Agriculture

Legislation and year Impact
Emancipation Proclamation 1862 Farm work transferred from slaves to tenants

Homestead Act 1862 Encouraged westward expansion and established 160 acre farmsteads
Morrill Act 1862 Land grant and 1890 institutions established
USDA created 1862 Began research and education about agriculture
Reclamation Act 1902 Dams and irrigation projects expanded agriculture production
Smith-Lever 1914 Cooperative Extension Service established

Farm Credit 1933 Supported farmers during the Depression
Agricultural Adjustment Acts Programs to control supply and demand and prevent the “boom and bust” cycle
1933, 1938
Rural Electrification Act 1935 Increased farm efficiency and reduced manual labor
Soil Conservation Service 1935 Addressed soil erosion that created the Dust Bowl and implemented better land
management practices
North Carolina, illustrates the differing pro- by humans. Other environmental impacts of
gression of agriculture in states of similar land agriculture are discussed in Chapter 8,
size. Sustainability of the Food System. Agriculture
We have learned from our history that natu- will continue to evolve into the 20th century as
ral resources are not unlimited and agriculture new tools and approaches are developed and
can have dramatic negative impacts on the care must be taken to ensure these are used
environment. The Dust Bowl was one horrific thoughtfully with ethical and scientific think-
example of an environmental disaster caused ing approaches.

EXPANSION BOX 2.2
C O M P A R I S O N O F I O WA A N D N O R T H C A R O L I N A
A G R I C U LT U R A L H I S T O R Y
Over the history of the United States, agri- The first Europeans settled in North
culture has been in a constant state of change. Carolina around 1653. In 1850, there were
Most dramatically, the percentage of the labor 869,000 residents in North Carolina with most
force represented by farmers has steadily settled on small farms producing tobacco, cot-
declined from 69% in 1840 to 18% in 1940 and ton, hogs, and cattle. By 1950 there were 4 mil-
is less than 2% today (Fig. 2.19). Mechanization, lion people and 288,000 farms. Today, North
enhanced understanding of genetics, plant and Carolina has 25,000 farmers and about 8 million
animal breeding, and use of fertilizers, pesti- acres of farmland, which is about 27% of the
cides, and animal medications have led to total state acreage. The average farm size is
increased productivity without an overall about 168 acres with 3% of farms greater than
expansion in the amount of land used in agri- 1000 acres. North Carolina continues to produce
culture. However, how and where we farm has about 50% of the nation’s tobacco, and is a
changed across the United States. A compari- major contributor to animal food production
son of the history of agriculture in two states (Fig. 2.21).
tells the story of farming in the United States. Settlement in Iowa by European Americans
Iowa and North Carolina are similar in size. began in the early 1800s. In 1850 there were
Iowa is 36 million and North Carolina is 31 mil- 192,000 residents in Iowa with most settled into
lion acres, but the states differ greatly in popu- diversified farms of small grains, corn, hogs,
lation; Iowa has 3.1 million and North Carolina and cattle. By 1950 there were 2.6 million peo-
has 9.8 million people. During the peak of agri- ple and 203,000 farms. Today, Iowa has 50,000
culture expansion of the 1940 60s these states farmers and over 30 million acres are in farm-
had about the same amount of farmland land, which is about 86% of the total state acre-
(Fig. 2.20). The decline in agricultural land in age. The average farm size is 345 acres with 9%
North Carolina after 1965 was much more sig- of farms greater than 1000 acres. Iowa produces
nificant compared to Iowa in large part due to about 35% of the nation’s hogs and a significant
the pressure of population growth. proportion of seed crops.
FIGURE 2.19 The percentage of the US population that is engaged in farming has declined significantly
since 1900 due to mechanization and consolidation of farming operations. Source: The 20th century transformation
of US agricultural and farm policy, USDA Economic Information Bulletin Number 3, June 2005.
The per capita gross domestic product societal and economic influences have shaped
(GDP) of the two states is similar, $36,773 in agricultural production in the United States
Iowa and $35,719 in North Carolina, but North throughout history. All states continually face
Carolina has a much higher state GDP com- pressure to convert agricultural land to com-
pared to Iowa (North Carolina $439,672 million mercial and housing uses as the population
vs Iowa $150,512 million). Both states generate expands, which requires citizens and local and
agricultural products, but total revenue from state legislatures to make difficult decisions.
agriculture in Iowa is much greater ($35 billion) Ensuring adequate agriculture production in
than in North Carolina ($15 billion). This com- the United States depends on a well-educated
parison provides an example of how the and informed citizenry.
FIGURE 2.20 Iowa and North Carolina have roughly the same amount of total land area. Iowa has main-
tained the majority of its land for agricultural use whereas North Carolina has become more diversified. Source:
USDA, National Agricultural Statistics, 2007 Census of Agriculture, US Census Bureau 2012, www.agcensus.usda.gov.
FIGURE 2.21 Both Iowa and North Carolina generate income from agricultural products. Iowa produces mainly
row crops of corn and soybeans, which support production of hogs, eggs, and cattle. North Carolina farmers produce
about half of the tobacco produced in the United States and contribute to animal food production. Source: USDA,
National Agricultural Statistics, 2007 Census of Agriculture, US Census Bureau 2012, www.agcensus.usda.gov.
References nitrate leaching in tile-drained Midwestern soils.

Agronomy Journal, 94, 153 171.
Ash, M., Livezey, J., & Dohlman, E. (2006). Soybean back- Duffy, M. (2011). Estimated costs of crop production in
grounder. USDA: Electronic outlook report from the Iowa-2011. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Extension
Economic Research Service, OCS-2006-01. Washington, FM-1712.
DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. Available from Food and Nutrition Service (2013). Food distribution programs.
,www.ers.usda.gov.. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Burns, K., The Dust Bowl: A Film by Ken Burns, 2012, Available from ,http://www.fns.usda.gov..
Public Broadcasting Inc. ,www/pbs.org/kenburns/ Food and Nutrition Service (2015). Commodity supplemental
dustbowl/.. food program. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
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ness. Boston, MA: Graduate School of Business csfp/commodity-supplemental-food-program-csfp..
Administration, Harvard University, 136 p. Hallberg, M. C. (1992). Policy for American agriculture: Choices
Hurt, R. D. (1981). The Dust Bowl: An agricultural and social and consequences. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.
history. Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall, 214 p. Hodgson, E. (1991). Pesticides: past, present and future.
Hurt, R. D. (1994). American agriculture: A brief history. Reviews in Pesticide Toxicology, 1, 3 12.
Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 424 p. International Food Information Council Foundation. (2009).
PBS, 2012. ,www.pbs.org/kenburns/dustbowl/.. From farm to fork: Questions and answers about mod-
Schlebecker, J. T. (1975). Whereby we thrive: A history of ern food production. Available from ,www.foodin-
American farming 1607 1972. Ames, IA: Iowa State sight.org..
University Press, 342 p. Jensen, M. (1969). The American revolution and American
Shepherd, J. F. (1970). Commodity exports from the British agriculture. Agricultural History, 43(1), 107 124.
North American colonies to overseas areas, 1768 1772: Knoblauch, H. C., Law, E. M., Meyer, W. P., Beacher, B. F.,
Magnitudes and patterns of trade. Explorations in Nestler, R. B., & White, B. S. (1962). State agricultural
Economic History, 8(1), 5 76. experiment stations. Washington, DC: U.S. Department
Sherwood, R. E. (1948). The White House papers of Harry L. of Agriculture Miscellaneous Publication 904.
Hopkins: An intimate history (Vol. 1London: Eyre & Landers, P. S. (2007). The food stamp program: History,
Spottiswoode. nutrition, education and impact. Journal of the American
Steinbeck, J. (1939). The grapes of wrath. New York, NY: Dietetic Association, 107, 1945 1951.
Modern Library, 619 p. Lubowski, R. N., Vesterby, M., Bucholtz, S., Baez, A., &
Roberts, M. J. (2006). Major uses of land in the U.S., 2002.
Washington, DC: Economic Research Service, U.S.
Further Reading Department of Agriculture.
Berdanier, C. D. (2015). Hunger and civil war. Nutrition Monthly Review (1961). Recovery forces in the economy. St.
Today, 50(4), 209 213. Louis, MO: Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, 43(2),
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2016). Washington, DC: U.S. 1 12.
Department of Labor. Available from ,http://www. National Institute of Food and Agriculture (2014). Growing
bls.gov.. a nation-the story of American agriculture. Washington,
Carson, R. L. (1962). Silent spring. Boston, MA and New DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture.
York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company, 297 p. Paarlberg, R. (2010). Food politics: What everyone needs to
Census of Agriculture Historical Archive (2014). U.S. farms know. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, Inc,
and farmers. 2012 census of agriculture.. Albert R. Mann 218 p.
Library, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University and National Pimentel, D., Hurd, L. E., Bellotti, A. C., Forster, M. T., Oka,
Agricultural Statistics Service, U.S. Department of I. N., Sholes, O. D., & Whitman, R. J. (1973). Food
Agriculture. Available from ,http://agcensus.mannlib. production and the energy crisis. Science, 182(4111),
cornell.edu/AgCensus/homepage.do;jsessionid589EEF 443 449.
62153EA6AAF20CA3F6A3424FFE8.. Poppendieck, J. (1986). Breadlines knee-deep in wheat. New
Conkin, P. K. (2008). A revolution down on the farm: The trans- Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 306 p.
formation of American agriculture since 1929. Lexington, Privalle, L. S., Chen, J., Clapper, G., Hunst, P.,
KY: The University Press of Kentucky, 240 p. Spiegelhalter, F., & Zhong, C. X. (2012). Development of
Dinnes, D. L., Karlen, D. L., Jaynes, D. B., Kaspar, T. C., an agricultural biotechnology crop product: testing from dis-
Hatfield, J. L., Colvin, T. S., & Cambardella, C. A. covery to commercialization, . American Chemical Society
(2002). Nitrogen management strategies to reduce (60, pp. 10179 10187).

FURTHER READING 51
Rasmussen, W. D. (1965). The Civil War: A catalyst of the politics of agriculture. Agricultural History, 53(1),
agricultural revolution. Agricultural History, 39(4), 352 371.
187 195. U.S. Census Bureau. (2015). Washington, DC: U.S. Department
Rasmussen, W. D. (1966). The impact of the Civil War on of Commerce. Available from ,www.census.gov..
American agriculture: A review. Agricultural History, 40 U.S. Department of Agriculture (2000). Farm resource
(3), 219 221. regions. Agricultural Information Bulletin No. AIB-760.
Rasmussen, W. D. (1983). The New Deal farm Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2 p.
programs: What they were and why they survived. U.S. Department of Agriculture (2015). Census of agriculture
American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 65(5), and National Agricultural Statistical Service 2015.
1158 1162. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Rasmussen, W. D. (1991). The 1890 land-grant colleges and Available from ,www.agcensus.usda.gov. and
universities: A centennial overview. Agricultural ,nass.usda.gov..
History, 65(2), 168 172. Watson, J. D., & Crick, F. H. C. (1953). Genetic implications
Schapsmeier, E. L., & Schapsmeier, F. H. (1979). Farm pol- of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid. Nature, 4361,
icy from FDR to Eisenhower: Southern Democrats and 964 967.

C H A P T E R
3
Innovations in US Agriculture
3.1 FARM TYPES AND least $1000 of agricultural commodities, or that

DESIGNATIONS would have sold that amount of product
under normal circumstances.” Family farms
Since the 1930s, US agricultural policy has are defined as farms organized as sole proprie-
focused on producing high-quality, low-cost torships, partnerships, or corporations where
food. This has been achieved. Americans spend at least 50% of the stock is held by related per-
about 6% of their total income on food, the low- sons and which do not have hired managers.
est level for any country on Earth. Some devel- Farms with less than $350,000 in sales are con-
oping countries continue to spend as much as sidered small operations, and those with sales
45% of income on food and even countries such greater than $1 million are considered large.
as France spend 14%. Comparing 1950 and Nonfamily farms are organized as corporations
today, 25% less farmland, 15% fewer inputs, or cooperatives or are operated by hired man-
and 78% less labor is used in agriculture while agers, and include farms held in estates or
during that time farm production has more trusts (Table 3.1).
than doubled. Some argue that cheap food The number of farms in the United States
comes at a cost, however. There is growing con- declined steadily between the mid-1930s and
cern that US agriculture has become too indus- the 1960s (Fig. 3.1). In 1935, there were 6.8 mil-
trialized, that large farms are stifling rural lion farms in the United States, which had
economies, and that current farming practices declined to 3 million by 1960. The number of
have negative impacts on the environment. farms decreased slightly over the next three
Americans have moved away from farming as decades and by 2013, there were 2.1 million
an occupation and most people have no direct farms. Consequently, the size of farms
experience with agriculture. And for the most increased. Despite this decrease in farm num-
part of the last century, people were not very bers, farm productivity increased linearly over
much interested in where food came from or that same time period while the amount of
how it was produced. This has recently been land farmed has slightly decreased. This is a
changing as consumers have become more result of substantial enhancement in agricul-
interested in food, nutrition, fitness, and health. tural output. For example, since 1948, soybean
A farm is defined by the USDA Economic yield per acre has doubled and corn yields
Research Service as “any operation that sells at increased fourfold. These increases in production

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-804445-2.00003-X 53 © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
54 3. INNOVATIONS IN US AGRICULTURE
TABLE 3.1 USDA Criteria for Defining Farm Type (2016)

Farm type Annual gross cash farm income % of farms % Total land use % value of production
Small family farm ,$350,000 89.7 52.1 25.5

Midsize family farm $350,000 999,999 5.7 21.7 24.8
Large family farm $1,000,000 4,999,999 2.0 16.2 35.0
Nonfamily farm Varies 2.7 10.0 14.7
FIGURE 3.1 The number of farms in

the United States has decreased signifi-
cantly since 1920 while the amount of
farmed land has only slightly decreased in
the same period. Source: USDA Economic
were generated using less land (25% less since agriculture value of production (Fig. 3.2).
1948) and significantly less labor (78% less Among the large family farm operations, over
since 1948). The US farm structure today is 3800 farms have sales of at least $5 million
reflective of fewer farms of larger size with and another 42,400 farms have sales of at least
substantially higher productivity. $1 million. The major agriculture production
Family-run businesses are the main type of in the United States is by a small percentage
agriculture production in the United States. of farmers with large operations. Farms with
Most rely primarily on family members to more than $1 million in sales produced 59% of
provide the labor for these operations, but US agricultural production in 2012, up from
may contract with other businesses for needed 47% in 2002, indicating increased concentra-
additional resources. The USDA-ERS esti- tion of farming operations. Large farms are
mates that 97.6% of all US farms and 85% of more common when producing row crops
farm production come from family-operated such as corn, soybeans, and cotton and in
farms. About 90% of all farms in the United dairy operations, while poultry, beef, and hog
States are small family farms and they hold operations are dominated by small and mid-
52% of the agriculture land. However, the size producers.
majority of production occurs on midsize and Nonfamily farm operations account for only
large farms, combining to generate 60% of 2.7% of all farms in the United States and 15%

3.1 FARM TYPES AND DESIGNATIONS 55
FIGURE 3.2 In the United
States almost 90% of farms are
classified as small family farms.
However, farms classified as
large family farms generate
about 60% of the total farm pro-
duction. Source: USDA Economic
Research Service, www.usda.ers.
gov; 2004 Agricultural Resource
Management Survey, Phase III.
of farm production. These operations may be who are actively farming nearby and lease
owned by corporations, trusts, or partnerships. additional land to increase their profits, or to
Corporations that operate farms usually are acquire more pasture to graze their livestock.
small groups of tightly held partnerships, often Other renters may be financially unable to
related persons, and usually less than 10 share- own land, but have a longstanding relation-
holders, who have incorporated for tax bene- ship with the landlord to live on and farm the
fits and management efficiency. Therefore, land. Some landlords are not farmers, may live
agriculture remains predominantly family- far from the land they own, and may not have
based in the United States. any working knowledge of farm practices or
Sharecropping and tenant farming have management. A common occurrence is for par-
always been part of US agriculture. According ents to retire from farming and give the farm
to the 2014 USDA Census of Agriculture, to their children, but the children have other
about 39% of all the agricultural land in the career plans and choose to rent or lease the
United States was rented, and the majority of land. Farm management companies provide
the landlords, 87%, were not operating the oversight of rented land to work with both the
farm. About 44% of the land held by landlords renters and the owners to ensure the farm is
was purchased from nonrelatives, 35% was well managed. Some have raised concern that
inherited, 16% purchased from a relative, and renters of farm or pasture land may trade
4% purchased at auction. Landlord-owned short-term profits for long-term good in their
property was estimated to be worth $1.1 tril- farming practices leading to environmental
lion, and landlords also generate income from damage. There is however limited empirical
leasing a variety of rights including mineral, data to justify this concern.
gas and oil, recreational, water, and wind Contract farms are those that have a legal
rights. About 63% of rented land is in crop agreement between a farm operator and another
production and 34% in pasture. The renters person or firm to produce a specific type, quan-
of farmland may be land owners themselves tity, or quality of agricultural commodity. The

USDA defines these as either marketing con- including no-till, cover crops, crop rotations,
tracts or production contracts. For marketing precision application of chemicals, and buffer
contracts, the farmer retains ownership of the zones to reduce water runoff. Organic farming
crop or livestock and provides all the inputs, came to prominence in 1990 and is described
and the contractor agrees to purchase the prod- in Chapter 8, Sustainability of the Food
uct at a preset price. In production contracts the System. Organic farmers follow specific guide-
contractor owns the commodity, provides lines defined by the USDA to raise crops and
needed services and inputs, and pays the farmer livestock in a manner that will limit the use of
a fee for managing the operation. The benefits of synthetic substances, develop soil using natu-
contracts to the farmer include having a secure ral materials, foster cycling of resources and
market outlet for their products at a set ecological balance, and conserve biodiversity.
price, but there may be costs if the crop or The public ideal is that family farms are
livestock do not meet the standards of the owner-operator, entrepreneurial, dispersed,
contractor. Contractors benefit by having a diversified, family-centered, technologically
predictable source of product and the ability to progressive, in harmony with nature, resource-
set standards for quality and quantity. Contract conserving, intergenerational, and with equal
farming has increased significantly and repre- advantage in an open market. Agribusiness,
sented 40% of agricultural production in 2011. on the other hand, is viewed as industrially orga-
Poultry production has a high rate of contracts, nized, financed from growth, management-
especially among small farms. centered, capital intensive, standardized produc-
In 2013, average farm expenses included tion practices, and resource-consumptive, with
tractors and equipment $230,000, diesel fuel an advantage in controlled markets. With the
$3 per gallon, seed $100 per acre, fertilizer majority of Americans not directly involved with
$100 per acre, herbicides and pesticides $50 per farming, a great disconnect has occurred between
acre, labor $11.60 per hour. The average land how farming is actually done and how the public
value in Iowa was $8300 per acre and land rent thinks it should be done. Large farm operations,
was over $200 per acre. This demonstrates the although still family owned, can be viewed as
high financial infrastructure needed for farming industrial with corporate management driving
and the barrier it poses to enter farming. the business. Today, the expectation is that farms
provide not only food and fiber but also biofuels,
energy, and ecosystem services (high-quality air
3.1.1 Agriculture Systems and water, carbon sequestration, and wildlife
Farmers, ranchers, and other agricultural habitat) while staying true to the ideals of small,
workers run operations that produce crops, self-sufficient operations. Farmers today have an
fruits, vegetables, livestock, eggs, and dairy increased need to respond to consumer inquiries
products. This type of farming is considered about how they operate and raise food. This is a
conventional farming. Conventional farmers use fairly new position for farmers who by reputation
a range of inputs to ensure a high-quality crop tend to be independent, private people and don’t
and healthy animals. Inputs may include crave being scrutinized as to how they conduct
USDA- and EPA-approved pesticides and her- their farming operations.
bicides, and bioengineered seeds. Animals
may be treated with antibiotics or growth pro-
3.1.2 Specialized Food Production
motants to enhance growth rate and reduce ill-
ness. Conventional farmers use different Over the years, farming in the United States
approaches to limit environmental impacts has become increasingly specialized. In the

FIGURE 3.3 Where food is produced in the United States is defined by the type and quantity of land, weather, and
climate features; access to water and transportation; and market and economic demands. Regional food production has
developed to take advantage of efficiencies of scale. Source: Illustration by Reannon Overbey. USDA Economic Research Service
Farm Resource Regions, www.usda.ers.gov.
early 1900s, most farms had chickens, dairy climate is most suitable for a particular crop
cows, and hogs and grew corn to provide feed and labor and transportation is most efficient.
for the animals. Farming has evolved to be The distribution of agricultural products by
focused on a few commodities, 1 2 for small region of the United States is diverse (Table 3.2).
farms and 3 4 for larger farms. Farming has The primary US crops are corn, wheat, and soy-
also become more regional across the United beans. These commodities are grown in areas of
States based on climate, markets, and infra- the country with fertile soil and reliable rainfall.
structure. The climate, soils, and terrain of the In 2007, the top-ranking states for number of
United States allow for multiple types of agri- acres in cropland were Iowa, Illinois, North
culture and regions of high productivity for Dakota, Indiana, and Kansas. The states of Iowa,
specific crops and animals (Fig. 3.3). The USDA Illinois, Minnesota, Kansas, and Nebraska pro-
annually monitors agricultural production by duce the majority of corn and soybeans, whereas
county to assess quantity produced, income wheat is predominantly grown in North Dakota,
generated inputs, and other measures. From Montana, Washington, Kansas, and Oklahoma.
these assessments, a picture of the range of The majority of rice is grown in Arkansas, which
agriculture across the United States arises. produces long, medium, and short grain rice.
Nationwide, 408 million acres were designated California, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, and
for crop production while grassland and pas- Texas also contribute to US rice production.
ture averaged 614 million acres. There has been Sugar beets are another major crop in the
intensification of production in areas where the United States, with Minnesota the leading

TABLE 3.2 Agricultural Production in the United States Varies by Region and State
Regions and states Major agriculture products
Northeast Dairy, fruits, vegetables, poultry, greenhouse plants

MN, NH, VT, MA, RI, CT, NY, NJ, PA, DE, MD, DC
Lake States Dairy, hogs, corn, soybeans, wheat, poultry
MI, WI, MN
Corn Belt Corn, soybeans, hogs, eggs
OH, IN, IL, IA, MO
Northern Plains Wheat, corn, cattle, potatoes

ND, SD, NE, KS
Appalachian Soybeans, corn, poultry, hogs, horses
VA, WV, NC, KY, TN
Southeast Poultry, fruits, vegetables, oranges, tomatoes, greenhouse
plants, turkeys
SC, GA, FL, AL
Delta States Soybeans, rice, poultry

MS, AR, LA
Southern Plains Cattle, cotton, dairy
OK, TX
Mountain Cattle, dairy, greenhouse crops, corn, barley, hay
MT, ID, WY, CO, NM, AZ, UT, NV
Pacific Fruits, vegetables, dairy, grapes, apples

WA, OR, CA
Alaska Greenhouse plants, hay, potatoes
Hawaii Greenhouse plants, macadamia nuts, sugar cane
state in production followed by Idaho, Montana, and North Carolina, California, and Mississippi
and Nebraska. are major producers of sweet potatoes.
Vegetable production is classified as either California and Florida produce the largest
fresh market or processing. Vegetables grown variety and quantity of fresh market vegetables.
for processing may be canned, frozen, or dehy- The overall production of vegetables has been
drated, and are usually varieties that can be increasing in recent years due to higher con-
mechanically harvested. States in the Upper sumer demand. The use of precision farming
Midwest (Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan) techniques such as drip irrigation, plastic
and the Pacific states (California, Washington, mulches, row covers, and high tunnels (Fig. 3.4),
and Oregon) produce the majority of processed along with other advances in farming practice,
vegetables. North Dakota, Idaho, Washington, have made these crops more cost effective to
and Oregon supply the majority of potatoes, produce. Also, more support for specialty crops

FIGURE 3.4 A current trend in farming is to use high tunnel structures that extend the growing season by keeping
crops partially covered allowing control of temperature and water. Source: Photo from Linda Naeve, Iowa State University
Extension and Outreach.
and financial support programs for farmers in Animal agriculture is also concentrated in
the recent Farm Bills have likely contributed to regions. Although Wisconsin is known as the
the growth in vegetable production. Fruit pro- dairy state, California is the largest producer of
duction occurs across the United States and is milk, followed by Wisconsin, Texas, New York,
highly dependent upon weather conditions. and Idaho. Hog production is highest in the
Because of its suitable climate, California pro- states of Iowa, Minnesota, Illinois, Indiana,
duces over 50% of the fruits and 25% of the Ohio, and North Carolina. The top states for
vegetables grown in the United States. Growers grassland and pasture grazing for raising beef
in Washington produce 60% of the apples, cattle are Texas, New Mexico, Nevada,
Florida growers produce 75% of the oranges, Montana, and Wyoming. Turkeys are raised
and most of the strawberries are produced in throughout the Midwest especially Missouri
California and Florida. Cherries, blueberries, and Minnesota, and chickens are predominately
and blackberries are produced in Michigan, produced in the Broiler Belt states of Georgia,
Oregon, and Washington; peaches in Georgia; Arkansas, Alabama, and South Carolina. Top
and cranberries in Massachusetts and Oregon. egg-producing states include Iowa and Ohio.

FIGURE 3.5 Placing drainage tiles allowed farmers in the Midwest to utilize swamp and wet areas for farming.
A trenching tool such as this inserts porous tubing that moves water from the fields into drainage ditches. From the 1960s
to 1985 large amounts of land in many states had been drained to enhance agriculture production. Source: USDA Economic
Research Service, www.usda.ers.gov; Photo from the AgLeader, Ames, IA.
California and Texas are the states with highest water to convert wetlands to farmland and to
total farm income, followed by Iowa and North reduce flooding. Within the Midwest, the major-
Carolina. Florida ranks fifth in total farm income ity of land was modified for drainage (Fig. 3.5).
followed by Minnesota, Nebraska, Georgia, While the theory at the time was that these
Kansas, and Kentucky. approaches would improve agriculture produc-
Access to transportation routes, processing tion and reduce flooding risk, it has since been
facilities, markets, and labor defines the distri- found that enhancing the drainage of such a
bution of agriculture production in the United large area may have increased the risk of major
States. Grain from the Midwest is economically floods. Within the past 25 years, periods of high
transported by barge down the Mississippi rain and snowfall have occurred leading to sig-
River for global export via the Gulf of Mexico nificant flooding in areas of the Midwest, espe-
and moved by railroad to cattle-finishing opera- cially in 1993 and 2008. In addition, draining of
tions in Texas and New Mexico. Processing agricultural land concentrates nutrients and che-
plants for fruits and vegetables near production micals into waterways, leading to algal blooms
sites in California or Florida ensure is efficiently and damage to aquatic plants and animals.
and economically preserved. Migrant workers Another example was the diversion of water
who pick fruits and vegetables travel defined for irrigation into the Pacific Northwest. The
routes to assist with the harvest. Yakima River Basin Project, which began in
Human intervention has also played a key 1905, created dams on the Yakima River to
role in defining where agriculture production trap water from the Cascade Mountains. And
occurs. Two examples of this are the installation the Columbia Basin Project began in 1951 after
of drainage ditches and tiles across the the construction of the Grand Coulee Dam.
Midwestern states that redirected streams and These two projects provided irrigation that
converted wetlands and swamplands to high- allowed extensive expansion of agriculture
yielding crop land. This practice was encour- such that by 2008 the annual value of crops
aged by the federal government with the from these areas was $1 billion. While these
Swamp Land Acts of 1850 and 1860 and the adaptations of the land and water created
Flood Control Act of 1944. These laws encour- opportunities for food production, they and
aged draining, tiling, ditching, and channelizing other projects have been criticized for their

3.2 ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN AGRICULTURE 61
environmental impacts and potential conse- While exporting products is a major source
quences on natural resources and habitat. of income for the United States, agricultural
products are also imported at an increasing
rate. Imports increased from $98 to almost
3.1.3 Global Influence
$112 billion between 2011 and 2014. According
on US Agriculture to the USDA, the amount of food imported to
Agriculture is a major economic driver for the United States has increased from about
many states. In 2016 the value of agricultural pro- 11% to 17% over the past 20 years. Canada is
duction in the US was nearly $429 billion. And 34 our primary source of imported foods, fol-
states reported net cash farm income of over $1 lowed by Mexico. These countries send a wide
billion. range of products to US food markets, includ-
Throughout history US agricultural pro- ing meats, grains, and vegetable oils (Canada),
ducts have been exported around the world. and fruits and vegetables (Mexico). But we
Europe was the primary market in the early receive coffee from Brazil, nuts from India,
decades but in 2014 the top countries receiving cheese from Italy, fish from Thailand, bananas
US exports were China, Canada, Mexico, and from Costa Rica, and wine from France. Many
Japan. Bulk commodities of wheat, rice, corn, countries exchange food and agricultural pro-
soybean, cotton, and tobacco have accounted ducts with the United States and each other,
for the majority of agriculture exports, but a hence our food system today is truly global.
wide range of products are sold abroad. The This leads to a wider variety and accessibility
United States has seen an increase of 125% in to foods but also raises concerns about envi-
farm exports over the last century reaching ronmental costs when foods are shipped thou-
$150 billion in 2014. Top exporting states and sands of miles, and demands increased focus
products are shown in Table 3.3. on food security and safety monitoring. People
have become accustomed to having a wide
TABLE 3.3 Exported Agricultural Products Generate variety of foods available year round, which is
Significant Revenue for Many States a significant change from 200 years ago when
State Export product Million $
food was seasonal and regional.
California Fruits (fresh) 3506

Illinois Soybeans 3069 3.2 ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN
Iowa Pork 1962
AGRICULTURE
Kansas Wheat 1547 Agriculture is both a business and lifestyle
Texas Cotton 1403 for many producers. Farmers and ranchers
live and raise their families on the land where
California Dairy 1270
they grow crops and manage livestock. The
Iowa Corn 1117 idyllic expectation is that this close personal
Nebraska Beef 949 connection to the farm ensures stewardship
for the land and environment. Less than 2%
Arkansas Rice 907
of people in the United States are directly
California Vegetables (fresh) 866 involved in farming, but agriculture is an
Georgia Poultry 757 important component of the US economy.
Farmers thereby have a major voice in gov-
Iowa Vegetable oils 292
ernment. As discussed in Chapter 2, History

of US Agriculture and Food Production, agri- land-grant institutions made agriculture a pri-
culture and government have had a close mary focus of US educational systems. The
interrelationship throughout history. The sec- USDA has worked and continues to work closely
retary of agriculture is a cabinet level officer, with land-grant institutions to advance research
appointed by the President and confirmed by the and education on agricultural issues.
Senate, reports directly to the President and is The success of the land-grant institutions
ninth in the Presidential line of succession. As was significant and led to two additional fund-
discussed in Chapter 4, Animals in the Food ing programs. The first was the Hatch Act of
System, agriculture lobbying groups have been 1887, named for William Hatch, who chaired
instrumental in defining funding and support the House Committee on Agriculture. This act
programs for farmers. Some would argue that gave each land-grant institution the amount of
these strong lobbying groups protect farmers $15,000 to be used by “agricultural experiment
from regulations that are needed to protect the stations.” The concept of agricultural experi-
environment, give breaks to big farm operations, ment stations developed over several years
and do nothing to support small farmers. In through discussions and debates by scientists
some cases, technology may be adopted by farm- involved in agricultural research, university
ers before ecological impacts can be known. The presidents, and legislators. Among these was
Dust Bowl, discussed in Chapter 2, History of US Wilbur Atwater, who became the first Director
Agriculture and Food Production, is an example of the Office of Experiment Stations. The vision
of such a situation. Regulations to manage farm- of these leaders was that agricultural research
ing practices were eventually implemented fol- needed to be shared among researchers and
lowing that disaster. The pattern of government made available to farmers, and that consistent
responding with regulations after a problem has funding was needed to ensure the work could
occurred, or in response to public demand, has be accomplished. A close relationship between
been repeated many times in history. fundamental investigation of new science and
solutions to practical problems was a unique
feature of agriculture and created some intense
3.2.1 US Department of Agriculture debate as to who determined what research
President Lincoln recognized the value of would be done—scientists, farmers, or govern-
agriculture to the United States and the need to ment. Through these discussions came the pro-
promote education and best practices to farmers. cess that continues today, where scientists
This led him to request that Congress pass an act working at land-grant institutions are indepen-
to establish a US Department of Agriculture dent, but report to the USDA the results of their
(USDA) in 1862. The act defined the role of the work and these findings are made publicly
USDA to “acquire and to diffuse among the peo- available at no cost. In addition, several agricul-
ple of the United States useful information on tural experiment stations were created outside
subjects connected with agriculture. . .to procure, of land-grant institutions that employ full-time
propagate, and distribute among the people new researchers who report directly to the Secretary
and valuable seeds and plants.” A Commissioner of the USDA and carry out research in specific
of Agriculture was to be appointed by the areas. An example of an agricultural experi-
President and was tasked with obtaining and ment station is the USDA Beltsville Agricultural
preserving information about agriculture, includ- Center, in Beltsville, Maryland, where much
ing “by practical and scientific experiments” to research on agriculture, food, and nutrition has
test new and valuable seeds and plants. The con- been and continues to be conducted. The fund-
current passage of the Morrill Act that created ing for agricultural experiment stations was

TABLE 3.4 USDA Mission Areas and Agencies that Implement Programs
USDA mission area USDA agencies
Farm and Foreign Agricultural Services Farm Service Agency (FSA)

Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS)
Risk Management Agency (RMA)
Food, Nutrition, and Consumer Sciences Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion (CNPP)
Food and Nutrition Service (FNS)
Food Safety Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS)
Marketing and Regulatory Programs Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS)

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS)
Grain Inspection, Packers, and Stockyard Administration (GIPSA)
Natural Resources and Environment Forest Service (FS)
Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS)
Research, Education, and Economics Research, Education and Economics (REE)
Agricultural Research Service (ARS)

Economic Research Service (ERS)
National Agricultural Library (NAL)
National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS)
National Institute for Food and Agriculture (NIFA)
Office of the Chief Scientist (OCS)
Rural Development Rural Development
amended in 1955 to a formula based on factors the USDA is a great resource for farmers,
of each state’s rural and farm population to researchers, and the public. In addition to the
allocate the federal appropriations. The revision federal USDA, each state has a department of
also required states to contribute at least equiv- agriculture with an appointed or elected secre-
alent matching funds. tary of agriculture. These offices work in collab-
Today, the USDA plays an essential role in oration with the USDA to monitor and assess
agriculture. As shown in Table 3.4, there are agriculture issues across the nation and to pro-
seven mission areas of the USDA, touching all vide training and regulation at the state level.
aspects of agriculture, natural resources, food
and human health. Some of these functions of
the USDA will be described in Chapter 7,
3.2.2 Environmental Protection Agency
Nutrition and Food Access. One of the man- The Environmental Protection Agency
dates of the USDA has been to collect data (EPA) was established on December 2, 1970 to
about agriculture and to make these data consolidate into one agency a variety of federal
available to the public. The data generated by research, monitoring, standard-setting, and

TABLE 3.5 Pesticide Regulations Issued by the EPA and Their Impact on Agriculture
EPA legislative acts Impact on agriculture
1972: Insecticide DDT banned Scientific review of all pesticides

1975: Heptachlor and chlordane banned Carcinogenic lawn and garden pesticides found in 75% dairy and meat
products
1976: Toxic Substances Control Act Required record-keeping of chemical substance use
1983: Ethylene dibromide banned Soil fumigant no longer used for nematode control
1985: Approval granted to “Advanced First use of gene-altered bacteria to prevent frost damage on strawberries
Genetics”
1986: Right-to-Know Act Required reports of storage, use, and release of hazardous chemicals
1989: Proposed to ban Alar (daminozide) Discontinued use on any crops, previous use as plant growth regulator, mostly
on apples
1996: Food Quality Protection Act Increased standards and regulation of pesticide use on food crops
2004: Methane to Markets International Plan for reduction of methane (cows and other ruminants produce 80 million
Partnership metric tons per year)
enforcement activities to protect human health EPA regulations have sought to mitigate
by safeguarding the environment. The EPA impacts of agriculture on the environment
was formed in an era of increased awareness and protect human health. Based on scientific
of environmental issues. The first Earth Day evidence, some chemicals that were used in
was April 22, 1970. The EPA has sought to pre- agriculture have been banned and legislation
vent environmental disasters such as those has been passed to address specific environ-
that occurred at the Cuyahoga River, Ohio in mental issues (Table 3.5). Establishment of air
1969; Love Canal, New York in 1978; Times quality standards and guidelines for reduc-
Beach, Missouri in 1982; and the Exxon Valdez tion in emissions from leaded gasoline and
oil spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska in sulfur oxides of diesel fuel affected what fuels
1989. The Clean Water Act and Clean Air Act could be used for agricultural equipment.
are among the significant legislative authorities Manufacturers, farmers, and consumers have
for the EPA. adjusted to tighter restrictions and all have
Regulations for air, water, soils, and land benefited from cleaner air and less pollution.
use, including drainage, pesticides, fertilizers, Farm workers benefit from EPA guidelines
and their impact on wildlife, are under the pur- for safety regulations and pesticide exposure
view of the EPA. Farmers must comply with in farm operations, which ensure fair and
EPA regulations and licensing for pesticide equitable working standards with safety train-
spraying, fertilizer applications, windbreak ing and protections for workers and no pesti-
plantings, field drainage, and invasive species cide handling by children under 18 years of age.
management. In cooperation with the USDA,
EPA regulations are communicated to farmers
3.2.3 Animal Plant Health
via county National Resource Conservation
Inspection Service
Service (NRCS) and Farm Service Agency (FSA)
offices. The FSA also interprets federal legisla- The Animal and Plant Health Inspection
tion for farmers and manages commodity pro- Service (APHIS) is responsible for protecting
grams described in the Farm Bill. and promoting US agricultural health, which

includes both animal and plant well-being and of 2014 allocated $489 billion over 5 years for
disease prevention. APHIS administers the nutrition programs (80% of total budget or $391
Animal Welfare Act, which ensures the proper billion) and agriculture ($98 billion). Nutrition
care and handling of all types of animals, support programs are discussed in Chapter 7,
including livestock, wild animals, and pets. In Nutrition and Food Access. Agriculture pro-
the 2014 Farm Bill, APHIS was charged with grams in the Farm Bill provide for crop insur-
preventing the introduction or spread of plant ance, conservation, farm commodity programs,
pests and diseases that threaten US agriculture horticulture, research, and bioenergy. The 2014
and the environment. APHIS provides funding Farm Bill was notable for making significant
to strengthen the nation’s infrastructure for changes to how farmers receive financial sup-
pest detection and surveillance, identification port. In previous bills, farmers received direct
and mitigation of threats, and to safeguard the payments for selected crops including corn,
production system. APHIS carries out inspec- wheat, soybeans, cotton, rice, and peanuts to
tions of imported plant and animal products ensure price levels. With many legislators and
and monitors invasive pests and diseases. consumers questioning the reason farmers were
Investigation and enforcement of animal welfare being provided with this type of agriculture
reports and the avian influenza outbreak are subsidy, direct payments were eliminated from
examples of APHIS responsibility. When animal the 2014 Farm Bill and were replaced with the
or plant disasters happen, APHIS provides Price Loss Coverage or Agriculture Risk
emergency assistance to manage the situation. Coverage programs. These programs take into
A major role for APHIS is the approval and consideration the historical prices for crops and
monitoring of genetically modified organisms allow farmers to receive payments when prices
(GMOs), in collaboration with the EPA and the dip below a defined standard. There are caps in
USDA. To obtain permission to use a GMO place for the total amount of funding any one
plant, insect, or microorganism, the developer farmer can receive and eligibility is based on
of the GMO must submit a petition to APHIS gross income. The Farm Bill program has been
demonstrating that the GMO does not pose criticized for providing subsidies for only a few
any more risks than the equivalent non-GMO staple commodities that are mainly produced
variety. APHIS continually monitors and by large family farms (.$250K sales). There
inspects farmers and biotechnology developers has been concern that 58% of commodity pay-
to confirm they are operating within compli- ments were given to these large, supposedly
ance standards. economically stable farmers and not helping
the smaller, struggling farmers. In an effort to
correct that, the 2014 Farm Bill included more
3.2.4 Government Farm Policy support for organic and local farmers and spe-
US farm policy has been designed to ensure cialty crops; provided provision for beginning
domestic productivity, global competitiveness farmers, including veterans and minorities to
and food security, maintain family farms, obtain financial support; and expanded access
reduce risk to crop production, contribute to to price support and crop insurance to many
rural economic activity, provide a safety net for more agricultural products.
agricultural production, and provide a safe, While farming is a business, it is subject to
affordable, abundant food supply. Since the uncontrollable external factors. An early frost
1938 Agriculture Adjustment Act, farm policy or sudden hail storm can wipe out an entire
is generated on a 5-year legislative cycle that crop leaving the farmer with all the expenses
produces the “Farm Bill.” The Agricultural Act of producing the crop but low or no income.

TABLE 3.6 Types of Agricultural Subsidies types of insurance to protect their economic
investments, and government subsidies have
Direct payments Crop insurance
also been part of that safety net (Table 3.6).
Marketing loans Disaster aid A farm subsidy is an amount of money provided
Price guarantees Export subsidies by the government intended to protect the
farmer from financial loss due to fluctuations in
Conservation Agricultural research and
subsidies statistics market prices. Strong farm lobby groups, espe-
cially in agriculture-intensive states, have been
successful in getting subsidies and other farmer-
Similarly, too much or not enough water at friendly legislation passed. Once introduced,
key growing times will impact yields. When assistance and subsidy programs became politi-
corn and soybean prices are low, cattle, hog, cally and socially integrated and hard to repeal.
and egg producers benefit with lower feed Frequently, the Farm Bill approval is delayed
costs, but the corn and soybean farmers suffer for months or years due to political controversy
economic loss. Farmers have relied on various about such federal programs.
EXPANSION BOX 3.1
T H E 2 0 1 4 FA R M B I L L
The Agriculture Act of 2014 (known as the the first such legislation), the majority of peo-
Farm Bill) was signed by President Barack Obama ple were farmers and farm programs were
and covers a 5-year period through 2018. A total seen as a means to ensure that the United
of $956 billion (3% of the US federal budget) was States had continued access to abundant, safe,
allocated for programs (titles) listed in the bill. The and affordable food. Supporting commodity
majority of funding, 80%, supports nutrition pro- prices and environmental programs and fund-
grams including the Supplementary Nutrition ing nutrition programs, especially after the
Assistance Program (SNAP), Emergency Food tumultuous Great Depression and Dust Bowl
Assistance Program, and food and nutrition pro- era, were considered important and necessary.
grams for senior citizens, children, and low- Today, farmers in the United States represent
income families and American Indians. The less than 2% of the population and 0.05% of
remaining 20% of funding supports the agricul- employed Americans. Farmers are not diverse
tural component including crop insurance (8% of by gender, race, or ethnicity. Most Americans
funding), commodity support (5%), conservation are very removed from, and have little under-
(6%), and 1% for trade, credit, rural development, standing of, agricultural problems. Farm Bill
research, forestry, energy, horticulture, and discussions now include state organizations;
organic agriculture. The complexity of the Farm national farm groups; commodity associations;
Bill was noted by President Obama, who said conservation, recreation, and rural development
“[i]t’s like a Swiss Army knife” because of the organizations; faith-based groups; and other
wide range of programs that are connected to the interest groups. Even though the number of
Farm Bill (Fig. 3.6). farmers is small, the number of conflicting
In the early years of passing Farm Bills interests is large and these constituents have
(the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 was differing opinions.

FIGURE 3.6 President Barack Obama referred to the 2014 Farm Bill as a Swiss Army knife because of the
many features and components of the bill. Source: Illustration from www.usda.gov.
Over the years, legislators from farm- foreign trade, all of which support President
intensive states realized that they had less sway Obama’s reference to the Swiss Army knife.
regarding these policies than their urban collea- Calls to reduce Farm Bill funding come from
gues in states with higher populations. It became both sides: those concerned that agriculture
more difficult to garner continued support for subsidies are excessive and unjust, and those
farm subsidy programs and other agricultural concerned that food assistance funding is exces-
support. However, those urban states had more sive and unjust. Those who oppose aspects of
people interested in food assistance programs. the agricultural component of the legislation
As a means of satisfying both constituencies, say that too much money is allocated to farmers
rural and urban, agriculture and food assistance at taxpayer and consumer expense, that fund-
programs were combined under the Farm Bill. ing benefits the large, wealthy farmers and is
Nutrition support programs were first incorpo- unfair to small farmers. Some question the
rated into the Farm Bill in 1977 when Food effectiveness of the programs and contend that
Stamps and commodity distributions programs the Farm Bill does not provide enough environ-
were brought into the legislation. This has mental protection. Opponents to federal sup-
created complicated political environments each port of nutrition funding argue that the support
time the bill is considered for renewal. makes people less interested in working,
The Farm Bill is comprehensive legislation encourages fraud, and promotes a culture of
that involves varied interests among producers dependency. Others consider farm policy to be
of different commodities and those with differ- incompatible with current national economic
ent priorities for farm support, conservation, objectives, global trading rules, and federal
nutrition, rural development, research, and budgetary or regulatory policies. In fact, in the

2014 Farm Bill, funding for SNAP (formerly the (GATT) and World Trade Organization (WTO)
Food Stamps Program) was significantly Agreement on Agriculture. The United States is
reduced for the first time in years (discussed in one of the world’s largest agricultural produ-
Chapter 7: Nutrition and Food Access), and sig- cers and exporters and thus, US farm policy
nificant changes in farm subsidies were also has a significant effect on farm sectors around
implemented. the world. The Farm Bill of 1996, the Federal
In recent times, the Farm Bill has taken on Agricultural Improvement and Reform Act
specific challenges. The Farm Bill of 1985 was (FAIR), was referred to as the Freedom to Farm
called the “environmental act” when fun- bill and removed the safety net for farmers.
ding for conservation programs was added. The former production-based payments were
Conservation programs focused on reduction of replaced with production flexibility contract
soil erosion, protecting water quality and quan- payments and farmers received direct payment
tity by retirement of farmland, as well as red- for crop losses via emergency market loss pay-
uction of off-farm impacts of agricultural ments. Energy programs to promote biofuels
activities. In the 1990s, farmers were freer but and cellulosic ethanol production and farm and
less secure. US farm policy was greatly influ- community renewable energy systems were
enced by world trade agreements such as the added to the Farm Bill in 2002. In 2008, farm
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade prices were high, there was a global food crisis,
FIGURE 3.7 For the past several decades the majority of funding in the Farm Bill has been allocated for
nutrition assistance programs. For example, in the 2014 Farm Bill almost 80% of the funding was for nutrition
and food programs while less than 10% was provided as agricultural subsidies. Source: USDA Economic Research
Service, www.usda.ers.gov; Cost Estimates for the Agricultural Act of 2014, January 2014.

TABLE 3.7 Comparison of Major Differences Between the 2008 and 2014 Farm Bills
2008 Farm bill 2014 Farm bill
Direct payments to farmers for major Eliminates direct payments to farmers, replaced with crop
commodity crops (grains, oilseeds, cotton) insurance program
Conservation opportunities for farmers and Conservation compliance linked with crop insurance payments
ranchers
New funding for crop insurance and
disaster assistance
New funding for livestock and poultry Did not repeal protections for poultry farmers with processing
contracts
Established Beginning Farmers and Increased funding for Beginning Farmers and Ranchers
Ranchers Development Program Development Program and support during first 5 years of
farming
New funding for fruits, vegetables, Doubles funding for specialty crop research initiative and
specialty crops, and organic agriculture provided new resources for organic farmers
Tripled funding to farmers market and local food promotion
program and new funding for local and regional food systems
grants
and food prices were increasing in the United A comparison of the 2008 and 2014 Farm Bills
States so the Farm Bill attempted to balance is shown in Table 3.7. The 2014 bill provided
payments to farmers with taxpayer demands additional SNAP funding for enhanced
for lower funding. employment and training activities, increased
Passing the 2014 Farm Bill was fraught with healthy food options, and expanded antifraud
significant controversy. The economic slump efforts. Other changes addressed concerns
that started in 2007 drove a more conservative about subsidies for farmers, especially when
climate in Congress. Big spending legislation, commodity crops were experiencing record
such as the Farm Bill, was hotly debated and high prices. Direct crop payments (subsidies) to
calls for severe reductions were strong. farmers, which were unpopular with taxpayers,
Eventually, a bill was passed that made some were replaced with an insurance program. The
important changes. Nutrition support is the bill also provided expanded programs for spe-
largest part of the Farm Bill (Fig. 3.7) and the cialty crops, organic farmers, bioenergy, rural
decision was made to cut funding for SNAP by development, and beginning farmers and ran-
$8 billion (a 4% cut over 10 years). SNAP’s chers, in response to calls for increased oppor-
basic eligibility guidelines were maintained, tunities for small, local farmers.
but an income deduction that boosted benefits
for some households was made more stringent. Suggested reading: Orden and Zulauf (2015) and
Owens (2008).

3.3 ENERGY FOR AGRICULTURE TABLE 3.8 Increased Use of Gasoline, Nitrogen, and
Chemical Pesticides in Corn Production Over Time
Farm work was primarily fueled by human Inputs in corn production 1945 1954 1964 1970
and animal power until the 1900s. Wind and
Gasoline (gallons/acre) 15 19 21 22
water were used in early farming in the United
States to drive pumps and grind grain. Major Nitrogen (pounds/acre) 7 27 58 112
changes in farm work occurred when steam Herbicides 1 pesticides 0 0.4 1.38 2.0
engines followed by diesel and gasoline engines (pounds/acre)
and then electricity entered the picture. These
allowed farm work to be mechanized, essentially
replacing the need for animals to work the land, The changes that have occurred over time in
and lessening the workload for humans. Use of accessibility and prices of fossil fuels have
energy in agriculture comes at a cost. Coal and impacted and continue to impact agriculture pro-
gasoline are fossil fuels that must be obtained duction. Perhaps the most dramatic period of his-
from the earth, refined, processed, and trans- tory when fuel prices and availability impacted
ported. When they are used to generate power, agriculture was during the oil crises of the 1970s.
they release greenhouse gases that linger in the In 1973, a global spike in oil prices resulted when
atmosphere and contribute to climate change. the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC) imposed an embargo on oil in
response to US involvement in the Yom Kippur
War. The availability of gasoline in the United
3.3.1 Mechanization and Fossil Fuels States reached a crisis level and gas rationing
The first gasoline-powered tractor was intro- was implemented. Energy-saving programs
duced by the Waterloo Gasoline Traction including a nationwide speed limit of 55 mph
Engine Company in 1893, which eventually and changes in automobile designs were man-
became the John Deere Tractor Works. Henry dated. At that time, interest in developing alter-
Ford also entered this industry with his low- native fuels, including ethanol from corn,
cost tractor in 1917, which soon accounted for developed. In 1978, a federal tax credit program
75% of the gasoline-powered tractor market. was started that awarded 51b per gallon of etha-
Advances in other power equipment followed nol used. However, over the next two decades,
rapidly with the Massey-Harris corn picker in the price of crude oil stabilized and gas became
1946 and the combine (that picked and shelled more available, making ethanol production
corn) in 1954. Mechanical hay balers were intro- uneconomical. Since 2008, renewable fuels and
duced in the 1930s and a mechanized irrigation natural gas have increased as a percent of total
system was developed in the 1940s. The intro- energy consumption in the United States while
duction of mechanized equipment made farm- coal and petroleum have declined (Fig. 3.8). The
ing less labor intensive and more productive. balance between the cost of crude oil and the
These machines and implements ran largely on costs of ethanol production, has continued and
gasoline and diesel, which were cheap and will continue to be the primary determinant for
abundant. Additionally, these fossil fuels were which type of fuel will be used and produced.
the source of many farm chemicals including
fertilizers and pesticides. The amount of inputs,
3.3.2 Biofuels
especially nitrogen and herbicides/pesticides,
ramped up rapidly between 1945 and 1970 In the early 2000s, a renewed interest in
(Table 3.8). ethanol production occurred due to three

3.3 ENERGY FOR AGRICULTURE 71
FIGURE 3.8 The use of fossil fuel sources of energy, including coal and petroleum, have decreased within the past
decade, while natural gas and renewable fuels have increased. The inset shows the types of renewable fuels and their rela-
tive contribution. Source: US Department of Energy, www.energy.gov.
factors: crude oil prices surged; a commonly yeast and bacteria to generate ethanol. But as the
used ingredient in gasoline, methyl tertiary demand for ethanol increased, so did the price
butyl ether (MTBE), was restricted or banned by of corn, limiting the economic return for ethanol
many states and was replaced with ethanol; and producers. This led to pursuit of other feed-
the Energy Policy Act of 2005 and the stocks, particularly those of low cost. The plant
Renewable Fuel Standard specified using renew- material remaining after corn is harvested is
able fuels (such as ethanol) in gasoline for auto- called stover or biomass and is comprised of com-
mobiles. In addition, the Energy Independence plex carbohydrates, mainly cellulose (Fig. 3.9).
and Security Act of 2007 mandated increasing This material is often left on the field to contrib-
US use of biofuels to 36 billion gallons by 2022. ute to soil composition as it decays and also to
These factors created a favorable economic envi- reduce soil erosion, and it is used somewhat for
ronment for ethanol and the industry responded animal feed. Stover is essentially free, except for
quickly. The production of ethanol in the United the cost of recovering it from the field, drying,
States increased from 1.8 to 15 billion gallons and transportation. The conversion of cellulosic
between 2000 and 2014. Corn provides a good material to ethanol is more complicated than the
feedstock for ethanol production because of its conversion of corn starch, but technologies using
high starch content. Starch can be fermented by enzymes and fermentation have been developed

FIGURE 3.9 Stover is the residual plant material left after harvesting corn or other crops. Stover can be converted to
ethanol through a process of cellulosic fermentation. Bales of stover are collected after crops are harvested and transported
to processing facilities. Source: Photo from USDA image gallery, www.ars.usda.gov.
to make it possible and profitable. There is some profits from growing crops, and competition
risk that removal of too much stover from fields between crops for food versus fuel. It is unlikely
has the potential to increase soil erosion, deplete that any one biofuel process or feedstock will be
soil organic matter, and increase water contami- sufficient or sustainable enough to completely
nation. Other sources of feedstock including replace fossil fuels but these alternative energy
perennial grasses such as switchgrass and mis- sources allow less fossil fuel to be used.
canthus are also being explored as more
environmentally sustainable options. Cellulosic
ethanol is one of the next generation biofuels
that also includes biochemical, thermochemical,
3.3.3 Wind and Solar Energy
especially pyrolysis, and other technologies to Two other natural sources of energy have
produce ethanol and petroleum equivalents become increasingly available for agriculture:
from renewable sources. Environmental con- wind and solar. The primary limitations to
cerns associated with biofuel production include both solar and wind power have been access
higher economic pressure to grow corn over to low-cost collecting materials and infrastruc-
other crops, reduced incentive to retain buffer ture systems to deliver and store energy to
zones around waterways in lieu of greater maintain a constant supply. These challenges

3.4 TRANSPORTATION IN AGRICULTURE 73
have increasingly been overcome in both indus- fairly simple. Food was transported from the
tries. Solar power capacity in the United States field directly to homes or local markets. Horse-
rose from about 44 megawatts (MW) in 1992 to drawn carts, without refrigeration, traveling
over 22,000 MW in 2013. With advances in tech- on dirt roads limited the distance one could
nology, the costs of photovoltaic or thermal distribute products. As cities and towns devel-
panels have made it increasingly affordable to oped, moving food via rivers and canals
install both off-grid and on-grid systems. Solar allowed farms to be more distant from consu-
energy use in agriculture has been traditionally mers. During the 1800s paddle-wheel steam-
off-grid, for example, using a solar panel to boats moved products along major rivers such
power water pumps for crop irrigation and elec- as the Mississippi and Missouri, and distribu-
tric fences or to heat water for dairy operations. tion ports along these rivers grew into cities.
However, as more infrastructure has been built, Technological advances in transportation came
on-grid solar use in agriculture has expanded. quickly after the Civil War with the introduc-
California leads all states in using solar energy tion of coal-fueled train engines and gasoline-
in agriculture, and with state and federal incen- powered cars and trucks. These new means of
tives to reduce fossil fuel use, it is expected that transportation, and the innovation of refrigera-
more farmers will turn to solar power. Similar to tion, changed how and where food was grown
solar, wind power use in agriculture is on the and marketed and allowed people to live far-
rise. The cumulative capacity generated from ther way from farms. The US food system
wind was 2500 MW in 2000 and increased to today is dependent on an efficient and com-
over 45,000 MW by 2011. The majority of wind plex network of transportation including air-
production has occurred in the Great Plains and planes and ships that connect to markets
Midwest because of the fairly constant wind and around the world, and trains, boats, trucks,
access to land for wind turbines (Fig. 3.10). and cars that distribute food from California to
Texas leads all states in wind production fol- New York and every small town in between.
lowed by Iowa. The installation of large wind
turbines on the landscape has raised some com-
plaints about aesthetics, noise, and visibility, but
3.4.1 Railroads
other concerns, such as the potential killing of As the Industrial Revolution began in the
migratory birds, have been largely avoided with United States during the 1800s, a major event
new technology. The USDA Renewable Energy that significantly impacted agriculture was the
Systems and Energy Efficiency Improvement building of the railroad system. Before con-
Program, which was first introduced in the 2002 struction of railroads, products and supplies
Farm Bill and was continued as the Rural were moved mainly by water routes or over-
Energy for America Program (REAP) in the 2008 land by horse and carriage. In 1825, John
and 2014 Farm Bills, provides grants and loans Stevens invented and built the first railroad
to farmers for solar, wind, and other renewable track and locomotive in Hoboken, New Jersey
energy projects. and the first steam engine was operational in
1830. Soon thereafter, railroads were built to
connect cities along the Eastern Seaboard.
3.4 TRANSPORTATION IN Many proposals were made to Congress in the
AGRICULTURE 1800s to fund major railroad construction by
eager entrepreneurs. Congress was being pres-
When the majority of people in the United sured to connect the rapidly growing popula-
States lived on farms, food distribution was tions on the Pacific coast and to provide a

FIGURE 3.10 Wind turbines have been installed across many states to generate electricity. Fields of wind turbines dot the
landscape across the Midwest and Plains states. Source: Photo from Department of Energy image gallery, www.energy.gov/photos.
better means to move products across the developers that allowed all earth, stone, lum-
country and there was general public support ber, or other material within the granted land
for the concept. But the Civil War was drain- to be used for construction purposes. Any land
ing the government resources, and financial that was not used by the railroad could be
means to fund such a project were unavailable. sold and the profits returned to the railroad
To overcome this, the Curtis Bill, proposed by company. The first passage of the bill was par-
Iowa Congressman S.R. Curtis, designated the tially successful, but an amendment made in
creation of a Board of Commissioners to over- 1864 expanded the amount of land granted to
see the construction and the selling of capital the railroads and modified the path of the
stock of the company ($1000 per share) to raise railroad, which launched the project. Two
the funds. This established the railroads as companies were created, the Union Pacific
public private partnerships. The US govern- Railroad and the Central Pacific Railroad, as
ment granted land rights to the railroad public private partnerships. The history of the

3.4 TRANSPORTATION IN AGRICULTURE 75
railroads in the United States is fraught with along rough terrain, created new markets and
controversies related to the buying and selling centralized their industry. Chicago, Kansas
of stocks, the engagement of Congressmen in City, and Omaha developed huge stock yards
financing projects (and getting rich), and the around the railroad terminals and the meat
eventual rise of railroad barons, some notori- packing industry grew. Early experimentation
ous, who controlled markets and prices. with using ice to cool products in boxcars,
Cornelius Vanderbilt was one such railroad called reefers, added a new dimension to food
baron who became very wealthy and had great transportation, allowing perishable products to
influence on the US economy, including provid- be shipped long distances. The Swift Company
ing the funding to found Vanderbilt University and the Armour Company were among the
in Tennessee. first to successfully ship animal carcasses and
President Abraham Lincoln determined that cut meat across the United States using ice-
the first site to begin the Union Pacific Railroad cooled boxcars. By the early 1940s, the Pacific
construction was to be a section from the west- Fruit Express Company had developed sys-
ern boundary of Iowa and the eastern boundary tems that moved air through the packed ice to
of Nebraska, which is today the city of Omaha, create a more efficient cooling environment
to connect to Ogden, Utah with a connection and better insulation and seals were developed
from Ogden to San Francisco. Early on, the con- that made shipping perishable produce possi-
struction lagged due to lack of infrastructure, ble. The ability to move foods, even perishable
high costs of materials, untrained labor, and foods, across long distances changed how food
skirmishes with Native Americans. History is was marketed and produced (Fig. 3.11).
rife with stories of rowdy railroad crews and Dairies no longer needed to be located close to
rough shanty towns that were hastily built towns and cities because milk and butter could
along the route and battles with Native be shipped in by train. Products could be pro-
Americans. Thousands of immigrants, includ- duced in larger quantities because there were
ing Chinese and Europeans, were recruited to now multiple markets, allowing larger farms
work the construction of the railroads. The producing single products to be profitable. The
impact on Native Americans was dramatic, as grain industry expanded with wheat, corn,
many fought and died to resist the crossing of and soybeans grown in the Midwest accessible
their lands or succumbed to diseases spread by to all regions of the United States. Food was
the railroad workers. Between 1866 and 1869, no longer region-based and Americans wel-
the track was completed from Omaha to Ogden comed the variety and accessibility to a wider
and the connection of the East to the West was range of products.
widely celebrated as a new era for US com-
merce. By 1885, four systems connected the
East and West Coasts, thus providing fast and
3.4.2 Interstate Road System
economical means to ship products. Over the Farm-to-market roads are state or county
next decade, additional railroad lines were built roads that connect farms and ranches to market
to connect major cities across the country from towns or distribution centers. At the turn of the
a few thousand miles of track in 1840 to over 19th century, most farmers delivered their pro-
250,000 miles by 1916. ducts using horse-drawn carriages. The Ford
The impact of railroads on agriculture was Model-T automobile was introduced in 1908
immediate. The ability of cattle ranchers in the and rapidly became affordable thanks to an
Great Plains to move animals quickly by rail, innovative assembly-line production system.
rather than by cowboys pushing cattle drives Soon after in 1925, the Ford pickup truck

FIGURE 3.11 Innovations in railcars increased the distribution range for many foods during the 1930s. Watermelons
grown in Laurel, Delaware are being loaded into traincars for distribution around the United States in 1905. Source: Photo
from the Library of Congress, www.loc.gov/pictures.
became available. The construction of roads The Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944 approved
suitable for these new modes of transportation a 64,000-km National System of Interstate
became critical for getting supplies to farms, Highways and established a federal-aid second-
and transport of farm commodities to markets. ary system of principal secondary and feeder
In some states, most notably Texas, Missouri, roads. The construction of the interstate high-
Iowa, North Carolina, Michigan, and Tennessee, way system began in earnest during the 1950s
farm roads were built during the 1920s and with the implementation of a series of east
1930s, but the majority of states developed rural west and north south highways. A plan that
road systems only after WWII. The Office of was projected to take 12 years required 35 years
Road Inquiry was established within the USDA to complete. Access to an interstate network of
in 1893. The fact that the federal road office roads created opportunities for delivery of agri-
resided in the USDA emphasizes the impor- cultural products by trucks in a more efficient
tance of roads to the US farm economy. The manner than trains. Trucks could deliver
American Association of State Highway and directly from door to door whereas train deliv-
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) was formed ery required secondary transport. Railroad own-
in 1914 and worked with federal agencies to ers realized the threat to their industry and
develop highway legislation, policy, and stan- lobbied the government to impose stiff highway
dards for the US transportation network. The user taxes on truckers. This was eventually
importance of a national system of highways sorted out with legislation that created a tax
was driven by concerns for national defense system to fund the highways. The overall
and the ability to move soldiers and materials. impact of the interstate highway system was to

3.5 AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS 77
expand access for both the manufacturing and phosphorus, and potassium), three lesser
agriculture sectors. But as these roadway sys- nutrients (calcium, magnesium, and sulfur), as
tems age, particularly bridges with more cars well as trace amounts of seven other minerals.
and trucks using them, there is concern that the Nitrogen was found to be one of the most
US infrastructure is not keeping up with trans- important elements for plant growth and could
portation needs of farmers, grain handlers, and be provided from saltpeter, a natural com-
freight haulers. Additionally, many rural areas pound of sodium nitrate. Large deposits of
still remain dependent on gravel or unpaved saltpeter were mined in Chile and Peru during
roads. Finding ways to fund road maintenance the 1800s and sold to Europe and the United
continues to be a challenge for local, state, and States. But demand for nitrogen for agricul-
federal governments. tural, industrial, and military use, outpaced
these natural sources. A technique to produce
nitrogen in the form of ammonia on an indus-
3.5 AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS trial scale, the Haber-Bosch process, was devel-
oped in Germany in 1913 that provided
Pests, including weeds, insects, molds, and sufficient amounts of nitrogen for munitions
fungi are a major threat to food crop produc- such as TNT and other explosives used during
tion. Weeds compete with crops for water, soil WWI. The expansion of ammonia production
nutrients, and sunlight. A field of wheat can in the United States ramped up quickly after
be devastated overnight by a swarm of grass- the start of WWII. Ammonia production plants
hoppers, and some types of molds that grow were constructed, mainly in the central United
on plants produce dangerous toxins. Farmers States near pipelines of natural gas, the start-
are in a constant battle with pests regardless of ing material for ammonia production. By the
where or what types of crops they grow. end of the war, the capacity to produce ammo-
Agricultural chemicals are part of the arsenal nia was significant. With ammonia no longer
in this battle, but their use has consequences needed for munitions, the surplus was quickly
for the environment (Chapter 8: Sustainability converted to agricultural use. At first, ammo-
of the Food System). Having the right balance nium nitrate pellets were added directly to the
of nutrients in the soil is essential for crop soil, but eventually anhydrous ammonia
health and productivity. Fertilizers have been (Fig. 3.12), which was easier to apply and pro-
used to enhance crop production since the vided a purer form of nitrogen, was the main
1950s and are necessary for high yields. The form in use. By the 1940s, chemical fertilizers
proper use and management of agricultural of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus were
chemicals and understanding their impact on in wide use, resulting in improved crop yields.
the environment are current areas of much The extensive use of fertilizers, especially
debate and research. nitrogen, has been controversial ever since.
High nitrogen levels from agricultural runoff
into water systems causes algal growth and
3.5.1 Fertilizer fish kills and can affect human health.
Early agricultural practices to enhance plant
growth included applying human and animal
manure, ground bone, and various mineral
3.5.2 Pesticides
mixtures to fields. Experimentation during the Insects, fungi, plant diseases, and weeds
1800s led to the understanding that plants (commonly referred to as pests) are a major
require three main nutrients (nitrogen, concern for farmers because an infestation can

FIGURE 3.12 Anhydrous ammonia has been used as a fertilizer in the United States since WWII. Tanks containing
anhydrous ammonia are connected to a distribution system that inserts the nitrogen into the soil. Source: Photo provided by
the AgLeader, Ames, IA.
quickly destroy a crop or reduce its value. In the United States prior to 1940, chemicals
Pesticides, which include chemicals used to such as sodium chlorate, sulfuric acid, and
kill insects, microorganisms, fungi, rodents, arsenic, and those derived from coal such as
and weeds, are integral components of farm- creosote, naphthalene, and petroleum oils,
ing. Early agricultural practices to ward off were used to control insects, molds, and mil-
insects or kill plant diseases involved burning dews. These chemicals were applied in large
various materials to create smoke. Plant amounts, lacked specificity, were damaging to
extracts, tree tar, salt, copper, sulfate, and lime crops, and were highly toxic to humans and
were also applied to plants to control disease. other animals. During the 1940s synthetic pesti-
One plant extract, pyrethrum derived from the cide production increased and a wide range of
plant Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium, has been chemicals, including DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-
in use for over 2000 years and is still an effec- trichlorethane), parathion, and chlordane were
tive pesticide today. Weed management was developed. These chemicals targeted specific
mainly mechanical through the 1900s, using insects or diseases and were designed to be
hoes and harrows or manually pulling weeds. less toxic to plants, humans, and animals.
Burning of weeds was also used through the Among these, DDT became very popular for
1940s especially for row crops. agricultural as well as community and home

3.5 AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS 79
use because of its broad-spectrum activity and The first legislation concerning pesticides by
low toxicity for mammals. DDT spraying to kill the federal government was the Federal
mosquitos and other disease-carrying insects Insecticide Act of 1910, which arose from con-
led to reduction in malaria, yellow fever, and cerns about fraudulent or substandard pesti-
typhus, which had been common in parts of cides being sold. The law set standards for the
the United States. Today four main types of manufacture of pesticide products and inspec-
chemical pesticides have been developed with tion of processors. By the mid-1940s, farmers
abilities to disrupt insect metabolism: organo- were applying synthetic chemical pesticides
chlorine insecticides, organophosphate pesti- to their crops at increasing rates. Growing
cides, carbamate pesticides, and pyrethroid concerns about oversight of this industry led
pesticides. to the creation of the Federal Insecticide,
Chemical management of weeds in the Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) in
United States during the 1800s included apply- 1947. FIFRA established a requirement that
ing copper and iron sulfates, sulfuric acid, pesticide formulations must be registered with
or sodium arsenite to fields. Sodium arsenite the USDA and that labels on pesticides be
was highly effective as an aquatic herbicide accurate but the legislation did not extend to
through the 1920s and was widely used to treat the regulatory process or standards of use. In
lakes and waterways. Between 1919 and 1940 1959, a public scare over contaminated cran-
petroleum-derived herbicides gained use in the berries with pesticides led to a series of hear-
United States, including sodium chlorate, dini- ings in Congress about pesticide use and food
trophenol, ammonium sulfamate, kerosene, safety. The Delany House Committee hearings,
and gasoline. A major discovery in the 1930s of led by New York Congressman James
the ability of phenoxyacetic compounds to kill Delaney, established a provision that the FDA
broadleaf weeds, but not grasses or corn, began would monitor and define safety limits for
a new era in chemical applications in weed pesticides in food. The USDA and FDA con-
control. The chemistry of 2,4-D ((2,4-dichloro- tinue to monitor pesticide residues in fruits
phenoxy) acetic acid) and related compounds, and vegetables and release these reports to the
as well as advances in other chemicals, led to public via their websites.
an expansion in chemical herbicides. Between Systematic government oversight of pesti-
1950 and 1970 the number of herbicides devel- cide use began only after the Nixon adminis-
oped and approved for use increased from 15 tration founded the EPA in 1970. Concern for
to 100. The use of tactical herbicides by the US the environment came to the forefront of
military in Vietnam included Agent Orange, attention for Americans with the publication
which was a mixture of compounds related of the book Silent Spring (1962) by Rachel
to phenoxyacetic acid, along with kerosene Carson. Carson had become alarmed by the
and diesel fuel. Agent Orange was effective heavy use of chemical pesticides in agricul-
as a defoliating solution, but contained a by- ture and other venues to control pests that
product, dioxin, that was highly toxic and were having negative effects on wildlife. Her
carcinogenic. Long-term health effects in sol- book investigated the effects that chemical
diers and civilians exposed to Agent Orange pesticides had on human health as well as the
have occurred. Phenoxyacetic acid compounds environment and brought to light the lack of
continue to be approved for use as an herbicide regulatory oversight of their use. Fueled by
by the EPA, although the other compounds the content and implications of Silent Spring
used in Agent Orange and dioxin have been (1962), environmental activist groups gained
banned from agricultural use. followers and funding. The Environmental

Defense Fund was one of the earliest such state level and states are allowed to implement
groups that took on the campaign against pesticide regulations that are more stringent
DDT. DDT was widely used as a pesticide, than federal laws.
not only in agriculture but to control mosqui-
tos in the environment, and insects in build-
ings and homes. A tipping point came when a 3.6 PRECISION AGRICULTURE
connection was made between DDT and bald
eagles. Eagles eat small animals that were At the turn of the 21st century, other
exposed to DDT in the fields. DDT from these advances in agriculture technology have
food sources accumulates in the body tissues enhanced the ability of farmers to monitor
of the birds over time, alters their calcium their fields and crops and more accurately
metabolism, and causes their eggs to be frag- use fertilizers, pesticides, and soil amend-
ile and break in the nest. The result was a ments. Modern farm equipment employs a
decrease in the population of bald eagles, combination of global positioning systems
nearly to the point of extinction. Bald eagles, (GPS) with geographic information systems
of course, are a symbol of the United States (GIS), along with monitoring technologies, to
and so saving this species became a public record in real-time and space crop yields,
demand. Concerns about this and other envi- plant tissue nitrogen status, soil moisture and
ronmental and human health effects brought temperature, and weed pressure to guide
to light by activists and scientists led to the application of fertilizers, irrigation water, and
banning of DDT in the United States in 1972. herbicides on a site-specific basis (Fig. 3.13)
DDT continues to be used in several countries These tools require substantial technical
primarily to prevent malaria. expertise and generate large amounts of data,
The Federal Environmental Pesticide thereby requiring sophisticated computer
Control Act (FEPCA) was enacted in 1972 giv- skills and applications. Because of the com-
ing the EPA expanded authority to regulate plexity of these technologies, they have not
pesticide sales and use and to certify pesticide yet been widely implemented, but hold great
applicators. This placed the EPA, rather than potential. Tools are being developed that
the USDA, in the role of regulators of pesticide connect with cell phones and computer
use in agriculture. The regulation and over- tablets that allow farmers to make better
sight of pesticide use is the responsibility of decisions in real time on their farms. We are
the EPA under authority of the FIFRA and the currently in the era of “Big Data,” where
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act finding ways to meaningfully interpret and
(FFDCA). The Food Quality and Protection Act apply information to enhance agricultural
of 1996 amended both FIFRA and FFDCA to outputs is of urgent need. It also has gener-
require the EPA to ensure that pesticides pose ated new issues in agriculture around the
“reasonable certainty of no harm” before they legal ownership of this information, as more
can be registered for use in food or feed. private companies are developing and selling
Under the law, the EPA must review pesti- their data-collecting technology to farmers.
cides at least once every 15 years to determine The concerns are that having access to data
if they continue to meet the standards of safety about farm operations, yields, and costs
for humans, animals, and the environment. could be used to define markets or give
The EPA also restricts the use of some high- advantage to others. Regulations and policies
risk pesticides to certified pesticide applicators. about agricultural data ownership are just
The certification process is managed at the beginning to be considered.

3.7 PLANT BREEDING 81
FIGURE 3.13 Advances in technology have improved agriculture production in the United States. Farming equipment
with computer-assisted planting and harvesting technology increases the efficiency and accuracy of farm operations.
Source: Image Provided As Courtesy of John Deere.
3.6.1 Integrated Pest Management effects on the environment are reduced. Some
examples of unique tools of IPM include
Integrated pest management (IPM) pro- releasing sterile male fruit flies to mate with
grams use a wide range of approaches to wild fertile females causing the population to
manage pests and diseases on crops to antici- die out, or using natural plant compounds
pate and prevent infestations, rather than laced with small amounts of insecticide as
respond after they have become a problem. bait to selectively attract corn root beetles.
Components of IPM include selecting crop
varieties that are not susceptible to pests;
using competitive crops, insects, or even
viruses to combat pests; applying thoughtful 3.7 PLANT BREEDING
crop rotations; and reducing the environmen-
tal habitat for pests. A principle of IPM is to The great majority of plant foods that we
evaluate crop conditions and to use economic consume today are the result of plant breed-
thresholds to guide use of pesticides. The aim ing. Breeding and selection techniques allow
is to minimize the incidence of unnecessary desirable traits, such as color, size, shape, or
application of pesticides to the environment tolerance to growing conditions to be devel-
while maintaining economic return for the oped in a plant. The wide variety of apples in
farmer. By using a wide range of approaches the produce aisle of the grocery store, includ-
throughout the year, pests are less likely to ing those that are red, yellow, pink, or green,
develop resistance to treatments and negative were derived from plant breeding. Broccoli

serves as an example of a food crop that was 3.7.1 Hybrid Seed

not present in nature in the state we currently
recognize. It is thought that farmers during The genetic code was not fully understood
the Roman Empire crossed varieties of the until the breakthrough by Watson, Crick, and
wild Brassica family to generate variations Franklin in 1953 that explained the structure of
of the plant. Cultivation of broccoli as a food DNA, followed by understanding of how the
crop has been attributed to Italian farmers four-lettered code of DNA could be translated
during the 1600s. The crop was probably into the 20 amino acids that make up proteins.
introduced to Great Britain in the 1700s and Three scientists (Marshall Nirenberg, Gobind
brought to the United States by Italian immi- Khorana, and Robert Holley) are credited with
grants in the 1800s. Plant breeding continued the latter discovery and received the Nobel
to be applied over the years to create the Prize for their contribution in 1968. As early as
short stalk plant with tight flower buds that 1906, experiments were being done on the
we consume today. The health-promoting inheritance characteristics of corn. Using the
effects of broccoli have made it a popular technique of inbreeding, in which pollen from
vegetable in the United States but many con- a single plant is transferred to the silks of the
sumers would not know that broccoli was cre- same plant, identical generations were created.
ated through plant breeding. Similar stories Selection for desired traits within each genera-
could be told about how plant breeding led to tion allowed for production of superior charac-
just about all of the fruits and vegetables we teristics. Cross-breeding was done using
enjoy today, including tangelos, seedless selected parents from inbred lines. The first
watermelon, and purple potatoes. commercial hybrid corn, Burr-Leaming, was
Tools used to increase the variation in released by the Connecticut Agricultural
plants have included exposing seeds and Experiment Station in 1921.
plants to harsh chemicals, gamma radiation, or Many state and federal inbreeding hybrid-
X-rays. These treatments cause damage to ization programs began during the 1920s. As
DNA, which results in mutations in the plants, interest in hybrids increased, methods to pro-
so this process is referred to as mutation duce larger quantities of seed were needed.
breeding. Some of the mutations induced in A major player in this innovation was Henry
the plants would produce a desired character- Wallace, who founded the Hi-Bred Corn
istic. Many of the varieties of wheat used Company in 1926 (later known as Pioneer Hi-
today for bread and pasta were derived using Bred), prior to his government service. Based
mutagenic breeding approaches, as were many on the principles of cross-breeding corn to pro-
of the rice varieties consumed worldwide. This duce higher yielding varieties with improved
technique is effective in generating mutations vigor, hybrid crops were substantially more
in plants but it is not specific. Many changes productive and were rapidly adopted by farm-
may occur in the plants in response to expo- ers. By 1949, annual sales of Hi-Bred brand
sure to the mutagenic treatments, most of seed corn passed $1 million. Farmers were
which are not identified or monitored in the reluctant at first to plant them, but when they
resulting crop. No regulations on mutation were shown the superiority of these seeds, the
breeding, or testing of the safety of foods pro- demand grew quickly. The Extension Service
duced using these techniques, have ever been was instrumental in training farmers on the
required. Newer approaches to plant breeding use of hybrid seed. Hybrid crops were so suc-
are more specific and targeted because of cessful that nearly all corn grown in the
advances in molecular biology. United States since the 1930s has been hybrid

varieties. Use of hybrid varieties has resulted codons connect with amino acids and link
in significant gains in production efficiencies them together to form a protein. The resulting
and yields. protein may be an enzyme, or a regulatory or
structural protein that implements the desired
trait. If the inserted gene is derived from a dif-
ferent organism, for example a bacterial gene
3.7.2 Genetic Engineering inserted into a corn plant, that is called a trans-
Major advances in science began to arise genic modification. Autologous gene transfers
during the early 1980s that brought a return of are also used in which the gene is derived
economic growth in agriculture. One of these from the same species.
was the development of genetic modification Tools of genetic engineering include geno-
technology in bacteria and plants. In 1982, the mic sequencing, in which the entire DNA code
FDA approved the first medication developed of a plant or animal is defined, and gene map-
using this new technology. The DNA sequence ping is done to link DNA sequences with pro-
that encoded the protein insulin was geneti- teins. In addition, scientists must understand
cally engineered (GE) into Escherichia coli, the biochemical processes within the plant or
allowing a reliable and safe source of this animal to identify where and how the proteins
medication for diabetics. Many people believe will interact to express the trait. The tools to
a second Green Revolution began when these carry out genetic sequencing have advanced
advances in molecular biology allowed for rapidly and today there are large public
creation of crops with specific traits. The databases of plant and animal genomes,
techniques that led to genetically modified including the human genome, available to
organisms (GMOs) or GE foods were simulta- researchers. Newer approaches to modify the
neously reported in 1983 by three research DNA RNA protein sequence are also being
teams including Robert Fraley (Monsanto developed. For example, gene silencing can be
Company, St. Louis, Missouri), Mary-Dell done so that a specific gene is prevented from
Chilton (Washington University, St. Louis, being expressed in a plant or is turned off for
Missouri), and Marc Van Montagu a specific period of time in the plant’s develop-
(Rijksuniversiteit, Ghent, Belgium). The three ment cycle. Gene editing is possible in
shared the 2014 World Food Prize for their dis- which the DNA code is selectively edited to
covery of techniques to insert bacterial genes change, prevent or increase gene expression.
into plants. These techniques followed pro- Modifying RNA, which is the translational
cesses that occurred in nature. By developing step in protein synthesis, is also being used.
these tools, scientists were able to create novel The recent development of clustered regularly-
plants that expressed specific traits selected interspaced short palindromic repeats
from related or unrelated species. (CRISPR) technology, adopted from a normal
One process of genetic engineering involves bacterial process, allows scientists to selec-
identifying a specific gene sequence that tively silence and edit genes and holds great
encodes a protein of interest (this may be potential for both human disease and agricul-
referred to as a trait). The gene sequence is ture management.
inserted into the cellular DNA of the plant or The first GMO crop commercially released
animal so that it is expressed with the native in the United States was the Flavr-Savr tomato
DNA. The genetic code involves DNA, which in 1994. Researchers at the University of
is comprised of bases in a unique sequence California-Davis in 1982 modified the plant to
that transcribes into RNA. Within RNA, retain firmness by blocking an enzyme,

polygalacturonase, that dissolves pectin in the and animals do not use these enzymes and so
plant cell wall. The FDA approved the safety glyphosate was considered a safe herbicide.
of the Flavr-Savr tomato and it was marketed Scientists had found that Agrobacterium tumefa-
in Davis, California and Chicago, Illinois, ciens, a naturally occurring bacterium, pro-
where it sold well. In 1996, the product was duced an EPSP enzyme that was not affected
introduced as a canned tomato paste in the by glyphosate. Monsanto scientists success-
United Kingdom, where it was clearly marked fully inserted the A. tumefaciens gene into soy-
as being derived from GE tomatoes and sales beans using genetic modification techniques,
were strong through 1999. However, public resulting in the production of Roundup Ready
fear of the product arose following a British soybeans in 1996. Because the soybeans were
broadcast in 1998 featuring a local physician tolerant of glyphosate, fields could be treated
who claimed that feeding rats genetically mod- with the herbicide after the soybean plants
ified potatoes resulted in biological effects in emerged from the ground. The weeds would
the rats caused by the process of genetic engi- be killed but not the crop. Varieties of
neering. As word of that report spread, sales Roundup Ready corn, cotton, spring canola,
of the GMO tomato paste fell and the company alfalfa, sugar beets, and winter canola were
eventually withdrew the product. The physi- also developed. By using herbicide-tolerant
cian who first raised the concern later retracted seeds, farmers could spray their fields at key
his study, which was never peer reviewed or times to reduce weeds that compete with
published, and independent scientists found young seedlings resulting in more efficient
no risk of the technology. crop management. Farmers could thereby use
During the 1990s the papaya crop in Hawaii less herbicide and spray fields less frequently,
was being devastated by the papaya ring- allowing them to have higher yields and lower
spot virus epidemic, which was not being input costs compared with other varieties of
controlled using conventional pesticide soybean. This technology also meant less phys-
approaches. Researchers at the University of ical cultivation to remove weeds, resulting in
Hawaii and Cornell University developed vari- less soil erosion and fuel consumption.
eties of papaya using genetic engineering that As the use of these herbicide-tolerant crop
were resistant to the virus. These were varieties increased, glyphosate use expanded
approved by the FDA in 1998 and by 1999 rapidly. The USDA estimated that glyphosate
GMO papaya represented over 30% of the accounted for about 15% of all herbicides used
crop in Hawaii. Today about 75% of papaya in 1996 and 89% in 2006. The most troubling
grown in Hawaii is the GMO variety. aspect of such widespread use is the develop-
The power of genetic engineering to address ment of resistant weeds. When resistance
pest management was recognized by seed develops, farmers must use more chemicals
companies and early research was focused on or switch to other types of herbicides.
commercially important crops of cotton, corn, Glyphosate-resistant weeds have become a sig-
and soybean. Approvals for crops with nificant problem, especially for corn, cotton,
herbicide-tolerant or insect-resistant traits and soybean farmers. Recently, the USDA
began in 1996. In 1974 the Monsanto Company approved new varieties of GM corn and soy-
released the herbicide glyphosate, commer- beans that are resistant to 2,4-D, which will
cially known as Roundup. Glyphosate acts by replace some of the Roundup Ready varieties,
inhibiting an enzyme pathway that is specific as a means to address resistance to glyphosate.
for plants (the EPSP enzyme in the shikimate A successful trait that was developed for
pathway), which causes plant death. Humans insect resistance was the Bt variety (e.g.,

FIGURE 3.14 US farmers began to grow genetically modified crops after their introduction in the mid-1990s. By 2014
nearly all of the corn, cotton, and soybeans grown in the United States contained an herbicide-tolerant (HT) trait or the
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) pesticide. Source: Fernandez-Cornejo, J and McBride W.D. (2002) Adoption of bioengineered crops.
Agricultural Economic Report no. 810, US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.
Bt corn, Bt cotton, Bt soybeans). Bacillus thurin- plant meant that pests were immediately con-
giensis (Bt) is a common soil bacterium that trolled even before evidence of their infestation
had been known for decades to produce a spe- was noticed by the farmer. The economic bene-
cific protein (cry protein) that was lethal to cer- fit of GMO seed to farmers was quickly recog-
tain types of insects. Bt toxin was widely used nized and the number of acres of row crops
in the early 1800s in Europe to prevent insect planted with GMO traits expanded from
infestations in flour and other products and it almost none in 1996 to 80% 90% by 2014
has been an approved insecticide in the United (Fig. 3.14).
States since the 1960s. Bt toxin is currently an Since the mid-1990s GMO foods and food
approved pesticide for organic farming. ingredients have been part of the US food sys-
Several different Bt proteins are produced by tem. These include corn products such as corn
variants of B. thuringiensis that are specific for oil, corn starch, corn meal, and high-fructose
different types of insects. A Bt toxin was found corn syrup, and soybean products such as soy-
that was highly effective against the corn bean oil, textured soy protein, and soy flour,
borer. The corn borer was a significant pest as well as many food-grade chemicals that are
causing financial loss to farmers. The toxin produced from corn and soybeans. Canola oil,
produced by Bt is active only in insects and sugar from sugar beets, squash, and papaya
has no effect on humans because of the specific are approved GMO products as is alfalfa for
way it interacts with receptors in the insect’s animal feed. The FDA approved a GMO ani-
intestine. Insertion of the Bt toxin gene into mal, a salmon that reaches maturity in half the
plants eliminated the need to spray fields with time of wild salmon. Salmon is an excellent
pesticides because the insects would ingest the source of omega-3 fatty acids and dietary
toxin directly when they consumed parts of guidelines recommend increased consumption
the plant. The presence of the Bt toxin in the of salmon. The ability to produce more salmon

should allow more people access to this the combining of different genes into one
healthful food. A GMO apple is approved that plant, became possible, allowing crops to have
does not turn brown when sliced. This will several beneficial features. Farmers had more
increase the shelf-life of sliced apples allowing choices for seed that best fit their farm’s grow-
them to be used more in commercial and ing conditions and potential pests.
home meals.
GMO technology is being applied to
enhance key nutrients in staple crops that are
3.7.3 Concerns About Genetic
lacking in the diets of people especially in
developing countries. Vitamin A deficiency is
Engineering in Agriculture
the leading cause of blindness in developing Application of GMO technology in agricul-
countries, and increases the risk of infectious ture has been criticized for a variety of rea-
diseases. Beta carotene is a naturally occurring sons. These include concerns over the safety of
form of vitamin A that is converted to the vita- the technology to human and animal health
min during digestion. Using GMO technology, (potential for long-term damage), environmen-
foods that are normally consumed such as rice, tal risks (including genetic drift into non-GMO
bananas, and cassava can be modified to pro- crops, overuse of pesticides, and resistant
duce beta carotene. These foods are useful to weeds and pests), economic pressures (high
prevent the devastating effects of vitamin A cost of seeds and related chemicals, patent
deficiency in children and young women. As rights regarding seed ownership and favoring
more crops are genotyped and biochemical large operations over small producers), and
pathways understood, GMO applications have ethical concerns (changing nature, creating
the potential to improve the nutritional and superspecies, and putting profits ahead of
organoleptic qualities of food and to reduce safety). Critics of GMO technology have raised
food spoilage and waste. With climate change, concerns about the impact of this technology
alterations in temperatures and rainfall are in the following ways.
occurring around the world. Crops that are Weed resistance: GMO technology has been
more suitable for drought, soil salinity (caused criticized by environmental groups because of
by higher sea levels), temperature extremes, the risk of developing resistant weeds and
and pest resistance (changes in climate directly pests. Resistance is a feature that most invasive
alter the types and distribution of pests) will weeds and pests (and microorganisms)
be needed to sustain food production. GMO develop over time with repeated exposure to
technology has the potential to address these the same chemicals. The rise of resistance
challenges in a more efficient manner than occurs through natural selection pressure and
conventional plant and animal breeding. processes. The genes for resistance may
Some of the economic advantages for farm- already exist within a small percentage of the
ers and the environment from using GMO population. As the same pressures (exposure
seeds include reduced amounts of herbicides to a pesticide) are applied over time, the sus-
and insecticides (less cost for chemicals, less ceptible weeds and insects will be eliminated
fossil fuel to run sprayers), higher yields (crops while those that are resistant will become
are healthier without pests and weeds, more dominant. Weeds and pests have become resis-
yield on less land), and less need to till the soil tant to all types of pesticides and herbicides,
between growing seasons (less use of fossil including glyphosate and Bt toxin. Resistance
fuels, less topsoil loss, less soil compaction). is not unique to GMO crops and the history of
As the technology advanced, stacking traits, or agriculture includes many situations of having

to use different types of pesticides and herbi- monopolizing agriculture, limiting competition,
cides to manage infestations. As more fields reducing biodiversity, and excluding small farm-
were planted with crops bearing similar traits, ers. Examples of big seed companies suing
it was inevitable that resistance would arise. farmers over seed rights or patent abuse have
Recommended agronomic practices including been widely publicized and fuel the belief that
rotation of crops and use of refuge seeds (non- these companies are concerned only about
GMO seeds within a field of GMO seeds) were profits. Making a profit is the right and expec-
not well followed. The rapid and widespread tation for all companies in the United States as
adoption of GMO crops, especially corn and is protection of intellectual property. To some,
soybeans in the Midwest, has likely contrib- agriculture is viewed differently than other
uted to development of resistant weeds and industries, because growing plants or raising
pests in a shorter timeframe than would have animals is considered a process of nature, and
occurred without the GMO introduction. The raising food may be held to a higher ethical
USDA tracks the number of resistant weed standard than other types of business.
species and has recorded a steep increase in Human and animal health: GMO corn and
the number since 1975. The top four crops for soybeans have been used in animal feed and
herbicide-resistant weed species were wheat human foods since the late 1990s. Animals fed
(66), corn (59), rice (51), and soybeans (47) in GMO grains throughout their lifespan and
2014. Note that of these, only corn and soy- over multiple generations have shown no neg-
beans have GMO traits, hence the increase in ative changes in their overall health, reproduc-
resistant weeds is not solely due to the intro- tive status, growth, or well-being. In fact,
duction of GMO technology. It is possible that overall animal health and productivity has
the large number of acres of crops all treated improved over the two decades in which
with one or two types of chemical herbicides, GMO crops have been in use. Similarly,
particularly glyphosate, hastened resistance. humans have been consuming products pro-
Careful crop rotation and use of different types duced from GMO corn and soybeans, includ-
of pest control have always been important in ing corn, soybean and canola oil, corn starch,
agriculture but are even more so today with corn sweeteners, soybean protein, as well as
the rapid expansion of GMO technology. dietary fibers and other food ingredients, for
Economics: A small number of companies this same period with no evidence of negative
have been at the forefront of GMO technology health effects. Public concerns over GMO
for agricultural crops. These companies have foods as being unsafe or potentially harmful to
focused their efforts on crops of economic bene- human health have been raised. Some of the
fit, mainly corn, soybean, cotton, and alfalfa, and concerns are that a higher incidence in food
the biotechnology applications have been allergies and sensitivities have occurred since
focused on improved farm efficiencies. These GMO foods were introduced, and that rates of
advances may not be viewed as having much autism, obesity, and other chronic diseases
direct benefit to consumers. The power of GMO may be associated with the application of this
technology to enhance nutritional quality has technology in food. While it is possible to
not yet been fully implemented. GMO technol- draw graphs showing correlations between
ogy is patented by the companies that created disease incidence rates and introduction of
them. Farmers must follow legal restrictions GMO to the food system, there has been no
when using GMO seeds, and may be required credible scientific evidence showing a causal
to use pesticides and herbicides made by the relationship between these factors. Major
same company. This has led to concerns of health organizations around the world have

reviewed the scientific evidence and have con- legislation to require GMO labeling within their
cluded that there is no risk to human health own borders. Such state-by-state labeling regu-
from consuming GMO foods. These include lations would be nearly impossible for food
the American Medical Association, the manufacturers to comply with and they mobi-
American Academy of Pediatrics, the Center lized to defeat the bills. While most of the state
for Science in the Public Interest, the bills failed, Vermont approved a GMO labeling
European Commission, and the World Health law that went into effect in July 2016. Under
Organization. The National Academies of pressure from the food industry and concerns
Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine com- from the FDA that state-based food labeling
pleted an extensive review of GE crops and laws would undermine a national uniformity of
released a report in 2016 that concluded GMO labeling, Congress proposed a compromise bill
foods were safe for humans and animals and that would require manufacturers to provide
the technology provided important benefits information on food packages about GMO
for agriculture and the environment. ingredients using one of three routes: direct
GMO labeling of food: Many consumers wording or symbols on the package, informa-
remain confused and concerned about the use tion provided via a QR code, or a website link.
of GMO technology in foods. For some, there The bill was signed into law by President
may be uncertainty about long-term impacts of Obama in the summer of 2016. Several argu-
consuming products with selected genetic traits, ments against mandatory GMO labeling of
or for others the concern may be with the wider foods include the potential increase in food
use of a few chemicals such as glyphosate. This costs that would result from tracking, verifying,
inspired a movement to mandate labeling of and monitoring the wide range of ingredients
GMO ingredients on food packages. Since 1992, used in foods; the need for more FDA inspec-
the FDA policy on bioengineered foods has tors and monitoring tools (some consider the
been that there is “. . .no basis for concluding FDA to have insufficient time and resources to
that bioengineered foods differ from other foods deal with the current food security issues); and
in any meaningful or uniform way, or that, as a potential confusion for consumers about GMO
class, foods developed by the new techniques safety (labeling infers some risk). As is com-
present any different or greater safety concern monly observed, some food manufacturers have
than foods developed by traditional plant recognized the consumer interest in non-GMO
breeding.” Therefore, the FDA has not required foods and see a marketing opportunity. As a
GMO foods or ingredients to be listed on the result, foods that never did contain GMO ingre-
package label. A voluntary provision that food dients, such as oatmeal or wheat flour, are being
manufacturers may label their products as marketed with non-GMO labels.
either not containing ingredients produced Regulatory oversight: In 1986, the government
using bioengineering or that they do contain created the Coordinated Framework for the
such ingredients has been in place since 1992. A Regulation of Biotechnology to oversee the intro-
movement to mandate GMO labeling on all duction of GMO crops. Three agencies were
foods gained national attention in the mid- tasked with providing the regulatory process:
2000s. The effort has been well funded and the USDA APHIS, the EPA, and the Department
effective in using social media to raise aware- of Health and Human Services Food and Drug
ness about their cause. However, many consu- Administration (DHHS-FDA). The focus of reg-
mers are not able to accurately express what ulation is to ensure that new GMO products
GMO is or why they might be concerned about would not negatively impact the environment
GMO in foods. Several states tried to pass (EPA) or existing agriculture (APHIS) and that

they were safe for consumers as part of the food • have a trait that is digestible and does not
system (FDA). Before a GMO food enters the persist in the body
food system it must be shown to: • have a trait that poses no allergenic
potential
• be nutritionally identical to the non-GMO
• have a trait that poses no risk to the
variety
environment
• pose no human or animal health risk
EXPANSION BOX 3.2
ETHICS OF GMO FOOD

The history of agriculture in the United States The companies that have invested in the
is described by continual adaptation to economic development of GMO seeds and pesticides
stress and political and social change by using believe that they have ownership of the seeds
mechanization, science, and technology. The and have the right to profit from their use
general trend in US agriculture has been more (recent legal cases have upheld this view). They
and more food production by fewer and fewer also state that there are many benefits to the
people. Economists would call this increased use of GMO crops, among them the require-
efficiency and utilitarians would likely agree that ment for less herbicide use and less cultivation
the benefits of increased amounts of food to feed (so less fuel and less soil erosion) than non-
more people outweigh any harm to the public or GMO crops. Utilitarians view the increased
the environment. The use of GMO technology is production using fewer resources as providing
credited with some of the increase in food pro- the greatest good for the greatest number,
duction and is a technology expected to be which makes it a beneficial technology.
important in future agricultural developments. Crop farmers also profit from GMO technol-
However, much of the dissatisfaction with ogy and believe they are providing safe and
the current food system is related to adoption wholesome grains to the benefit of society with
of genetic modification technology. An anti- less damage to the environment. They also state
GMO organization would contend that the that they are in the best position to decide the
costs of environmental damage; injustice and appropriate seeds, plants, and technology to
inequities to minorities, rural communities, and apply to food production. Farmers are continu-
small farmers; and violation of individual ing in the rights perspective of the independent
rights are valid reasons to question current citizen-farmer for whom individual property
agricultural methods. There is considerable rights are of the utmost importance.
controversy and skepticism about the owner- Another group may argue that control of
ship, decision-making and use of GM crops. plants belongs to everyone in the community
Who owns technology, specifically genetic and that everyone has a right to food. Control
modification of plants, and who determines of seeds by a few corporations violates the
how this technology will be used? Who decides rights of small farmers, organic farmers, and
what plants will be used for crop production? farmers in developing countries who do not
How can ethics help us decide? Table 3.9 want GMO seeds or cannot afford the GMO
describes various positions regarding owner- seeds and pesticides. Consumers who demand
ship and use of GMO in agriculture. food companies to provide labeling to identify

TABLE 3.9 Ethical Perspectives on GMO Use in Agriculture
Stakeholder Seed and chemical Farmers Advocates of small Environmentalists

companies and farmers in developing
corporations countries
Favored Regulated market Individual property Public ownership for Favor diversity and
Policy with government rights and the common good government protection
oversight responsibilities
Primary Plants and seeds are Ownership and Individuals have a Intrinsic value of plants
Value assets to be used control of own right to grow crops for and land and virtue of its
property food protectors
Ethical Greatest good for Noninterference Fairness and equity Ecological integrity
Principle greatest number
Philosophy Utilitarianism Rights Egalitarianism The land ethic
GMO and non-GMO foods probably agree with Recognition of various viewpoints, each based
this view. Equal access to and distribution of on sound and rational ethical values and princi-
resources, and doing no harm, are important ples, should aid discussion of complex dilemmas,
ethical principles of beneficence. such as the use of GMO technology in the food
The ethical view of environmentalists has system. The policies and programs that stake-
become more prominent in recent decades as holders support are based on their individual and
Americans have gone from taming the wilder- collective philosophies. Difficult problems can be
ness to appreciating the natural world for its resolved when there is respect, scientific thinking,
own value. This group views the use of GMO civil discourse, debate, and compromise.
crops, and maybe all agricultural monocultures,
as a threat to the diversity of the ecosystem. Suggested reading: Comstock (2008) and Thompson (2007).
Suggested websites: www.GMOAnswers.com and www.
This ethic is also linked to building strong GeneticLiteracyProject.org
moral character or virtue of individuals.
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FURTHER READING 91
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Reviews in Pesticide Toxicology, 1, 3 12.
Beckman, J., Borchers, A., & Jones, C. A. (2013). Institute of Medicine; Committee to Review the Health
Agriculture’s supply and demand for energy and energy Effects in Vietnam Veterans of Exposure to Herbicides;
products. ERS Economic Information Bulletin-112. Division of Health Promotion and Disease Prevention
Washington, DC: Economic Research Service, U.S. (1994). Veterans and Agent Orange: Health effects of herbi-
Department of Agriculture. cides used in Vietnam. Washington, DC: National
Brase, T. (2006). Precision agriculture. Clifton Park, NY: Academy Press.
Thomson and Delmar Learning, 224 p. International Food Information Council Foundation. (2009).
Brookes, G., & Barfoot, P. (2005). GM crops: The global From farm to fork: Questions and answers about modern food
economic and environmental impact—the first nine production. Available from ,www.foodinsight.org..
years 1996 2004. AgBioForum, 8(2&3), 187 196. Kinkela, D. (2013). DDT and the American century: Global
Committee on Genetically Engineered Crops: Past health, environmental politics, and the pesticide that changed
Experience and Future Prospects; Board on Agriculture the world. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North
and Natural Resources; Division on Earth and Life Carolina Press, 256 p.
Studies; National Academies of Science, Engineering Lu, Y. C., Daughtry, C., Hart, G., & Watkins, B. (1997). The
and Medicine (2016). Genetically engineered crops: current state of precision farming. Food Reviews
Experiences and prospects. Washington, DC: The National International, 13(2), 141 162.
Academies Press, 388 p. Matthews, G. A. (Ed.), (2006). Pesticides: Health, safety and
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DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. Available from Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 321 p.
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C H A P T E R
4
Animals in the Food System
4.1 ANIMAL FOODS cultures. Animal-source food products account

IN HUMAN DIETS for over half of the value of US agriculture,
according to the USDA, exceeding $100 billion/
The consumption of animal products, such year. These products are classified as aquacul-
as meat, milk, and eggs, may have positively ture, cattle and beef, dairy, hogs and pork,
influenced the development of early humans poultry and eggs, and sheep, lamb, and mutton.
by providing a consistent and high-quality In the American diet, the primary animal foods
diet. There is evidence that early humans were are beef, chicken, pork, milk (and dairy pro-
consuming meat as early as 2.5 million years ducts), and eggs. Fish and seafood are also con-
ago. When fire was used to cook food the qual- sumed and domestication has recently occurred
ity of the diet improved by increasing the for these foods.
digestibility of both animal and plant foods.
Fire that provided heat to dry and smoke to
preserve foods allowed food to be stored for 4.2 HISTORY OF THE
later use. Animals were harnessed for labor, CATTLE INDUSTRY
and contributed hides, feathers, and wool for
clothing. As human civilizations developed Bison are the only cattle native to the
they continued to assert control over their envi- United States and were a source of food, cloth-
ronment by domesticating food sources. There ing, and shelter for Native Americans.
is fossil evidence of domestication of animals Domestic cattle were brought to the United
beginning over 12,000 years ago. Domestication States in the early 1500s by various expeditions
of pigs and cattle likely began about 10,000 including the Spanish, Mexican, and French.
years ago, and goats and sheep about 8,000 Cattle are in the family Bovidae and therefore
years ago in the Fertile Crescent (now the are called bovines. There are dozens of breeds
Middle East). Using DNA mapping of current of cattle around the world, derived from cross-
species, along with archeological findings, it is ing and selection over many generations. The
possible to identify how animal domestication most common breeds of beef cattle in the
progressed concurrently with human civiliza- United States are Angus, Hereford, Gelbvieh,
tions. From these records it is evident that ani- Limousin, and Simmental, but a large number
mal foods have been well integrated in many of specialty breeds have been developed.

94 4. ANIMALS IN THE FOOD SYSTEM
Angus and Angus crosses may account for as this ruminating process. In a mature cow the
much as 60% of the American commercial cat- capacity of the reticulum and rumen is about
tle population. 40 gallons. As breakdown of the cud occurs,
Cattle are ruminants, meaning they have a liquid and small particles pass into the third
four-compartment gastrointestinal system that compartment, the omasum. The fourth com-
allows the breakdown of grasses and plants partment, the abomasum, is referred to as the
that are not digestible by humans or nonrumi- “true stomach.” In the abomasum acids, buf-
nant animals (Fig. 4.1). This physiology allows fers and enzymes are secreted to fully digest
ruminants to survive on foodstuffs with low the remnants of the cud. The digested material
nutrient content. Ruminants graze on forage is released into the small intestine where
(grass, hay, or plant material), which is mixed digestion continues and nutrients are absorbed
with saliva that contains sodium, potassium, into the body. Ruminants are able to thrive on
phosphate, bicarbonate, and urea. The mixture, forages because of the chemical factory within
or cud, is passed via the esophagus into the their digestive system. The reticulum and
first stomach compartment, the rumen. The rumen are populated by a variety of microor-
cud cycles back and forth between the rumen ganisms including bacteria, protozoa, and
and the second stomach compartment, the fungi that work in the anaerobic (without
reticulum. The muscles lining the reticulum oxygen) environment to break down plant
contract and cause the cud to be regurgitated cell walls and synthesize a wide range of
back into the mouth to be further chewed. This compounds. Cellulose and other complex car-
is referred to as “chewing the cud” and rumi- bohydrates are broken down to simple carbo-
nants spend about one-third of their time in hydrates, protein is synthesized from nitrogen
Large
intestine
Small
intestine
Rumen
s
gu
pha
Rumen
Eso
Omasum Reticulum
Abomasum
FIGURE 4.1 Cows are ruminants and have a four-compartment stomach that allows them to digest cellulosic material
such as hay and grasses. Source: Illustration by Reannon Overbey.

4.2 HISTORY OF THE CATTLE INDUSTRY 95
present in the plant materials, and volatile by the US cattle into Great Britain eventually
fatty acids such as acetate (a precursor of fatty led the British to impose quarantines on
acids), propionate (a precursor of glucose), and imported animals that added time and han-
butyrate are generated, as are B vitamins and dling costs to the shippers.
vitamin K. Gases are also generated including Prior to the Civil War the cattle industry in
carbon dioxide, methane, and hydrogen sul- the United States was growing slowly, mainly
fide, which are expelled via the mouth and in the South and Great Plains where cattle were
anus. The microbial population of the rumen is being raised. The war left the South in an eco-
a symbiotic relationship; the bacteria utilize nomic depression and the freeing of slaves
the rumen nutrient composition to grow and meant that farms were unattended and many
reproduce, and these microbes are digested to animals were released to the wild. Ranchers,
provide a source of nitrogen- and carbon- especially in Texas, eventually realized that
containing compounds for use by the animal. they could round up these wild and semiwild
In this manner ruminants turn low nutrient cattle and move them across the country to
quality grasses and plants into muscle and milk markets in the North to sell at higher prices
that provide high-quality food for humans. It is than could be obtained in the South. These cat-
estimated that about 60% of the land mass is tle drives along famous routes, such as the
comprised of land that is not suitable for culti- Chisholm Trail, were economical because the
vating crops but is appropriate for ruminant cattle would consume grasses found along
animal grazing. Grazing cattle on this land pro- the way for food. The cowboy became an
vides a food source from otherwise unproduc- American icon, illustrative of the tough, inde-
tive land. Cattle also provide a source of fat pendent adventurers of the new frontier. This
(tallow), hides for leather, bone meal trade was also responsible for establishing new
and manure for fertilizer, and other beneficial towns and trading posts across the Southwest.
materials. Because of the ready access to open grazing
The American colonists raised cattle to pro- land, cattle ranching expanded across several
vide meat for consumption and for export states including Kansas, Missouri, Colorado,
trade. Exporting meat to Britain from the Montana, Wyoming, and the Dakotas, which
United States began in the late 1800s. By the were built on the breeding stock that was
early 1900s three companies—Armour, Swift, brought along with the cattle drives. The
and Morris—dominated the export of beef post Civil War expansion of the railroad net-
(chilled) and cattle (live) market. Most of the work across the United States facilitated the
meat was shipped “cooled” but not frozen. construction of stockyards and feedlots in key
The trip across the Atlantic Ocean from the locations near railroad hubs that transported
United States to Great Britain took about 8 10 the animals and meat to both coasts. The eco-
weeks. Once the ships reached ports the meat nomic impact of stockyards and feedlots in the
had to be quickly distributed to markets. The central Midwest was substantial and aided the
quality of chilled meats was probably more population growth of cities such as Kansas
favorable during the winter months, but the City, Chicago, St. Louis, and Omaha.
lack of refrigeration on such a long trip cer-
tainly caused significant spoilage. Moving live
cattle on ships was also done, but had major
4.2.1 Meat Safety Regulations
limitations due to the challenges of keeping As the cattle industry grew in the United
the animals healthy on the long voyage. States, veterinarians, ranchers, and meat pack-
Concerns about transmitting diseases carried ers became concerned about the lack of

regulation to prevent the spread of diseases in quality. In 1967 state inspection programs
livestock. This prompted passage of the were approved for meat processors selling
Bureau of Animal Industry Act and formation only within that state, but products sold across
of the Bureau of Animal Industry (BAI) under state lines or for export continue to require
the USDA in 1884. BAI’s primary responsibil- federal inspection.
ity was to prevent diseased animals from Since 1981 the Food Safety and Inspection
being used in food, and to inspect and certify Service (FSIS) within the USDA has had the
live animals for export markets. BAI’s inspec- responsibility for the safety of meat, poultry,
tion authority did not extend into meat pack- and egg products. FSIS operates primarily
ing plants. This changed when Upton Sinclair under the authorities provided by the
published his novel, The Jungle (1906), about Federal Meat Inspection Act (1906), the
the lives of immigrants working in the meat Poultry Products Inspection Act (1957) and
packing industry in Chicago. Sinclair intended the Egg Products Inspection Act (EPIA) (1970;
to bring to light the deplorable working condi- Table 4.1). FSIS inspectors are responsible for
tions for immigrants in meat packing plants. the inspection of all poultry and livestock
But his descriptions of filthy plants, spoiled throughout harvest and processing. This
and diseased meat, and overall unsanitary includes all beef, pork, chicken, turkey, lamb,
practices raised the public’s concerns about and veal as well as some wild game, and all
their food. President Roosevelt commissioned liquid, frozen, and dried egg products. Foods
a team of inspectors to investigate these such as ham, sausages, stews, soups, pizzas,
reports, believing at first that Sinclair was and frozen dinners that contain 2% or more
merely pushing his Socialist agenda. The cooked poultry or 3% raw meat also require
inspectors largely confirmed the ugly practices FSIS inspection. The main goals of FSIS are to
that Sinclair had written about, which led define and ensure food safety standards
Congress to pass the Federal Meat Inspection throughout the processing, handling, and
Act (FMIA) in 1906 (Table 4.1). This law was packaging of meat and egg products; to ana-
passed on the same day as the Pure Food and lyze products for microbial or chemical adul-
Drug Act, which are two milestones for food terates; and to provide public education to
safety regulations in the United States. FMIA improve food-handling practices.
had four sanitary requirements for the meat In 1993 ground beef sold in the Pacific
industry: (1) mandatory inspection of all live- Northwest was the source of a major food-
stock before slaughter; (2) mandatory postmor- borne illness that caused 400 illnesses and 4
tem inspection; (3) explicit sanitary standards deaths. The bacteria that caused the outbreak
for slaughterhouses; and (4) USDA authority was Escherichia coli 0157:H7, which is a particu-
to inspect and monitor slaughter and proces- larly dangerous pathogen because it can cause
sing operations. The quality and safety of meat permanent kidney and liver damage (hemo-
produced in the United States was signifi- lytic uremia). The public became alarmed by
cantly improved following the implementation this outbreak and demanded improved food
of these federal regulations and inspection pro- safety oversight by the government. Until this
grams. Within the first year of the law being time, FSIS inspectors relied on sight, touch,
passed the USDA had hired 2200 meat inspec- and smell to detect adulteration of products,
tors. A meat research center was opened in which was recognized as being inadequate
1910 at the USDA experiment research station after this incident. To correct this, the
in Beltsville, Maryland to develop methods Pathogen Reduction/Hazard Analysis Critical
to test and evaluate meat for safety and Control Points (HACCP) Systems approach

TABLE 4.1 Historical Events in Meat and Egg Safety and Inspection
Date Government action Impact
1906 Pass the Federal Meat Inspection Act (FMIA) Prohibited sale of adulterated meat, standards for sanitation
in meat processing facilities, USDA inspection
1917 Pass the Farm Products Inspection Act Provided for voluntary inspection and grading of eggs
1926 Establish the USDA Federal Poultry Inspection Provided for voluntary inspection and grading of poultry
Service processors
1946 Pass the Agricultural Marketing Act Replaced Farm Products Inspection Act and gave authority to
USDA to define quality standards of eggs
1957 Pass the Poultry Products Inspection Act Defined standards for sanitation in poultry processing
facilities and gave USDA oversight of inspection of poultry
1958 Pass the Humane Methods of Slaughter Act Standardized humane slaughter protocol
1967 Pass the Wholesome Meat Act Required state inspection of meat and poultry processors to
be equivalent to federal standards
1968 Pass the Wholesome Poultry Act
1970 Pass the Egg Products Inspection Act (EPIA) Set standards for sanitation of liquid, frozen, and dried egg
production facilities
1971 Establish the Animal and Plant Health Service Transferred all meat and poultry inspection to APHIS
(APHIS)
1981 Establish the Food Safety and Inspection Service Transferred all meat and poultry inspection to FSIS
(FSIS)
1995 Define egg inspection oversight Gave FSIS responsibility for liquid, frozen and dried egg
products and USDA and FDA responsibility for shell eggs
1996 Pass Pathogen Reduction/HACCP Systems Rule Defined measurable checkpoints for monitoring sanitation
and food processing
2002 Pass the Animal Health Protection Act Gave APHIS authority to monitor and address infectious
diseases of livestock
2010 Passed Food Safety and Modernization Act Enhanced regulations for food safety, stronger recall
(FSMA) authority for FDA, sanitation standards for farms and small
producers
2012 Implement FDA defined “Egg Rule” Provided regulations for egg producers to prevent food-borne
pathogens
was developed and became a rule in 1996. This specifically defined that processors needed to
process moved responsibility to ensure the implement practices to reduce Salmonella con-
safety of food products from the government to tamination and to test for E. coli. By 2000, all
the manufacturer. HACCP plans require food food manufacturers, not just meat and egg pro-
manufacturers to define specific steps in their ducers, were required to have HACCP plans in
processing facility that would be monitored place. The Food Safety and Modernization Act
and evaluated for contamination, temperature (FSMA) was passed in 2010, which increased
control, or other measures and to retain the range of HACCP programs, strengthened
these records for inspection. The regulation the FDA’s recall authority, enhanced

traceability systems for food products, defined to closely monitor the animals’ health and
sanitation standards for farms, and redesigned growth, and to ensure the quality of the meat.
assessment of safety of imported foods. HACCP The diet fed to the animals in the feedyards is
and FSMA are discussed in more detail in a mixture of forage and nutrient-dense ingredi-
Chapter 6, Food Processing. ents including corn, soybeans, and other
grains. Because cattle are ruminants, these
higher nutrient feeds can cause problems with
4.2.2 The Cattle Industry Today their digestive system and must be balanced
The cattle industry in the United States with the right mix of cellulosic material (hay
involves several specialized types of opera- or straw). If the feed is not balanced well,
tions. Cow-calf ranchers maintain a breeding microbial overgrowth can occur in the rumen,
herd and oversee the birth of calves. In some which causes metabolic problems for the ani-
facilities animals are bred using artificial mal. These problems, such as acidosis, which
insemination procedures wherein sperm from is a lowering of the pH of the blood, will
a commercial source is used to impregnate inhibit animal growth and can be fatal. Animal
females. This allows breeders to be very spe- nutritionists are typically part of the manage-
cific in maintaining the genotype of their herds ment team at commercial feedlots to ensure
and enhances the efficiency of the operation. the diets are well designed and to prevent
Calves spend several months, about 7 on aver- such problems.
age, suckling with their mothers and grazing Cattle raised for meat are usually given
on grass in pastures. Between 6 and 10 months steroid hormones to increase the amount of lean
of age the calves are weaned and continue to muscle. These act similarly to endogenous
be grass-fed in pastures, or provided hay or hormones produced by the animal, and
silage. Silage is defined by the USDA as “any are dissipated before the animal is processed for
crop that is harvested green and preserved in meat. A further discussion of growth-promoting
a succulent condition by partial fermentation hormones in beef cattle is provided in
in a more-or-less airtight container such as a Section 4.9. When the cattle reach market weight,
silo” (USDA National Agricultural Library). typically around 1200 1400 pounds or 18 22
Silage is higher in nutrients than hay and it is months of age, they are sent to a processing facil-
used with hay to enrich rations, especially in ity where they are slaughtered and butchered.
the winter. Cattle are sold at livestock auction Some producers do not send their cattle to
markets when they reach maturity and are feedyards, but allow them to continue grazing
transferred to feedyards. Feedyards are also in pastures until they reach market weight.
referred to as animal feeding operations There is an increasing market for grass-fed
(AFOs), which are defined by the EPA as facil- meat as consumers have become more con-
ities that confine animals for at least 45 days/ cerned about hormones in meat, the use of
year with no grass or other vegetation in the CAFOs, or they prefer the taste of grass-fed
confinement area. If the number of animals in meat. Some research has shown that grass-fed
an AFO exceeds 1000 the facility would be meat has a better balance of fatty acids, partic-
classified as a concentrated animal feeding ularly more omega-3 fats, than meat from ani-
operation (CAFO). Cattle spend about 6 mals raised in feedyards. The amount of
months being fed a balanced diet under the omega-3 fats varies widely and the overall
supervision of veterinarians in the feedyards. nutritional benefit to humans is very small due
The purpose of the feedyard is to increase the to the low total amount of these fatty acids
growth rate by feeding a more nutritious diet, present in meat. Grass-fed animals require

more land per animal, and more time to reach Since the 1970s the total amount of red meat
market weight than feedyard-fed animals, (beef and pork) consumed has steadily
therefore the costs are higher for the producer decreased in the United States (Fig. 4.2). The
and the consumer. At this time, there are no decline in beef consumption began when med-
federal standards for a grass-fed beef label so ical and nutrition researchers reported that
consumers must determine on their own how beef, with its high amount of saturated fat and
the animals were raised. Animals raised under cholesterol, increased the risk of cardiovascu-
the USDA Organic Standard would be consid- lar disease. Chicken was lower in saturated fat
ered grass-fed. and was recommended to replace beef in the
The United States has been a major exporter diet. The beef industry responded to the health
of beef since the 1900s. In 2014 the beef and concerns about beef and since the 1970s the
veal (meat from calves) exported from the amount of saturated fat in beef (marbling) has
United States was over 2.5 trillion pounds car- been reduced significantly and today some
cass weight and Japan was the top recipient. cuts of beef have about the same amount of fat
However, the United States actually imports as chicken. The role of red meat in health and
more beef and veal than it exports, almost disease is discussed in Chapter 7, Nutrition
3.0 trillion pounds carcass weight in 2014. and Food Access. Americans consume ground
Australia, Canada, and New Zealand are the beef at a higher rate than cuts of meat. This
top countries that supply beef and veal to the preference for ground beef was true for all
United States. income levels and race/ethnicities. Ground
FIGURE 4.2 Americans decreased their consumption of beef and pork between 1960 and 2010, and increased their
consumption of chicken. Source: USDA Economic Research Service, www.usda.ers.gov.

beef also held the dominant place in type of nickname Porkopolis. Large packing plants for
beef consumed away from home and in restau- both hogs and cattle were developing around
rants, mainly in the form of hamburgers. railroad terminals in cities such as Chicago,
Illinois; Kansas City, Kansas; St. Joseph,
Missouri; and Sioux City, Iowa.
4.3 HISTORY OF THE
HOG INDUSTRY
According to fossil records, wild pigs

4.3.1 The Hog Industry Today
roamed the earth 40 million years ago, and In states where corn and soybeans are
pigs were domesticated 7000 years ago in east- a major crop, including Iowa, Illinois,
ern Asia. Pigs are in the family Suidae, which Minnesota, Nebraska, Indiana, and Missouri,
includes wild boars and warthogs and are col- hog production expanded after WWII. The eco-
lectively referred to as swine. The National nomic synergy of raising the feedstock for the
Pork Board tracks the start of the pig industry hogs (corn and soybeans) and production of fer-
in the United States to Hernando de Soto, a tilizer for the crop (manure) in near proximity
Spanish explorer, who supposedly brought 13 aided this expansion. Research in swine genet-
pigs to Florida in 1539. The expedition took ics, feed, and housing led to more efficient ani-
the pigs with them across the South as they mal production and healthier, leaner animals.
made their way to Mexico. Many of the pigs The main purebred swine breeds include
escaped or were stolen by Native Americans, Yorkshire, Duroc, Hampshire, Landrace,
leading to a population of wild hogs and feral Berkshire, Spotted, Chester White, and Poland
pigs still found in the southern United States China. The terms and definitions used in hog
today. Pigs at that time were the traditional production include:
foraging type, adapted to range wooded areas
• Boar: male hog
for food. In some locations, large roaming
• Sow: female hog that has farrowed at least
herds would ravage grain fields and crops. (It
once
is notable that feral pigs are considered an
• Farrowing: giving birth
invasive species by the USDA today.) In some
• Piglet: newborn pig
regions, these wild pigs were captured and
• Weaning: transition from suckling on the
held in lots for short periods and fed grain to
sow to grain-based diets
increase their size before slaughter. As popula-
• Feeder pig: weaned pig at least 8 weeks old
tions along the East Coast grew, the demand
or weighing up to 100 pounds
for pork created pressure for livestock improve-
• Gilt: female pig that has never been
ment. Farmers in Pennsylvania became leaders
farrowed
in swine breeding. They imported Chinese
• Pig: young hog weighing less than 120
breeding stock and crossed them with the semi-
pounds
wild American animals. These new varieties of
• Hog: term that encompasses all categories of
pigs were docile and more suitable to manage,
pigs; or adults of market weight, i.e.,
and produced a high-quality meat. Pig breeding
240 270 pounds
became popular in other states as well. By 1816
the Poland China breed had been developed in The types of hog operations and stages of
Ohio, which created a new market niche. life for hogs are shown in Fig. 4.3. Hog bree-
Within 20 years Cincinnati, Ohio become the ders provide careful monitoring of genetics
largest pork processing city, earning the within purebred lines and aid producers in

4.3 HISTORY OF THE HOG INDUSTRY 101
FIGURE 4.3 The stages of hog production
from conception to market are shown.
Specialization of operations has become more
common to increase efficiencies and reduce
costs. Source: Illustration by Reannon Overbey.
management of their breeding programs. The the total US inventory was owned by opera-
gestational period for a sow is about 16 weeks, tions of more than 50,000 hogs. Iowa has held
which allows about 2, and the average litter the spot of number 1 in hog production for
size is 8 10 piglets. It is important that piglets many years, in part due to ready access to
suckle on the sow to obtain immunity and corn and soybeans for feed (Fig. 4.4). Recently,
nutrients for the first 2 3 weeks of life. growth of hog production has occurred in
Thereafter they are separated from the sow North Carolina, which is now the second larg-
and weaned onto specialized diets to enhance est producer of hogs. Several factors contrib-
growth. These feeder pigs are continued on uted to the rapid growth in hog production in
balanced diets until they reach market weight North Carolina, including development of
of about 240 270 pounds. genetic breeds that were more efficient in feed
There has been a decrease in the number of utilization and by utilizing housing systems
operations that manage hog production from that reduced disease and improved growth.
farrow to finish over the past decade and an Political and economic policies that support
increase in specialized operations. Focusing on and encourage larger hog operations have also
a limited period of hog production allows contributed to the expansion of this industry
facilities to be more efficient in their opera- in North Carolina.
tions, utilize advances in production technol- A major contributor to the growth in North
ogy, and increase in size to optimize economic Carolina and in other states has been the appli-
value. Specialization has led to concentration cation of production contract agreements in
of hog production to fewer and larger opera- which the hog owner (or contractor) engages a
tions. Since 1992 the number of farms raising producer (a grower) to care for the pigs in the
hogs declined by 70% while inventory producer’s facility. The producer is paid a fee
remained stable. The number of hog opera- for the service of raising the pigs, and the con-
tions in 1992 was 240,000, dropping to about tractors provide inputs (feed and medications),
60,000 in 2004. Operations with more than technical assistance and market options. In
5000 head represented only about 25% of total some cases, meat packers act as contractors.
operations in 1992 and about 90% in 2014. And For example, Smithfield Foods was the
the USDA estimates that in 2002 nearly half of largest hog contractor in 2004 with over 800,000

FIGURE 4.4 Iowa produces more hogs than all other states. North Carolina has increased hog production in recent
years. Source: USDA Economic Research Service, www.usda.ers.gov; Key and McBride (2007).
sows. Production contract operations reduce the producers have used selective breeding and
economic variability and risk of raising hogs, dietary management to develop hogs that are
but take away some autonomy from farmers. 75% leaner than in the 1950s.
Pigs are raised in confinement barns, hoop
barns, or open pastures. Confinement housing
operations are often large, with thousands of
4.3.2 Hog Housing Systems hogs per unit, and are the predominant way
Pigs are nonruminant animals and have a hogs are housed in the United States.
digestive tract that is quite similar to humans. Confinement barns provide group or individual
They are able to consume an omnivorous diet spaces for animals with a grated floor construc-
and were often fed scraps and garbage by tion that allows manure to fall through to be
farmers in the early years of US agriculture. collected and removed. Confinement barns
But progress in understanding swine nutrition have heat and humidity controls to reduce
has led to more efficient growth and higher stress on the animals and can be cleaned thor-
meat quality. Pig feeding systems have oughly to prevent disease. In confinements, hog
been well researched and defined to optimize producers and workers are able to monitor ani-
growth and animal well-being. At birth piglets mal behavior, feeding, and health efficiently
suckle from the sow to obtain colostrum and safely. The downsides of large confinement
that provides immune factors. They are then facilities are that when many animals are
weaned to diets that are balanced for each housed in one location, the large amount of
stage of growth. The main ingredients include manure must be managed to prevent environ-
corn, barley, milo, oats, and wheat, along with mental and water contamination and strong
soybean meal, vitamins, and minerals. With a odors from the facility can reduce quality of life
focus on reducing the amount of fat in pork, for people living or working nearby.

4.3 HISTORY OF THE HOG INDUSTRY 103
Pregnant sows raised in confinement barns Research has found that sows spend the major-
may be placed in gestational stalls, which have ity of their time while nursing piglets laying
bars to keep the sow separated from her pig- on their sides and are not unduly stressed by
lets, but allow the piglets access to the sow for being confined. Farmers who use gestational
nursing (Fig. 4.5). Use of stalls was implemen- stalls argue that their animals are well cared
ted primarily to protect the piglets from being for and this housing system is appropriate,
hurt by the sow. Sows can weigh as much as while animal activist groups and some consu-
300 350 pounds and piglets can become mers view them as inhumane. Ethical consid-
trapped under the sow and suffocate. The erations of animal housing are discussed in
stalls also make it easier for workers to inspect Section 4.11. In response to these criticisms by
the piglets and the sow and control food and activist groups and consumers, most major
medical care. Gestational stalls have become hog producers are moving to other types of
unpopular with consumers in recent years housing that give sows more room to move,
because they are viewed as cruel or unethical while still protecting the piglets and workers.
due to the small space provided for the sow. Hoop barns are used to house pigs and are
To increase efficiency in the confinement facil- typically open on two sides, with dirt floors,
ity, the stalls are narrow and do not provide and fenced areas for animals to be outside.
room for the sow to walk or turn around. Management of temperature is not possible
FIGURE 4.5 Gestational stalls are used to restrain

sows during the time that they are nursing piglets. The
stalls protect the piglets from being suffocated by the
sows and allow workers to safely access and monitor
the piglets. Source: Photo provided by the National Pork
Board and the Pork Checkoff, Des Moines, IA.

and there is increased risk of disease with coproducts. According to the Pork Producers
exposure to the elements and closer contact Association, over 20 drugs and pharmaceuti-
with manure (removed with the bedding by cals are derived from hogs including blood
tractor or shoveling). Pasture-raised pigs roam compounds (albumen, plasma, fibrin), hor-
in open fields and root and forage more natu- mones (cortisone, estrogens, insulin, oxytocin,
rally. This is a low-cost system, but pigs are thyroxin), and enzymes (trypsin, lipase, pep-
exposed to the weather, predators, and higher sin). Heart valves obtained from hogs are
risk of parasites and infections and take more suitable for replacement use in humans
time to manage. Generally, fewer pigs can be because of the similarity in anatomy.
managed when using hoop barns or pasture Currently, research is being conducted to
raising compared to confinement housing sys- develop strains of pigs that can provide tissues
tems, which results in higher costs for the for human implants without generating an
farmer and consumer. immune response that would cause rejection.
Hogs are a source of many other products used
in adhesives, glass, lubricants, cosmetics, cray-
ons, insulation, upholstery, and leather goods.
4.3.3 Pork Products and Consumption What is another name for a football? The pig-
The consumption of pork has remained fairly skin, of course!
constant in the United States since 1970, around
52 pounds/capita (Fig. 4.2). Pigs provide a good
source of meat, as well as a wide range of other 4.4 HISTORY OF THE
products. Lard, fat obtained from the pig, was EGG INDUSTRY
widely used in cooking through WWII, but has
fallen out of common use. Pig fatback is the Bird eggs have been consumed by humans
layer of subcutaneous fat under the skin on the throughout history. Domesticated poultry or
back. Fatback may be rendered (heated) to fowl were recorded in India and Asia from
make lard, made into salt pork, or used in sau- around 6000 BC and in Europe from 600 BC.
sage. Pork belly cuts are cured using salt and Historical records indicate that early civiliza-
smoked to make bacon. Salting and smoking tions including the Romans and Asians had a
were means of extending the shelf-life of meat variety of poultry breeds. It is likely that
prior to refrigeration but continue to be used to Columbus brought some varieties of poultry to
make specialized meat products. Ham is made the US colonies in the late 1400s. And
from pork legs by coating it with salt then European colonists transported varieties com-
exposing to smoke, or curing with sugar and mon in their native countries. Poultry were
salt. The hams are allowed to age for several often carried on sea voyages to provide eggs
months or even years during which time enzy- and meat for the crew. This allowed wide dis-
matic and chemical changes occur in the meat semination of poultry to many parts of the
giving it a distinct flavor and color. Unique pro- world. The British enjoyed developing exotic
cesses for making ham are treasured by many breeds of poultry, and formed the Poultry
cultures. Ham, lunchmeat, sausage, and bacon Club of Great Britain in 1877 to record, show,
are the most commonly consumed types of and protect these animals. Hundreds of varie-
pork in the United States, followed by fresh ties of poultry were developed with differing
pork, including pork chops, ribs, and roasts. size, coloring, and feather types.
In addition to providing human food, hogs In the colonial period and as America was
are a source of pharmaceutical and industrial being settled, chickens were raised on most

4.4 HISTORY OF THE EGG INDUSTRY 105
farms, were generally allowed to roam freely, improved animal health, reduced mortality,
and the eggs were consumed locally. Women and increased egg production. The use of
and children were usually responsible for housing systems soon spread across the coun-
gathering eggs and feeding the flocks try and fostered technological advances such
(Fig. 4.6). Mortality was high due to diseases as conveyer belts that collected eggs as they
and predators, pecking orders caused some were laid and removal of manure from below
chickens to dominate and fight the weaker the cages.
ones, and egg production was often sporadic.
Larger flocks with about 80 birds were com-
mon in the 1900s as eggs became a source of
farm income. During the 1920s USDA scien-
4.4.1 Laying Hens and Egg Production
tists developed two new varieties of chickens, Egg production starts in the hatchery. Males
the Rhode Island Red and the Single-Comb mate with females and the female produces a
White Leghorn (Fig. 4.7), which produced fertile egg within 23 32 hours. Fertile eggs are
large, well-shaped eggs. Leghorns are the pre- collected from many hundred hens, placed in
dominant variety of laying hens being used racks within a temperature controlled incuba-
today in the United States. Concurrently, cag- tor, and held for 18 days. The eggs are then
ing systems, improved feed quality, and moni- transferred to hatching baskets where on
toring of breeding led to substantially higher day 21 the baby chicks hatch. The chicks are
egg production. Egg producers in California separated by sex and vaccinated. The female
first demonstrated that caging systems pullets are transferred to a rearing house
FIGURE 4.6 Mrs. George W. Ferguson feeding chickens in Ida County, Iowa. This photo was most likely taken in
1934. Source: Photo taken by A.M. Pete Wettach, used with permission from Iowa Public Television.

FIGURE 4.7 The White Leghorn

chicken breed was brought to the
United States in the early 1800s. During
the 1930s USDA scientists enhanced the
egg-laying capacity of the breed, and
today it is the standard for the egg
industry. Source: Photo provided by the
American Egg Board.
where they are fed and monitored for 18 • Capon: castrated male chicken marketed for
weeks. Pullets are then moved to a layer meat at less than 16 weeks of age
house, provided a diet high in calcium, and
Housing systems for laying hens have been
exposed to 14 16 hours of light per day to
a topic of public debate within the past few
stimulate egg production. The hens produce
years. To promote efficiency, and provide better
unfertilized eggs because they are not exposed
access for workers to monitor animals, battery
to roosters. After about 60 65 weeks, the hens
cage systems with several rows of cages each
are rested (molted) and egg production halted.
holding several hens have been used (Fig. 4.8).
This allows the birds to rebuild their body
These systems include conveyer belts to collect
reserves. Hens are returned to production for
the eggs and to remove manure, which reduce
typically three laying cycles. At each cycle the
labor costs. Feed and water are distributed
number of eggs is reduced and quality
automatically and measured for each cage.
becomes poorer.
Using these systems has allowed very large
Terms used in poultry production include:
facilities, with many thousand hens, to operate.
• Hen: adult female chicken, turkey, or duck Recent large-scale food-borne illnesses associ-
• Rooster or cock: adult male chicken ated with eggs that were produced in such
• Pullet: female chicken that has not laid an egg facilities raised consumer concerns about the
• Chick: newborn chicken use of battery housing systems. Animal rights
• Layer: female chicken actively laying eggs groups have also called for discontinuing the
• Rock Cornish game hen or Cornish game use of battery cages on the premise that hens
hen: chicken marketed for meat at less than are unable to move freely when confined in
5 weeks of age cages. This has led to increased consumer
• Broiler or fryer: chicken marketed for meat demand for eggs produced from cage-free
at less than 10 weeks of age housing. The social, political, and ethical
• Roaster: chicken marketed for meat at 8 12 aspects of laying hen housing is discussed in
weeks of age more detail in Section 4.12.

4.4 HISTORY OF THE EGG INDUSTRY 107
FIGURE 4.8 Battery cages for laying hens allow eggs to be captured on a conveyer belt to reduce contact with manure.
Food and water are delivered to and monitored for each cage automatically. Source: Photo provided by the American Egg Board.
4.4.2 The Egg Industry Today produced the egg; there are no significant dif-
ferences in nutritional quality or taste.
By the 1960s large-scale egg production had Voluntary egg grading was established in the
become profitable and flock size increased. 1917 Farm Products Inspection Act (Table 4.1),
There are about 340 million laying hens in the and has continued under the auspices of the
United States today, each producing on aver- Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS). Eggs
age 274 eggs/year, totaling over 80 billion are classified by grade and weight. Grades
eggs. The top egg-producing state is Iowa, AA, Grade A, and Grade B are defined based
which generates twice as many eggs (15 bil- on the condition of the egg white, yolk, and
lion) as the next highest state, Ohio (8 billion). shells. Grades AA and A are the highest qual-
Consolidation of egg production has been ity eggs and sold in retail stores. Grade B are
rapid, with the American Egg Board estimat- used to make egg products. Egg weights are
ing there were 59 egg-producing companies based on net weight per dozen eggs:
that had over 1 million hens and 16 companies
with over 5 million hens in 2013. • Jumbo 5 30 ounces
Eggs produced for direct consumption are • Extra large 5 27 ounces
called shell eggs. In the United States most • Large 5 24 ounces
eggs are white shelled, but brown shell eggs • Medium 5 21 ounces
are also produced. The difference between • Small 5 18 ounces
white and brown eggs is the breed of bird that • Peewee 5 15 ounces

A substantial proportion of eggs, especially that recommendation in the most current

those that don’t meet high standards, are Dietary Guidelines, is discussed in more detail
cracked, processed, pasteurized, and sold as in Chapter 7, Nutrition and Food Access.
liquid or powdered egg for the food industry.
Smaller amounts are separated and sold as egg
whites and yolks (liquid and dried). Egg con- 4.5 HISTORY OF THE
sumption in the United States was about 380 POULTRY INDUSTRY
eggs per person per year in 1950, but by 1990
intake decreased and has stayed within Chickens provide eggs, but are also a source
250 260 (Fig. 4.9). Egg consumption, as mea- of meat. Colonialists and early settlers consid-
sured by the USDA, includes eggs that are ered chicken to be a special occasion food and
used in a wide range of food products such as it was often reserved for the Sunday meal or
breads and bakery goods and prepared meals. celebrations. Soon after WWII researchers in the
The decline in egg consumption was associ- USDA and at land-grant colleges began to
ated with recommendations in the Dietary explore new ways to raise and process chicken,
Guidelines to avoid foods containing choles- and to develop integrated egg and meat pro-
terol because of the concern that dietary cho- duction systems. Because chickens have a fairly
lesterol increased the risk of cardiovascular short reproductive period and lifespan, experi-
disease. This relationship, and the change in mentation results could be achieved quickly
FIGURE 4.9 The consumption of eggs in the United States increased between 1940 and 1950 but decreased thereafter.
Recommendations to reduce cholesterol intake in the Dietary Guidelines were likely responsible for consumers eating
fewer eggs. Source: USDA Economic Research Service, www.usda.ers.gov.

4.5 HISTORY OF THE POULTRY INDUSTRY 109
and an understanding of chicken genetics, pressure from consumers has led major food
nutrient requirements, and reproductive traits buyers such as McDonald’s to demand elimi-
developed rapidly. Improvements in poultry nation of antibiotic use by their suppliers. The
husbandry led to better quality and lower pro- development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria is
duction costs. Through the Cooperative discussed in more detail in Section 4.10.1.
Extension Service these practices were dissemi-
nated to farmers and by the 1950s the poultry
industry was thriving. Between 1935 and 1955 4.5.1 The Poultry Industry Today
the average market weight of chickens
Advances in genetic science were being
increased from 2.8 to 3.1 pounds, while the
applied to the poultry industry during the past
time to achieve this market weight decreased
50 years with a major focus on increasing
from 112 to 73 days. This improved the eco-
breast meat yield. Poultry breeding became
nomics of chicken production dramatically.
more concentrated in a few companies that
USDA scientists also began development of a
controlled most of the stock available for the
smaller, meatier turkey and by the late 1940s,
entire industry. This intensive breeding
8 10 pound turkeys were commonly available
approach was very successful and breast meat
in stores.
yield, as well as other enhanced production
By the mid-1960s poultry production had
characteristics, were achieved. An unintended
adapted to technological innovations including
consequence of this rapid selection was that, in
using electricity to maintain temperature and
some breeds, animals exhibit metabolic and
ventilation of chicken housing and electric
reproductive problems and reduced ability to
feeders to reduce labor costs. Confinement
resist disease. Finding a balance between
housing and brooding hatcheries allowed
growth rate, breast meat size, and animal
larger-scale production of chickens. These
health is now a major focus for the industry.
larger populations were at increased risk of
Since the mid-1980s more pounds of chicken
disease and several major infections wiped out
were consumed per capita than either beef or
entire stocks. To address this problem, the
pork (Fig. 4.2). During the past decade, the
USDA BAI was charged with development of
southeastern United States became the domi-
inspection and testing protocols that were
nant location for broiler chicken production
implemented by the industry during the 1950s.
and has been designated the “Broiler Belt.”
But perhaps the most effective, and now con-
Georgia, Alabama, and Arkansas are the top
troversial, disease management effort was the
broiler-producing states. The United States is
FDA approval in 1951 of penicillin and chlor-
the largest producer of poultry meat (about 40
tetracycline as feed additives for the poultry
billion pounds in 2010) and exports about 18%
industry. These antibiotics were effective in
of production ($3 billion).
reducing disease in the flocks, inexpensive and
easy to mix into feed, and promoted growth,
all of which enhanced profits. The use of anti-
biotics in poultry production ramped up rap-
4.5.2 Poultry Production Regulations
idly and by the 1970s nearly 100% of poultry Federal oversight of the poultry and egg
raised in the United States received antibiotics industry developed slowly in the United States.
in their feed. Concerns about the potential The 1906 FMIA law, described previously for
development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria beef, did not include the inspection of poultry
and the impact on human health have made or eggs because at the time most poultry was
the industry reevaluate this practice, and purchased directly from farmers and processing

facilities were not common. An outbreak of raised. Two additional USDA agencies have
avian influenza in New York City in 1920 authority for other aspects of the egg industry.
caused some local governments to implement The AMS conducts grading of eggs and pro-
their own inspections of poultry farms but no vides audits of egg-laying barns to determine if
federal oversight was required. At this time, a industry standards are met. The Animal and
few states were using limited regulations to Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) pro-
monitor eggs based on their appearance to pre- vides voluntary testing for bacterial contamina-
vent sales of cracked or damaged eggs. During tion in hens and eggs. This complex regulatory
WWII, the US military required eggs and poul- environment, with no clear reporting lines, led
try to be purchased only from processors that to lax oversight of the egg industry.
were USDA inspected. After the war this stan- A primary bacterial pathogen that occurs in
dard led to passing the Poultry Products laying hens is Salmonella enteritidis (SE). SE can
Inspection Act in 1957, which gave USDA the cause serious and possibly fatal infections in
authority to monitor and inspect poultry but very young children, the elderly, or persons
did not specifically identify egg regulations with compromised immunity. In healthy peo-
(Table 4.1). It wasn’t until 1970 that Congress ple, SE causes diarrhea, fever, and abdominal
passed the EPIA (as an amendment to the pain. The bacteria spreads from the hen to
Poultry Products Inspection Act). The EPIA cre- eggs via fecal contamination so cleaning the
ated two distinct categories of eggs: shell eggs shells was considered to be an adequate miti-
and egg products. Under the EPIA, the Poultry gation protocol. SE can also be transferred
Division of the USDA’s AMS was given the internally from the hen directly into the eggs.
authority to inspect egg products for safety. With the bacteria inside the eggs, decontami-
FDA retained responsibility for eggs for human nating the shells is ineffective and SE detection
consumption, which was largely interpreted as requires continual monitoring of the hens for
shell egg safety. The wording of the EPIA was infection. In 2010 a major outbreak of SE from
ambiguous as to the strict reporting and over- contaminated eggs occurred in the United
sight authority for egg producers and regula- States with over 1900 illness in 11 states. This
tion of the egg industry became complicated led to a massive recall of over 500 million shell
and confusing. The rapid growth in egg- eggs nationwide. In reviewing the causes of
producing facilities during the 1990s and the this contamination, the USDA and FDA dis-
apparent lack of systematic inspection raised covered that the regulatory process to oversee
concerns about food-borne illness associated shell egg safety was dysfunctional. To address
with egg products. In 1995, an attempt was the problem, the USDA, including FSIS, AMS,
made to clarify responsibilities for regulating and APHIS, and the FDA conducted an audit
the egg industry. USDA-FSIS was given author- of the contamination outbreak, including the
ity to inspect egg products and egg-producing actions taken (or not taken) by each agency.
facilities, and FDA retained authority for the From this assessment, plans were developed to
inspection and safety of shell eggs, egg substi- better define and integrate the responsibilities
tutes, and imitation eggs. These government of each agency. The resulting agreement made
agencies function differently, in that USDA- FSIS the lead food safety agency with the
FSIS conducts continuous daily inspections of responsibility to coordinate with FDA, AMS,
food processing facilities for which they have and APHIS to ensure the safety of the entire
regulatory authority (meat, poultry, and egg egg production process. This new structure
products), whereas the FDA tends to inspect to oversee the egg industry went into effect
facilities randomly or when a safety concern is in 2012.

4.6 THE HISTORY OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY 111
4.6 THE HISTORY OF THE DAIRY (genetic engineering involving bacterial pro-
INDUSTRY duction) and not collected from animals.
The importance of dairy cattle to human
Milk was likely being consumed and “pro- nutrition is prominent throughout history.
cessed” by humans as early as 9000 years ago Cow’s milk contains about 88% water, 3.4%
based on archeological evidence of milk pro- protein, 4.8% carbohydrate, and 3.5% fat. The
teins found in pottery fragments, historical proteins, mainly caseins, are of high quality,
texts, and cave drawings. Processing of milk meaning they provide essential amino acids
included fermentation with bacteria, and coagu- needed by humans. Milk provides adequate
lation by enzymes to produce cheeses, even amounts of eight essential vitamins and miner-
though the chemistry of these foods was not als (especially calcium and potassium needed
understood. Fermentation, in which bacteria for bone development). Milk can be obtained
multiply in the food product and generate by- fresh daily with access to a cow, sheep, or goat
products such as acids, alcohol, enzymes, and (or water buffalo, camels, or horses in some
flavor compounds, produces changes in the parts of the world) and therefore is a safe and
original food. Milk fermentation includes coag- consistent source of nutrition. Ruminant ani-
ulation of milk proteins (solids) and separation mals can thrive on low-nutrient grasses and
of the whey (liquid), as well as flavor and color forages that are not useful for human nutrition
changes. Many ancient cultures have some form and therefore do not compete for resources.
of traditional fermented milk products such as Domestication of these milk-producing animals
dahi, kefir, yogurt, and cheese. Depending on was therefore an advantage for human develop-
the type of milk (cow, sheep, goat, or horse) ment. Historical records and genetic mapping
and the type and mixture of fermenting bacte- support a wide distribution of animal herding
ria, a wide range of dairy foods with many fla- practices coinciding with human civilizations.
vors and textures can be produced. Dairy cattle were not native to the United
An historical, but unproven legend to States and are thought to have been brought to
explain the origins of cheese making suggests the continent with the earliest explorers begin-
that an Arabian merchant put sheep or goat ning with the Spanish Conquistadors. The
milk into a pouch he had fashioned from a Europeans are credited with fostering dairy
young sheep or goat stomach to carry on his farming in the colonies in the 1600s, and by
journey. The pouch contained an enzyme the 1700s cattle were plentiful along the East
(called rennet) naturally present in the stom- Coast. Traditions of dairy farming were well
ach of young ruminant animals to help them established by the Dutch, Scandinavian,
digest milk. On the journey the milk was German, and Scottish immigrants who brought
warmed by the sun and exposed to the rennet, these skills to the United States.
leading to coagulation of the milk proteins. Consumption of milk and production of
When the merchant opened the pouch he butter and cheese for home use was the main
found the milk had become solid. Rennet, type of dairy farming through the mid-1800s,
which is recognized today as the enzyme chy- but enough excess was produced that exter-
motrypsinogen (or chymosin), is found in the nal butter and cheese markets were needed.
stomach of young ruminant animals and A complex web of exporting and importing
causes the coagulation of milk proteins. Most regulations between the colonies and Europe,
of the rennet used in cheese production today which eventually led to the Revolutionary
is produced using recombinant technology War, kept butter and cheese from being

traded with England. But the Caribbean by lactic acid bacteria (cultured), which metabo-
Islands and British West Indies were open lizes the lactose and releases lactic acid.
markets and dairy food exports became a Clarified butter is made by heating and then
source of income for the colonists. Butter and cooling to drive off the water and separating the
cheese were also traded locally and some proteins, leaving the pure butterfat. Butter has
farmers became well known for their quality been made and consumed throughout history
products. By the mid-1800s New England, because of its ability to be transported and
New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey stored. In the United States, most families made
were producing the majority of dairy pro- their own butter using wooden churns through
ducts. The distribution of these products was the 1900s. Some of the butter was consumed by
facilitated by the opening of canals that con- the family and some used for trade.
nected the Great Lakes (Eric Canal in 1825) By the early 1830s dairy farmers were using
and the Midwest (Ohio Canal in 1832) to cooperatives to pool their cream and milk to
meet the demand from the growing city ensure adequate butter and cheese production.
populations. But within 50 years, the north Eventually, this led to the development of fac-
central regions of the United States including tories to make these products and specializa-
Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota had over- tion of the industry into producers and
taken the eastern states and became the dom- processors. Cheese factories were not immedi-
inant dairying states. This change was in part ately embraced by everyone because there
facilitated by the railroad system granting a were many hurdles. Delivery of milk or cream
fast and economical way to deliver product, to the factory was challenging as refrigeration
but also because of the ability to grow corn was not yet available, how farmers were paid
in the Midwest. Having a local source of for their milk was not uniform, and there were
corn made hog production economical, and those that feared loss of the art and individual-
the skim milk leftover from butter production ism of butter and cheese making. These latter
was a good food source for hogs. This diver- arguments are heard today as there is a desire
sification of farming, allowing the flexibility to return to artisan types of dairy foods. But
to switch between corn, hogs, butter, and cheese factories were financially successful
cheese production depending on the markets and led to advances in technology for produc-
and weather proved to be a very successful tion that enhanced the quality and quantity of
model. product. By 1900 factories were producing
almost all of the cheese consumed in the United
States. Factory-produced butter trailed by about
30 years, however, mainly because butter as a
4.6.1 Butter and Cheese more perishable product was not as easy to
Butter is produced when cream or unhomog- store and ship, and there was insufficient tech-
enized whole-fat milk is churned so that the fat nology to assist in large-scale separation of the
particles (butterfat) separate from the liquid cream. The invention of the mechanical centri-
(buttermilk). By law, butter must contain 80% fuge separator and the Babcock device (named
butterfat. There is actually a fair amount of for the inventor Dr. Stephen M. Babcock, a pro-
water in butter (about 16% by weight) and a fessor at the University of Wisconsin) for mea-
trace amount of protein and lactose. Lactose is a suring butterfat changed that dynamic and led
type of sugar (disaccharide) and is one reason to development of creameries where butter and
for the term “sweet cream” butter. Cultured but- skim milk cheeses were produced concurrently
ter is made from cream that has been fermented (Fig. 4.10).

FIGURE 4.10 The University of Wisconsin offered courses in dairy science from the early 1900s. In this photo, dairy
students are working with cream separators at the University of Wisconsin Dairy School sometime between 1900 and
1910. Source: Photo provided by the University of Wisconsin-Madison Archives.
EXPANSION BOX 4.1
H I S T O RY O F M A R G A R I N E
Animal fats, including butter, tallow (beef fat), margarine from animal fat and vegetable oils.
and lard (pig fat), are comprised predominately Margarine became popular due to its lower cost,
of saturated fats whereas vegetable oils contain and thereby created a problem for the dairy
polyunsaturated fats (Fig. 4.11). For this reason, industry, which became concerned about loss of
vegetable oils are liquid and animal fats are solid profits and competition. Following years of lob-
at room temperature. In the late 1860s, in bying and state-based regulations, the first act
response to a competition offered by the French of Congress specifically related to a food, the
government to create a substitute for butter to Federal Margarine Act of 1886, was passed.
address shortages, the chemist Hippolyte Mège- The act imposed a tax of 2b per pound on marga-
Mouriès invented a product by mixing beef fat rine and enforced an annual license fee on marga-
with vegetable oils, which he called oleomargarine producers. This had a devastating effect on
rine. And in the United States Henry Bradley in the margarine industry and many went bankrupt.
New York filed a patent in 1871 to create But a small loophole in the law was discovered

that saved the industry. In 1894 the Supreme Great Depression when animal fat was in short
Court ruled that uncolored margarine could be supply. Acceptance of margarine by consumers
easily distinguished from butter and therefore grew during this time and through WWII.
would not confuse consumers. The court allowed By the late 1940s as production of corn and soy-
the margarine to be sold uncolored, and the man- bean oil was increasing and available for the
ufacturers included packets of yellow coloring margarine market, lobbying efforts began to
that consumers mixed in at home. The dairy free margarine from the restrictions of the 1886
industry reacted by adding the natural color act. In 1950 President Harry Truman signed the
annatto to make its butter even more yellow and new Margarine Act into law and by 1955 every
pushed for state laws that required margarine to state except Minnesota and Wisconsin had
be dyed pink, black, or red. repealed their antimargarine laws. These states
Another invention in the 1890s, by the eventually also relented, but not for nearly 10
American chemist James Boyce, led to the pro- more years—Minnesota in 1963 and Wisconsin
cess of hydrogenation, in which hydrogen is in 1967. Since the 1990s consumption of marga-
mixed with oils in the presence of a nickel cata- rine has decreased as consumers began avoid-
lyst to create more solid or “hydrogenated ing fat in their diet and health concerns about
vegetable oils.” This process became the domi- trans fat become known (trans fats are discussed
nant way margarine was produced during the in Chapter 7: Nutrition and Food Access).
FIGURE 4.11 The amount of saturated fatty acids is higher in animal sources of fat, such as butter and lard,
compared to plant sources of fat, such as corn oil. Plant oils are high in polyunsaturated fatty acids. This differ-
ence in fatty acid composition makes animal fats solid and plant fats liquid at room temperature. Source: USDA
Food Composition Database, www.ndb.nal.usda.gov.

4.6.2 Sanitation and Safety of Milk scientific and practical essay on milk as an article
of human sustenance by Robert Milham Hartley
Fluid milk was a much more difficult com- (1842). Hartley was a staunch prohibitionist
modity to market than either butter or cheese. with a primary intent to close down the distill-
In the years before pasteurization and refriger- eries. But his description of the deplorable
ation, milk could be held for only a few days conditions of the distillery cows and the dan-
before spoiling. Up until the 1800s dairy farm- gerously contaminated swill milk eventually
ers were close enough to populations to pro- led the New York Academy of Medicine to
vide fresh milk daily, which reduced the investigate the situation. They concluded that
potential for spoilage. But as cities expanded, there was sufficient concern about the safety of
such as New York and Boston, farmland was swill milk for children. The City of New York
taken over for other industries and housing. eventually passed an ordinance in 1862 to dis-
Widespread milk adulteration was common courage the practice (Table 4.2) but it contin-
during this period, mainly by adding water or ued until railroads became available to allow
taking out fat to use in other products, to milk to be delivered from the countryside into
increase profits. Milk was carried in open bulk the cities in sufficient quantity and at low cost
containers, delivered door to door where it to drive the distillery dairies out of business.
was poured into containers with no concern A lack of understanding of sanitary practices
for sanitation. on the farm, transporting milk in open contain-
During this time, distilleries began operat- ers, and lack of refrigeration increased the
ing in the cities to make alcoholic beverages. potential for milk contamination. Milton
The by-product of this process was a low- Rosenau was an early pioneer in public health
quality grain slop. Distillery owners discov- and a promoter of milk pasteurization. Louis
ered that they could increase their profits by Pasteur, a French chemist, had determined that
feeding cows on the slop and selling the milk. heat treatment prevented spoilage of wines
This feed source was poor quality for the around 1862 and his pasteurization process
cows, and their milk, called “swill milk” was was widely used in Europe. The practice of
of very low nutritional quality. Poor families heat treating milk was being done in the United
living in the cities, who could not afford States in the early 1900s, but the resulting
fresh farm milk, turned to this source of milk cooked flavor made the product unpopular.
instead. To make matters worse, because swill Rosenau developed a low-temperature process
milk was often not as thick and white in color (140 F for 20 minutes) that was effective in pre-
as farm milk, producers added starch, flour, serving milk without the negative effects on fla-
chalk, eggs, and colorants such as annatto to vor. Advocates of pasteurized milk were
make the milk look better. The sanitary condi- numerous in the late 1800s as an understanding
tions of these city dairies were very poor and of bacteriology and disease transmission was
diseased cows were common, posing addi- evolving. But misplaced fears that heated milk
tional health risks for consumers of their milk. was unsafe for infants kept pasteurized milk
Outbreaks of illness from contaminated milk from being widely accepted. Infant mortality
including cholera, tuberculosis, and scarlet rates were very high during this time, mainly
fever were common, especially in children. from infectious diseases including those spread
Regulations for milk quality and sanitation through milk.
were largely only within states or cities Pasteurizing milk to reduce infant mortality
(Table 4.2). These issues were brought to the became a life calling for Nathan Straus, who
public’s attention in a book called An historical, was the head of R.H. Macy’s department store

TABLE 4.2 Historical Legislation to Promote Milk Safety

Year Level of oversight Legislation
1856 Massachusetts Act Prohibited milk adulteration

1859 City of Boston regulation Prevented distillery slop for feeding cattle
1862 City of New York Prevented distillery slop for feeding cattle
1871 City of Washington, DC Prohibited milk adulteration
1879 State of Illinois Prohibited milk adulteration
1882 Massachusetts Created Foods and Drug Act
1895 Minnesota Created dairy inspection law

1908 City of Chicago Created an ordinance requiring pasteurization of milk
1906 Federal, law First Food and Drugs Act
1906 Federal, milk standard commission Created Milk Grade System: A, B, C
1924 Federal, US Public Health Service Defined Standard Milk Ordinance
1927 Federal, FDA and US Public Health Service Created Grade “A” Pasteurization Milk Ordinance
in New York. He opened infant milk depots in Hatch Act research on dairy products began in
1893, which consisted of a milk pasteurizing earnest. As was the land-grant mission, the
and bottling plant with a tent pavilion. research was done in close collaboration with
Mothers would bring their children to the the dairy farmers and industry. During the
depots to listen to lectures about child care early 1900s USDA scientists also began to col-
and feeding given by physicians, and purchase lect data on dairy herd milk production and
pasteurized milk. These depots became popu- developed management plans to improve
lar and had a positive impact on reducing breeding quality. This led to a significant
infant mortality in New York. This gave Straus increase in yearly milk production, making
the motivation to invite mayors of other cities milk less expensive and more available.
to open similar depots to reduce infant deaths Technologies to evaluate dairy composition,
and illness and by the early 1900s there were bacterial load, flavors, and color were devel-
milk depots operating in most of the big cities oped. Systems to rapidly heat and cool milk,
along the East Coast, as well as in Cleveland, allowing pasteurization without producing
Chicago, and St. Louis. cooked flavor, and mechanical bottling lines
Pasteurization was found to be effective in were created. Glass milk bottles, first produced
making milk safe, but advances in technology by a beer bottle manufacturer, were introduced
were needed before it could be implemented in 1879 and opened a new era in milk delivery,
on the commercial scale. Land-grant colleges, processing, and sanitation. Resistance to man-
mainly Cornell, Wisconsin, and Michigan datory pasteurization was slowly being over-
State, began offering courses in dairy produc- come, but the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act
tion soon after they opened. The first dairy created a legal argument for pasteurization.
program was started by the University of Because bacteria were considered contami-
Wisconsin in 1891, and with funding from the nants, milk that had more than 50 million

bacteria per milliliter could be prevented from consumers obtained their milk and dairy pro-
being sold for infants and children. A national ducts. Customers returned their empty glass
standard of milk quality was developed by the bottles to the dairy where they were washed
Milk Standard Commission under the direc- and reused. This practice continued through
tion of the USDA. The classification system for the mid-1950s until grocery stores became
milk defined in the 1906 National Standard more common. Paper cartons for milk were
Grades for Milk included: developed in the 1930s but were not widely
used until after WWII, and plastic jugs came
• Grade “A” milk: for infants and children,
into use in the late 1960s.
pasteurized to have less than
50,000 bacteria/mL
• Grade “B” milk: for adults and cooking,
may not be pasteurized but bacteria count 4.6.3 The Dairy Industry Today
could not be excessive
Most of the milk produced in the United
• Grade “C” milk: for cooking only with no
States today comes from large dairies with
bacterial count requirement
many hundred cows. In 2014 there were 440
By 1920 most large cities required pasteuri- fluid milk processing plants that produced on
zation of milk and used the grading system, average 115 million pounds of milk per year.
but rural communities lagged behind and Automated milking systems and other inno-
contaminated milk continued to be a problem vations allowed the size of dairy farms to
for another decade. The United States Public increase by reducing manual labor. Milk col-
Health Service (USPHS) developed the lected from the dairy is transported by truck
Standard Milk Ordinance in 1924 to provide to a processing facility where each load is
guidance for milk producers to ensure safety tested for contaminants. The FDA Pasteurized
and quality. This was followed in 1927 with Milk Ordinance for Grade “A” Milk defines
the Grade “A” Pasteurized Milk Ordinance to the required sanitation, handling, and testing
be regulated by the FDA and USPHS. Today, of all milk that is sold. The presence of exces-
the regulations for Grade “A” milk have sive bacterial loads or antibiotic, or chemical
become much more stringent, making dairy residues would require the milk to be dis-
one of the most highly regulated foods. Grade carded. At the processing plant, the milk
“A” milk must be used for fluid milk and all undergoes a standardization process in which
soft manufactured dairy products (including the cream is separated from the skim milk by
sour cream, yogurt, cream cheese, cottage centrifugation. The milk and cream are pas-
cheese, and ice cream). Milk not meeting teurized according to defined time and tem-
Grade “A” standards, even in a single dimen- perature standards (e.g., 161 F for
sion (including presence of bacteria or animal 15 seconds). Ultrahigh temperature (UHT)
cells above the defined thresholds) is termed pasteurization, which involves heating milk
Grade “B” or manufacturing grade. Grade “B” to 270 F for 2 seconds and then packaging in
milk can only be used for hard cheeses, butter, a sterilized container, creates a product that
and milk powder. Grade “C” milk is no longer does not need refrigeration. This type of pro-
used. cessing is widely used in Canada, South
By the 1930s milk bottling plants, tanker America, Europe, and Asia, and occasionally
trucks, and refrigerated railroad cars had in the United States for special products. The
entered the dairy industry. But home delivery, cream is then added back to the skim milk
usually daily, was still the way most using a process that reduces the size of the fat

particles (homogenization) so that it does not fat which, is 12% of the Daily Value (65 g) for
separate and rise to the top of the container. fat. To meet the definition of “high” the serv-
Milk is then packaged into containers and ing would need to provide 20% or more of the
shipped to the market. Four milk products of Daily Value.
differing fat content are commonly available: The USDA found that people are less likely
to consume milk with lunch and dinner today
• Whole milk 5 7.93 g fat per cup
than they were 60 years ago. The consumption
(3.5% milkfat)
of milk by children has decreased from about
• 2% milk 5 4.83 g fat per cup (2% milkfat)
1.7 cups/day in 1977 to 1.2 cups/day in 2007.
• 1% milk 5 2.37 g fat per cup (1% milkfat)
The recommended intake is 2 cups/day for
• Skim or nonfat milk 5 0.20 g fat per cup
children 2 3 years, 2.5 cups for children 4 8
(no cream is added)
years, and 3 cups for children older than 8.
Since the 1970s, consumers have decreased Intakes of milk below the recommended levels
their overall intake of fluid milk but increased is a concern for growing children because milk
cheese and yogurt (Fig. 4.12). Consumption of is an excellent source of both calcium and vita-
whole milk has declined and skim milk min D, which support bone development.
increased, perhaps because of recommenda- Further discussion of food sources of nutrients
tions in the Dietary Guidelines to reduce satu- can be found in Chapter 7, Nutrition and Food
rated fat intake. Ironically, whole milk does Access.
not meet the standard for a high-fat food. Milk, cheese, and butter are the primary
A serving of whole milk provides about 8 g of dairy foods consumed in the United States.
FIGURE 4.12 Americans decreased their consumption of fluid milk between 1975 and 2015 and increased their
consumption of yogurt and cheese. Butter consumption decreased slightly after 1985, and then increased in 2015.
Source: USDA Economic Research Service, www.usda.ers.gov.

4.7 ROLE OF ANIMAL FOODS IN HUMAN HEALTH 119
Cottage cheese was introduced as a good pro- 4.7 ROLE OF ANIMAL FOODS
tein source during WWII because it was a IN HUMAN HEALTH
cheese product that did not require aging.
After the war it retained its popularity and Animal foods provide high nutrient density
became a household staple. There have been (the ratio of nutrients to calories) to the human
many other innovations in the dairy industry diet and contribute some essential nutrients
including novelty ice creams, flavored milks, that are difficult to obtain from plant foods.
many types of cheeses, Greek yogurt, and fer- These include amino acids, calcium, iron, cho-
mented dairy beverages. The by-product of line, and trace minerals. An omnivorous diet,
cheese production, whey, is also widely used which includes all types of foods, is typical for
as a food ingredient to provide nutritional and most Americans. Lacto-ovo vegetarians con-
functional value. sume dairy and eggs but not meat, pescetar-
Yogurt and cheese consumption have both ians consume fish and seafood but not meat,
increased, reflecting changes in eating habits and vegetarians or vegans consume no animal
and preferences. Prior to 1955 yogurt was foods. Each of these dietary patterns can sup-
rarely consumed by Americans. Yogurt port a healthy lifestyle if attention is paid to
gained popularity as a health food based on balancing nutrient intake with requirements at
the long history of use in other countries each stage of the lifecycle.
such as India and Switzerland. Yogurt is Animal foods have been criticized over the
made by fermenting milk with two or more years as contributors to chronic diseases. Dairy
types of bacteria (usually Lactobacillus and products, eggs, and meats, particularly red
Streptococcus). The bacteria metabolize some meat, are the main sources of cholesterol and
of the lactose in the milk and produce lactic saturated fat in the human diet. During the
acid. The lower pH generated by the acid early 1950s researchers began publishing
causes the milk proteins to coagulate, form- studies that related dietary fat intake to increa-
ing a creamy product. By using different sed risk of heart disease. During the 1950s it
strains of bacteria, and different setting pro- was recognized that cholesterol was present in
tocols, a range of yogurts with different fla- atherosclerotic plaque material. Researchers
vors and textures are possible. Greek yogurt, were also finding that experimental animals
which has become very popular, is made by fed high cholesterol and fat diets developed
removing more of the whey (liquid) to con- cardiovascular lesions. Although not univer-
centrate the proteins. The introduction of sally accepted, many scientists and health
flavorings, fruits, and sweeteners and mar- professionals thought there was sufficient
keting the “yogurt sundae” have increased evidence to caution the public about this asso-
yogurt acceptance by children and adults. ciation between fat, cholesterol and cardio-
Cheese has always been part of the vascular disease. The first Dietary Guidelines,
American diet, but the growth in cheese con- published in 1980, proposed that total dietary
sumption is mainly linked with the popular- fat and a higher ratio of saturated to unsatu-
ity of pizza and cheeseburgers. In 2014 the rated fat may be factors in the pathogenesis of
consumption of mozzarella cheese was 14.18 atherosclerosis. Every version of the Dietary
pounds and cheddar cheese was 13.47 Guidelines since then has included guidance
pounds per person per year, which are each on reducing fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol.
almost 10-fold greater than any other type of The message that animal foods, because of
cheese. their cholesterol and saturated fat content,

would increase the risk of heart disease and cholesterol, and in fact many have fat
became ingrained in public thinking. In res- profiles similar to chicken (Fig. 4.13). This lean
ponse, consumers largely reduced red meat, as beef and pork provide a healthy balance of
well as whole milk, butter, and egg con- protein and are a good source of iron and
sumption over the next two decades, switching other minerals.
to more chicken, skim milk, and margarine. Science continues to evolve regarding the
With further study, researchers found that role of dietary factors and heart disease.
the cholesterol from foods was only a minor Recent studies have suggested that the types
contributor to cholesterol levels in the body of saturated fats in whole milk may actually
in most people, and that high blood choles- be protective of heart disease. And it has been
terol was more commonly due to endo- suggested that consuming butter and whole-
genous overproduction or improper clearance. fat dairy foods, including cheese, may be
Cholesterol-lowering drugs became widely beneficial to overall health. While diet
available to treat patients with metabolic remains an important factor in reducing risk
derangements in cholesterol. Simultaneously, of heart disease, the recommendations have
in response to the concerns about fat in red moved toward maintaining a balance in the
meat, the beef and pork industry focused on types of fats (e.g., saturated and unsaturated,
raising leaner animals with less marbling. omega-6, and omega-3), and reducing overall
These selective breeding approaches resulted intake of fat and simple carbohydrates, espe-
in some beef and pork cuts in grocery stores cially sugar. Lifestyle factors such as lack of
that meet the USDA recommendations for lean physical activity, smoking, and obesity are
meat relative to calories, total fat, saturated fat, major contributors to heart disease risk.
FIGURE 4.13 Selected cuts of beef and pork have similar fat content as skinless chicken breast. Selective breeding and
advances in animal feeding practices have been effective in producing leaner beef cattle and hogs to meet consumer
demand for lower fat foods. Source: USDA Food Composition Database, www.ndb.nal.usda.gov.

4.7 ROLE OF ANIMAL FOODS IN HUMAN HEALTH 121
There has been strong debate about the role consensus lie in the complex nature of asses-
of red meat in colon cancer. Early studies in sing the role of a dietary component in a
animals and correlations in humans linked complex and chronic disease such as cancer.
western diets, i.e., those high in red meat and There are likely many factors present in
lower in plant foods, with higher risks of processed meats (nitrates that generate
colon cancer. Many factors have been N-nitroso-compounds, polycyclic aromatic
explored to find a mechanism by which meat hydrocarbons (PAHs), and even salt) that
could influence colon cancer risk. Some evi- have the potential to be carcinogenic. But
dence suggests that the fat content of meat linking them directly to human colon cancer
leads to increased amounts of bile acids in the risk is complicated by the many other both
colon, some of which could be converted into protective and promotive components of the
carcinogens. Similarly, the types of fat in meat diet, as well as individual genetic and meta-
may create a more inflammatory environ- bolic characteristics.
ment, which may be causative of cancer. The Cooking methods influence the healthfulness
microorganisms inhabiting the large intestine of meat. Frying or cooking at very high tem-
may be influenced by dietary intake, with peratures (such as when grilling) or cooking
higher numbers of microbes that utilize sul- over wood or charcoal (which generate smoke)
fates present in the colon of people with high produces potentially harmful chemicals in the
meat intakes. These types of microorganisms meat (PAHs and heterocyclic amines) whereas
may alter the mucosal environment of the slower cooking methods such as roasting or
colon making it more susceptible to cancer baking do not. It has been difficult to include
development. Other factors, such as less fiber quantitative assessments of how meat has been
and fewer protective compounds found in cooked, especially over a lifetime of meat con-
fruits and vegetables present in diets contain- sumption, when attempting to correlate meat
ing more meat (and assumedly less plant intake with cancer risk in populations. In the
foods) may be involved. United States, colon cancer remains a very com-
In 2015, the World Health Organization’s mon form of cancer, but according to the CDC
International Agency for Research on Cancer the overall incidence rate has declined over the
(WHO-IARC) went so far as to state that pro- past decade. Higher body fat, a sedentary life-
cessed meats were carcinogenic to humans style, and other risk factors (smoking, high
and that red meat was probably carcinogenic. alcohol intake) are other important contributors
Processed meats are defined as foods that to colon cancer risk in addition to diet.
have been salted, cured, smoked, fermented, Strong debate continues regarding the role
or otherwise processed to modify flavor or red meat should play in a healthy diet. Groups
for preservation. The WHO-IARC report promoting vegetarianism have started the
was not based on any new evidence, and “Meatless Mondays” movement to encourage
generated much controversy. The scientific reduced consumption of meat. The reasoning
community is not in agreement about the for this movement is that eating less meat is
connection between red meat and colon more healthful for people and also reduces
cancer and several statistical analyses found impacts on the environment. An exploration
the association between red meat and colon of the ethical perspectives associated with
cancer risk to be weak and dependent on Meatless Mondays is presented in Expansion
many variables. The reasons for this lack of Box 4.2.

EXPANSION BOX 4.2
M E AT L E S S M O N D AY C A M P A I G N S
During WWI, there were campaigns for are presented in blogs, magazines, websites, and
Meatless Tuesday and Wheatless Wednesday to newspapers by chefs, journalists, nutritionists,
remind US citizens to reduce their consumption and celebrities. The journalist Michael Pollan
of foods in limited supply and to conserve food stated on The Oprah Winfrey Show in 2009 that if
for the war effort. Meatless days were also everybody in America participated in a Meatless
encouraged during WWII when meat, sugar, Monday, it would have the equivalent effect on
and other foods were rationed. These cam- the environment of taking 20 million midsize
paigns were effective in bringing US citizens sedans off the road. This statistic is difficult to
together and sharing sacrifices for the war verify but is easy to remember and repeat. Paul
effort. During the 1960s when new nutrition McCartney, a vegetarian, and his daughters
research linked certain foods with diseases, started a Meat Free Monday nonprofit organiza-
such as red meat and dietary fat with heart dis- tion with the aim of “. . .raising awareness of the
ease, public campaigns to reduce the intake of detrimental environmental impact of eating
these foods were common. A new approach in meat, and to encourage people to help slow cli-
public campaigning to influence food consump- mate change, preserve precious natural resources
tion was launched in 2003. Sid Lerner, an and improve their health by having at least one
advertising agent, in collaboration with faculty meat free day each week” (www.meatfreemon-
at Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public days.com).
Health’s Center for a Livable Future, created The meat industry and some nutrition profes-
the Meatless Monday campaign. The campaign sionals question the strength of the scientific evi-
was initially part of a Healthy Monday initia- dence that participating in Meatless Mondays
tive to encourage people to give up bad habits has any impact on improving health. The
from the weekend and start healthier habits at Meatless Monday campaign combines all types
the beginning of the week. The Meatless of meat together and does not distinguish red
Monday component of that initiative grabbed a meat from poultry. The majority of medical
great deal of attention. The platform of the research relating meat intake to health has con-
Meatless Monday campaign is that Americans sidered red meats (mainly beef and pork) to be
consume too much meat and not eating meat most associated with chronic disease (discussed
one day a week will improve health. Reducing in Chapter 7: Nutrition and Food Access). Red
the impact of meat production on the environ- meat production is most associated with nega-
ment also became part of the platform. tive impacts on the environment. Perhaps in
The Meatless Monday campaign gained sub- response to the recommendations from the
stantial support from celebrities and is now a Dietary Guidelines, and promotion of reduced
global movement. The Meatless Monday website saturated fat and cholesterol intakes, Americans
(www.meatlessmonday.com) includes articles have been decreasing their intake of red meat
and promotional material to encourage groups since the 1960s (Fig. 4.2). In contrast, poultry
to create Meatless Monday movements in their intake increased significantly in that timeframe.
communities, schools, and workplaces. Recipes, The meat industry contends that Americans con-
diet ideas, and suggestions for meatless meals sume meat in the proper quantity relative to

4.8 ANIMAL DISEASE MANAGEMENT 123
their nutritional needs and that meat contains Virtue ethicists state that individuals will
beneficial nutrients, such as iron and zinc know what food choices are ethical because of
that are difficult to obtain from other food the norms, practices, traditions, and institutions
sources. In comparison, Americans undercon- valued by a community. Vices such as over-
sume vegetables and overconsume added fats eating, unhealthful diets, and environmental
and sugars. The North American Meat Institute damage are avoided if the culture does not sup-
opposes Meatless Monday campaigns in public port them. Some city governments have
schools because they claim meat is a good source adopted Meatless Mondays in an attempt to
of nutrition and children should have a choice of improve the health of the citizens (for their own
the types of food to consume every day. They feel good) and the environment (for everyone’s
that meat is portrayed negatively by the cam- good) but this action may be considered pater-
paign, and promotion of vegetables and grains nalistic and in violation of autonomy and rights.
would be a better strategy for healthful eating. The rights of people to have access to food and
The production and consumption of meat be well-nourished are not the same as the right
raises a wide range of ethical, cultural, social, to choose the specific foods they eat. This is an
and environmental issues, some of which are important consideration for debate as US consu-
discussed in this chapter. From an ethical per- mers become more forceful in demanding
spective, utilitarian thinking would evaluate changes to the food system. Implementation of
Meatless Monday based on the behaviors that any type of group or community food plan
produce the most benefits or limit the most should offer some choice (including vegetarian,
harm. The personal benefits of reducing meat meat, gluten-free, dairy-free), or at the very
consumption, and increasing vegetable con- least provide the option to participate or not.
sumption, may be a lower calorie diet and School lunch options that are not voluntary
increased bioactive compounds from eating should involve discussions with parents and
more vegetables. A person might save money students about meal choices, costs, and nutri-
by substituting beans for beef, pork, or poultry. tion. The Meatless Monday campaign provides
Some farmers may have higher income from the opportunity to debate and discuss many
increases in vegetable and bean sales. On the issues of the food system.
detrimental side of the equation some people
may not obtain sufficient protein, iron, or calo- Suggested websites: http://www.meatlessmonday.com/ and
http://www.meatmythcrushers.com/myths/going-meatless-one-
ries if they do not consume meat and people day-a-week.html
involved in meat production, processing, and
sales would have a reduced income.
4.8 ANIMAL DISEASE of productivity and profits for farmers that

MANAGEMENT raise livestock. Bovine spongiform encephalitis
(BSE), or mad cow disease, is a progressive
Over the past several decades a few major neurological disorder caused by the unusual
animal diseases have caused substantial loss transmissible material called a prion. Prions

invade the brain and spinal cord of animals, operations in Iowa ($1.2 billion) and
causing damage. The origin of BSE has been Minnesota ($309.9 million). This situation cre-
tentatively linked to cattle that were fed meat ated environmental concerns associated with
and bone-meal by-products from sheep that disposal of the large number of infected ani-
were suffering from scrapie, which is a prion- mals without further spreading the disease or
related disease. The disease was then spread contaminating ground or water resources.
by feeding infected bovine meat and bone- Consumers were impacted as well, with lower
meal to young calves. BSE is not contagious, production the price of eggs and poultry
but rather spread by ingesting brain or spinal increased, costing consumers $3.3 billion. And
cord tissue containing prions. Between 1993 and many countries, including China, Russia, and
2010 over 184,500 cases of BSE in cattle occurred South Korea, which were the top three impor-
in the United Kingdom. BSE caused great con- ters of US poultry, imposed trade bans that
cern because a rare human prion-dependent dis- further cut profits. HPAI outbreaks have
ease, called Creutzfeldt Jakob disease, arose occurred previously in the United States but
about 10 years after BSE was found in cattle. It is were less widespread. A major problem in
not clear if the cases of Creutzfeldt Jakob dis- controlling this disease is that it is thought to
ease resulted from eating contaminated meat be spread by wild birds, especially migratory
but the similarities in illness between animals birds that cross the United States in the spring
and humans made this seem possible. To mini- and fall. Finding solutions to prevent or reduce
mize the potential of human ingestion of tissue infections such as HPAI are challenging.
from potentially infected animals, strict rules APHIS has responded to this crisis by develop-
were implemented by the FDA in 1997 to pro- ing standards for facility biosecurity, and
hibit inclusion of mammalian protein in feed for working to find an effective vaccine.
cattle, and further requirements were implemen- The economic impact of such large out-
ted in 2009 to prohibit high-risk tissue (brain, breaks brings to the forefront the significant
spinal cords) from use in all animal feeds. threats to the US food supply that animal dis-
Animal products that enter the human food sup- eases can have, and also illustrates the ability
ply must also be kept separated from brain or of the system to recover and respond. Diseases
spinal tissue during processing. BSE has will continue to arise and animal producers
occurred in only a few animals in the United will need to be vigilant in monitoring and pro-
States and strict monitoring and reporting tecting their operations.
requirements are in place to avoid an outbreak. Researchers in the USDA as well as in aca-
During the spring of 2015 a major outbreak demic institutions are engaged in ongoing
of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) studies to find and manage disease outbreaks.
occurred among US poultry and egg produ- Since 1954 the Office of National Laboratory
cers. Nationally, more than 50 million chick- Plum Island Animal Disease Center located off
ens, turkeys, and other poultry had to be the coast of New York has carried out research
destroyed due to the disease. The economic to study animal diseases and to develop new
impacts included the loss of product revenue, vaccines and diagnostic tests to prevent and
costs of disposing of infected animals, deconta- monitor outbreaks. The Plum Island facility is
minating facilities and equipment and then the only location in the United States where
restocking the flocks. And thousands of work- research on some of the most highly conta-
ers were laid off when facilities were shut gious animal diseases may be conducted.
down. The greatest economic losses were to The Office of Homeland Security oversees the

4.9 HORMONES AND GROWTH PROMOTANTS 125
work at the Plum Island facility, which demon- livestock. The benefits to both producers and
strates the importance of animal disease consumers of long-term research programs to
research to the United States. By 2022, the address disease risk in the natural world is
work being done at Plum Island will be relo- clearly evident.
cated to a new facility being built in
Manhattan, Kansas, the National Bio and Agro
Defense Facility. The USDA-ARS also operates 4.9 HORMONES AND GROWTH
the National Animal Disease Center (NADC) PROMOTANTS
located in Ames, Iowa (Fig. 4.14). The work
carried out at NADC is directed at finding Administration of growth-promoting hor-
ways to reduce and prevent infectious, genetic, mones to cattle and sheep increases growth
and metabolic diseases in economically impor- rate, feed efficiency, and leanness. Growth pro-
tant livestock and poultry. For example, work motants are steroid hormones related to andro-
done at the NADC was effective in eradicating gens (testosterone and trenbolone acetate),
a common disease in cattle and hogs, brucello- estrogens (estradiol and zeranol), and proges-
sis, in the 1950s. But concern about the disease tins (progesterone and melengestrol acetate).
persisting in wild animal populations recently Animals, and humans, naturally produce
has led researchers to develop a vaccine to pre- androgens, estrogens, and progestins through-
vent the disease from spreading to domestic out their life. Since the 1950s there have been
FIGURE 4.14 The National Animal Disease Center, located in Ames, Iowa, has been at the forefront of research to
understand and prevent infectious diseases of livestock. Source: Photo from the USDA, www.usda.gov.

over 30 growth-promoting products approved herds. Milk produced by cows treated with
by the FDA for use in beef cattle in the rbST was shown to be nutritionally identical to
United States. No steroid hormone implants milk from untreated cows, and levels of rbST
are approved as promotants of growth for in milk were undetectable compared to the
dairy cows, veal calves, pigs, or poultry. These naturally occurring levels of somatotropin pro-
treatments are administered as pellets or duced by the animals. For these reasons, the
implants placed under the skin of the ear that FDA deemed that milk from rbST-treated cows
release the hormone slowly over time. The ears was safe and wholesome for consumers. The
of treated animals do not enter the food sup- USDA reported in 2000 about 17% of dairy
ply. The USDA requires that these treatments farmers were using rbST and for several years
are given well before the animals are slaugh- rbST milk was marketed and consumed in the
tered so that there is sufficient time for them to United States. Around that time, concerns
be metabolized and cleared. The FMIA requires about the use of rbST began to arise in the
the FSIS to routinely test meat for residues of public forum. In animals, somatotropin works
growth-promoting products at the time of har- in synergy with another hormone, insulin-like
vest. Hence, consuming meat from animals growth factor I (IGF-1). IGF-1 activates cellular
that have been properly treated with growth events associated with growth and maturation.
promotants does not pose a risk to human Research being done in the human cancer field
health. Yet concerns have been raised that the was finding that higher levels of IGF-1 were
use of these hormones in animal husbandry associated with some types of cancer. The
contributes to problems such as obesity and assumption was made that rbST-treated cows
early puberty in girls. The scientific evidence would generate more IGF-1 and both hor-
has not shown any connection between the mones would end up in the milk. These pieces
consumption of meat and animal foods with of information became intertwined leading to
human growth or reproductive health. a connection between consumption of rbST-
A hormonal treatment developed to treated milk with precocious puberty, obesity,
increase milk production by dairy cows was and cancer. Several scientific facts were
approved by the FDA in 1993. Growth hor- ignored by these correlations including that
mone, or somatotropin, is naturally produced the levels of rbST and IGF-1 in milk from trea-
by lactating dairy cows to regulate the ani- ted cows are not significantly higher than from
mal’s metabolism to support milk production. untreated cows, humans produce both somato-
Somatotropin is a protein and the genes that tropin and IGF-1 at levels higher than those
encode its structure were identified by the present in treated milk, and both rbST and
Genentech company. Using the tools of molec- IGF-1 are proteins that are digested when they
ular biology, Monsanto and several pharma- are consumed orally (so do not become active
ceutical companies developed a process to hormones). Most medical organizations con-
insert the genes into E. coli, which then pro- cluded that rbST did not pose a risk to health,
duced recombinant bovine somatotropin but some consumers remained concerned. In
(rbST). Monsanto was the first company to addition to the human health risks, reports
obtain FDA approval and marketed the rbST were published that suggested rbST-treated
under the name Posilac. rbST is identical to the cows had higher rates of mastitis (infection of
native somatotropin produced by cows and the mammary glands) and had to be treated
has the same biological effects. With FDA with more antibiotics, therefore milk from
approval, rbST was marketed to dairy farmers these cows was suspected to contain high
as a means to prolong milk production in their levels of antibiotics. As noted previously, the

4.10 THERAPEUTIC AND NONTHERAPEUTIC USE OF ANTIBIOTICS 127
FDA requires all milk sold to be free of anti- were discovered through intense research by
biotics, so there was no validity to these con- pharmaceutical companies. Some were initially
cerns. These fears combined with the negative isolated from soil bacteria or molds, but others
image of genetic modification, made rbST very were chemically synthesized.
unpopular. In response to consumer demand, The application of low-dose antibiotics in
many food processors and major retailers food animal production began soon after their
decided to not market milk from rbST-treated discovery. Adding low levels of antibiotics,
cows. Consequently, the use of rbST in the including pencillins, tetracyclines, and sulfas
dairy industry today is very low. Some compa- to the diets of most animals, especially young
nies saw a market opportunity and began piglets and chickens, improves growth and
labeling their products as containing “no artifi- feed efficiency. The effects of this nontherapeu-
cial hormones” or “hormone-free.” The latter tic application of antibiotics seems to be associ-
is, of course, inaccurate because milk from all ated with reduction of pathogenic bacteria in
cows will contain hormones from natural pro- the intestine, but changes in the ability of
duction. Some consumers remain confused by nutrients to be absorbed also occurs. Many of
these terms, and may be unaware of the back- the antibiotics used in animal production are
ground for why hormones in milk became part not absorbed into the blood, but act only with
of the marketing label. the animal’s intestine. Concerns about this
practice were raised soon after it began,
mainly associated with potential for develop-
4.10 THERAPEUTIC AND ing resistant strains of bacteria.
NONTHERAPEUTIC USE Oversight of antibiotics used in agriculture
OF ANTIBIOTICS is the responsibility of the FDA, USDA, and
CDC. The FDA Center for Veterinary Medicine
Antibiotics kill bacteria by blocking aspects (CVM) approves antimicrobial drugs for use in
of cell growth, metabolism or reproduction. livestock and determines the minimum with-
Classes of antibiotics have been developed over drawal period required between the use of the
the years that target specific groups of bacteria. drug and the time the animal or products enter
The first antibiotic discovered was penicillin, by the food system. The USDA FSIS continually
the British bacteriologist Alexander Fleming samples meat and the FDA tests milk for anti-
who isolated it from a mold. Penicillin was rec- biotic residue. Products that test positive for
ognized for its ability to kill infectious bacteria antibiotics are not allowed to enter the food
just after the start of WWII. The value of penicil- supply. Some consumers may be concerned
lin to reduce infections in soldiers was soon rec- that meat, milk, or eggs from animals that
ognized but British scientists were not able to have received antibiotics will contain those
produce enough quantity of the drug to run same antibiotics. Antibiotics, either for non-
clinical trials. They sought help from scientists therapeutic or therapeutic use, have always
at the USDA-ARS in Peoria, Illinois, who very been monitored by the USDA and FDA to
quickly devised a method to produce large ensure that there is adequate time after admin-
quantities of penicillin and an even more istration for the drugs to clear the animals’ sys-
effective strain. By 1943 human trials proved tem. Animal foods in the grocery store do not
that penicillin was an effective antibiotic drug contain antibiotics. Marketing tools, such as
and shipments were sent to the front lines antibiotic-free labels, confuse consumers who
during D-Day battles to treat and save might not understand that all foods are
many wounded soldiers. Soon other antibiotics antibiotic-free by regulatory standard.

4.10.1 Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria

Antibiotics are used in livestock to treat dis-
eased animals, treat animals that are not yet
diseased but may come in contact with a dis-
ease (disease prevention), and to enhance
growth (growth promotion). The latter two
types of use, in which noninfected animals are
given antibiotics, have been strongly criticized
for the potential to increase the risk of antibi-
otic resistance. Antibiotic resistance occurs
when microbes develop mechanisms to sur-
vive a drug’s attack. These changes in the
microbes arise through mutations or transfer
of genetic material with other microbes. A
selection process occurs in which susceptible
microbes are eliminated allowing resistant
microbes to multiply. The US Institute of
Medicine first made recommendations to FIGURE 4.15 The process by which antibiotic-resistant
reduce or eliminate antimicrobials in animal bacteria develop and then spread from livestock to people
feed in 1980 because of concerns about antibi- includes distribution through direct contact, water, soil,
otic resistance. However, they did not provide and food products. Source: Illustration by Reannon Overbey.
sufficient data to prove the practice was associ-
ated with creating antibiotic-resistant microbes
and so no changes were implemented. Recent animals, and people (e.g., on-farm animal
increases in the number of antibiotic-resistant workers as well as off-farm exposure through
bacteria have reinitiated the concern that the water and soil; Fig. 4.15).
widespread nontherapeutic use of antibiotics Some antibiotics used in animals are not
in livestock may contribute to this problem. effective for or used for treating human ill-
Antibiotic-resistant bacteria that arise in nesses, and so antibiotic resistance to these
livestock have the potential to infect humans. drugs would be of little concern to human
Human bacterial infections resistant to drug health. Other drugs are used both in animals
treatment were reported over 65 years ago. In and humans and are thereby considered medi-
the past, there were a sufficient number of dif- cally important (Table 4.3). Should these gener-
ferent antibiotic drugs with the ability to kill ate resistant bacteria strains, the risk to human
several types of microbes, so if resistance health would be high.
developed to one drug another drug could be The CDC reported 2 million cases of
used. This situation has now changed as sev- antibiotic-resistant infections in 2015. An
eral strains of microbes have developed resis- example is methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus
tance to all of the available antibiotic drugs. aureus (MRSA), which causes severe skin infec-
The spread of resistant bacteria from animals tions that can lead to death. There are no effec-
can occur if they shed the microbes into the tive antibiotics to treat this disease. MRSA first
environment allowing them to come in contact occurred in hospitalized patients and steps
with other food (e.g., irrigation water and were taken to reduce infection through
manure fertilizers used on vegetable crops), improved hygiene and cleaning protocols. The

4.10 THERAPEUTIC AND NONTHERAPEUTIC USE OF ANTIBIOTICS 129
TABLE 4.3 Drugs for Animal and Human Therapeutic Use and Animal Growth Promotion
Livestock therapeutic Human Animal growth
Drug class Example drug and nontherapeutic use therapeutic use promotant
Aminopenicillins Amoxicillin X X
Phosphoglycolipids Bambermycin X X
Polypeptides Bacitracin X X X
Quinoxalines Carbadox X
Macrolides Erythromycin X X X
Amphenicols Florfenicol X
Aminoglycosides Neomycin X X X
Ionophores Lasalocid X
Lincosamides Lincomycin X X
Beta-lactams Penicillin X X X
Arsenicals Roxarsone X X
Tetracyclines Tetracycline X X X
Streptogramins Virginiamycin X X
From Marshall, B. M., & Levy, S. B. (2011). Food animals and antimicrobials: Impacts on human health. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 24(4),
718 733 (Marshall & Levy, 2011).
spread of MRSA outside of hospitals has Three main types of food-related antibiotic-
become more common. Outbreaks of MRSA resistant bacteria that have been linked to food
have occurred in populations that have close include Salmonella, Campylobacter, and
interpersonal contact, such as wrestling and Staphylococcus. Since 1996, the FDA’s National
football teams, or through nail salons with Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System
insufficient sanitation practices. MRSA has for Enteric Bacteria (NARMS) program collects
been found in agricultural animals, including and evaluates the risk of antibiotic-resistant
swine, and has been shown to be prevalent in bacteria in humans, retail meat, and food ani-
farm workers and meat processing employees. mals. Data from the NARMS has found that
The potential of MRSA entering the food sup- the percent of microbial samples collected
ply via meat products was confirmed when a from chickens, turkeys, cattle, and swine that
small percentage of retail pork products were have no resistance to 17 different antibiotics
found to contain MRSA. This leads to further decreased slightly (meaning that more samples
concern about spread of antibiotic-resistant did show resistance) between 1999 and 2010.
bacteria through the food supply, which could The USDA has also collected data about the
have much more far-reaching distribution than use of antibiotics in livestock for many years.
would human human or human animal con- From a survey conducted in 2009, they found
tact. Note that thoroughly cooking meat does that the majority of nursery pigs did not
kill the bacteria, so proper food preparation is receive nontherapeutic (growth-promoting)
a way to control spread of MRSA, as it is for antibiotics although most were treated with
most food-borne pathogens. antibiotics to prevent disease (Fig. 4.16). For

FIGURE 4.16 A USDA survey in 2009 found that the nontherapeutic use of antibiotics was common in both nursery
pigs and finishing hogs. Producers responded that over 50% of nursery pigs and 60% of finishing hogs had or may have
received antibiotics for growth promotion. Therapeutic use of antibiotics was higher for both nursery pigs and finishing
hogs. Source: USDA Economic Research Service, www.usda.ers.gov, Agricultural Resource Management Survey (ARMS), 2009.
hogs, antibiotics were used in about 40% of which antibiotic resistance can occur. It may not
operations for growth promotion, and about be possible to target where a resistance might
51% used antibiotics to prevent disease. From originate. The large amounts of antibiotics used
other studies, the USDA found that about half in agriculture would suggest that reduction and
of broiler producers add antibiotics to feed to more judicious use would be beneficial to reduce
promote growth. In beef production, less than the potential to develop antibiotic resistance. In
16% used antibiotics to promote growth in 2013 the FDA CVM issued a set of guidelines,
young animals, but the majority of animals in The Judicious Use of Medically Important
feedlots received antibiotics, especially those Antimicrobial Drugs in Food-Producing Animals.
in large production facilities, to prevent dis- The document provided two main principles:
ease. About half of dairy cattle producers used the use of medically important antimicrobial
antibiotics in feed to prevent disease and pro- drugs in food-producing animals should be lim-
mote growth. The collection of this data, which ited to those uses that are considered necessary
included the types and routes of administra- for assuring animal health, and the use of medi-
tion, was used to inform policies and guidelines cally important antimicrobial drugs in food-
to reduce the threat of antimicrobial resistance producing animals should be limited to those
from the use of antibiotics in livestock. uses that include veterinary oversight or consul-
There is a lack of scientific evidence to directly tation. The FDA recommended that animal phar-
correlate the development of antibiotic-resistant maceutical companies voluntarily remove
bacteria with agricultural use of antibiotics. growth enhancement and feed efficiency uses
Overuse and improper administration of antibio- from their antibiotic products, eliminate over-
tics in human medicine is also a route through the-counter distribution, and require veterinary

4.11 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF FOOD ANIMALS 131
oversight. Simultaneously, the FDA focused on being of animals. The majority of beef cattle in
ensuring that physicians and patients appropri- production are finished in feedyards or CAFOs
ately use antibiotics to treat human illnesses. The (Fig. 4.17). Confinement facilities for hogs and
need to treat animals therapeutically with anti- laying hens are also primarily in the CAFO cat-
biotics will continue, just as humans will need egory. CAFOs can provide a low-cost and effi-
these drugs to treat illness. For example, mastitis cient way to raise animals if well managed, and
in dairy cows or an infection from a wound must the low cost of animal foods in the United
be treated to prevent pain and suffering of the States is in part due to the use of these systems.
animal. The USDA requires animal producers to When animals are housed in large groups, there
treat animals humanely, which includes treating is a substantial generation of manure that must
them for illnesses using approved drugs and be processed or hauled away. It is estimated
therapies. But under the new FDA guidance, that on an annual basis livestock waste
these treatments will be supervised by amounts to between 1.2 and 1.37 billion tons.
veterinarians. And, unlike human waste, there is no sanitary
The motivations for companies and produ- sewage treatment facility requirement for ani-
cers to comply with these voluntary guidelines mal waste. Manure management on CAFOs is
are economic, ethical, and political. As more of great importance to both public health and
consumers demand to know how animals are the environment. How the manure is stored on
raised and express concerns about antimicro- the facility affects gas emissions; for example,
bial resistance, producers become pressured to closed tanks retain emissions while open ponds
participate in solutions in a transparent man- or lagoons allow gases to escape. Manure is
ner. Ethically, companies that produce drugs high in nitrogen and other minerals and these
and the farmers that use them realize that anti- can leach from the facility into ground and sur-
biotic resistance is a significant problem that face water if not stored properly. The majority
has wide-ranging implications for the health of of livestock manure is applied to cropland or
all humans. If the voluntary approach should pastures as fertilizer. The EPA regulates
fail to make sufficient impact, federal regula- manure distribution by large producers. Being
tions would need to be implemented. high in organic matter, nitrogen, and minerals
is a positive benefit of manure that contributes
to soil fertility and crop production. But ground
4.11 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES application has limitations. If the manure is
OF FOOD ANIMALS spread on the surface (Fig. 4.18) it will produce
more emissions than when injected below the
Currently the types of housing in animal surface. And if the manure is administered
food production in the United States are under when the ground is frozen or right before a
increased scrutiny from the public. There are heavy rain, runoff into waterways occurs.
over 450,000 AFOs in the United States housing Finding adequate and suitable land for spread-
all types of livestock. AFOs with more than ing, and not overapplying, manure can be chal-
1000 animal units (an animal unit is equivalent lenging. When there are many CAFOs within a
to 1000 pounds of animal weight which corre- community, more manure is produced than can
lates to 1000 head of cattle, 700 dairy cows, be applied to the surrounding land. Shipping
2500 hogs, 125 thousand broilers or 82 thousand manure to other locations is costly and time
hens) are called CAFOs. AFOs and CAFOs consuming.
have been criticized for having negative effects In the United States the beef, dairy, and poul-
on the environment and the health and well- try industries must meet federal guidelines

FIGURE 4.17 Concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) include feedyards where beef cattle are fed high-
nutrient diets to reach market weight. A CAFO is defined by the USDA as a site where more than 1000 animal units are
held for more than 6 months with no grass or vegetation. Source: Photo provided by the National Beef Council.
relative to the environmental impacts of AFOs the quality of life for citizens. Acute and chronic
managed by the EPA. The Clean Water Act’s health effects caused by air particulates and
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination gases produced in these operations are also of
System Program for Concentrated Animal concern. Although it is rare, farm workers
Feeding Operations mandates how CAFOs man- have become asphyxiated while cleaning
age their wastes to protect water systems. The manure pits due to these gases, and there is
Clean Air Act (CAA) enforces regulations on the some evidence that children living near CAFOs
amount of ammonia released from animal pro- are at higher risk for developing asthma. There
duction. In 2002 that amounted to 2.4 billion are three laws that address CAFO air emissions:
tons of ammonia. the Comprehensive Environmental Response,
A variety of air contaminants, including Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA, also
ammonia, nitrous oxide, methane, volatile known as the Superfund Act), the Emergency
organic compounds (which produce odors), Planning and Community Right to Know Act
hydrogen sulfide, and particulate matter, pro- (EPCRA), and the CAA. There has been criticism
duced from animal production can have nega- of the EPA for not strongly enforcing the emis-
tive environmental and human health effects. sion standards in these acts and allowing exemp-
CAFOs that are near houses or towns may be tions for CAFOs. As populations expand and
criticized for producing foul odors, and reducing people begin to move into areas were CAFOs

4.11 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF FOOD ANIMALS 133
FIGURE 4.18 Farmers spread manure from animal operations on their fields to provide fertilizer for their crops.
Manure spreaders distribute dry manure onto the fields, as shown. The amount and timing of manure spreading must be
controlled to prevent contamination of water systems. Source: Image Provided As Courtesy of John Deere.
have been operating, conflicts arise between the with human food, whereas pork and chicken
producers and the homeowners about air qual- rations include grains that are suitable for
ity. Researchers are working on strategies that humans. Hence, cattle production using marginal
can mitigate both the production of these com- land that is not suitable for producing human
pounds by the animals (using modified feed sys- foods alters the lifecycle assessment.
tems) and their release into the environment (air There is debate about the amount of meth-
filtration and strategic planting of trees and ane gas that is produced from ruminant ani-
bushes). mals (dairy cows and beef cattle, mainly) and
A review of lifecycle analyses of animal pro- the contribution of livestock-generated meth-
duction in developing countries (Table 4.4) found ane to greenhouse gas (GHG) accumulation
that beef production was more land-intensive and resultant global warming. GHGs are dis-
than pork or chicken, and generated more CO2 cussed in more detail in Chapter 8,
equivalents that contribute to climate change. Sustainability of the Food System. An estimate
However, these authors noted that this type of by the Food and Agriculture Organization is
assessment does not take into consideration that livestock may contribute as much as 18%
important nuances of animal production. For of GHG emission worldwide. That estimation
example, ruminant animals consume feed ingre- takes into consideration the emission of carbon
dients (hay and grasses) that do not compete dioxide from fossil fuel use in the production

TABLE 4.4 Land Use and Carbon Dioxide Generation by Animal Food Production
Land use (m2/kg) Land use (m2/kg Protein) CO2 equivalents/kg CO2 equivalents/kg protein
Pork 8.9 12.1 47 64 3.9 10 21 53

Chicken 8.1 9.9 42 52 3.7 6.9 18 36
Beef 27 49 144 258 14 32 75 170
Milk 1.1 2.0 33 59 0.84 1.3 24 38
Eggs 4.5 6.2 35 48 3.9 4.9 30 38
From deVries, M., & de Boer, I. J. M. (2010). Comparing environmental impacts for livestock products: A review of life cycle assessments. Livestock
Science, 128, 1 11 (de Vries & de Boer, 2010).
system, deforestation for grazing, methane pounds represents the carcass, of which about
generation from manure and rumination, and 600 pounds is edible meat. The remaining parts
nitrous oxide released from fertilizers used in of the body are used for hundreds of materials
grain production. Livestock are not the only including dyes, adhesives, plastics, medicines,
source of methane production in the food sys- insulation, cosmetics, glass, lubricants, and
tem. Rice production is a major source of leather to name a few. These secondary markets
methane in China and global landfill waste benefit from the cattle industry with a renewable
including food materials, generates substantial source of materials that would be difficult replace
amounts of methane. The overall impact of from other sources.
ruminant generation of methane is less than The nutritional value of animal products for
these sources, but is a contributing source. human health is not readily replaced by plant
Another way animals impact the environment foods. Iron and zinc from beef, calcium from
is that animals consume a large amount of grain, milk, and choline from eggs are some examples
which requires land, water, and chemical inputs of key nutrients that are best provided by ani-
to produce. There have been estimates that it mal foods. The protein quality of animal foods
requires 6 20 pounds of grain to make 1 pound is also matched to the amino acid requirements
of beef. However, there are several caveats to this of humans making them high-quality protein
estimate to be considered. For cattle, both beef foods. Determining the optimum diet for
and dairy, the majority of their diet is forage humans that balances nutritional value, eco-
material that has no human nutritional value. nomics, and the environment will be critically
Actually, most of the cattle raised in the United important as the global population increases.
States, and even more globally, consume only Animal scientists are actively researching
small amounts of grain as part of their diet over new ways to raise animals to reduce the envi-
their lifespan. Grain is included mainly during ronmental impact. Studies have found that
the finishing period in feedyards. Increasingly, careful selection of feed ingredients may
the use of by-products from the grain industry reduce the amount of nutrients (nitrogen,
such as corn gluten or distiller’s grains, as part of phosphates, and other metals) excreted by ani-
the finishing diet, are fed to cattle rather than mals in manure. This would increase produc-
ending up in landfills. Another aspect of the ani- tion efficiency and reduce environmental
mal industry is that cattle generate many pro- damage. Also, specific feeding techniques may
ducts in addition to beef for human decrease methane production and eliminate
consumption. For a 1250-pound steer, about 790 the odors associated with animal facilities.

4.12 ETHICAL ISSUES IN ANIMAL HOUSING SYSTEMS 135
Better animal housing facilities and processes federal standards. The implications of this law
for utilization of waste streams are continually are significant because even eggs produced in
being developed with the goal of providing other states and sold in California must meet
safe and healthy food without negative effects these housing standards, therefore egg produ-
on the environment. cers nationwide must comply with the
California standard in order to sell their eggs
to the state. The changes in housing standard,
4.12 ETHICAL ISSUES IN ANIMAL requiring more floor space per hen, means that
HOUSING SYSTEMS producers must invest in new caging systems
and infrastructures, or reduce the number of
The Humane Society of the United States animals they house. Either way, production
(HSUS), the People for the Ethical Treatment of costs are increased. The result of this law has
Animals (PETA), the Animal Liberation Front been an increased price of eggs for California
(ALF), and the Animal Legal Defense Fund consumers, but higher value to egg producers
(ALDF) have been active in opposing farm ani- that meet the standards. Hence, a market shift
mal caging systems using a wide range of is likely to occur with some egg producers see-
media and celebrity spokespersons. These ing value in changing their housing standards
groups engage the public with images of ani- to gain a higher price to sell in California.
mals in confinement and mistreatment that Pressure from consumers who have raised
draw strong emotional responses and raise large concerns about animal housing standards to
amounts of money. While the majority of farm major restaurant chains has led some to
animal producers maintain high standards of announce their goal to transition to these sys-
humane animal care, incidents of abuse or mis- tems over the next decade or so. Restaurants
handling do happen. When these are reported that have made that pledge include
in the press and posted on organizations’ web- McDonald’s, Starbucks, Taco Bell, and Panera
sites, consumers who may have no first-hand and some food manufacturers such as
experience with farm animals may think this is Kellogg’s and General Mills have as well. The
the way all animals are treated. Animal produ- change in housing standards will put pressure
cers have begun to publicly share their perspec- on farmers to transition their production sys-
tive of humane animal care in which cages and tems or lose these markets. Similarly, another
confinement are used to improve animal man- focus has been advocating for the elimination
agement and efficiency. There is strong scientific of gestational crates for pigs. Wendy’s, Burger
evidence to support improved animal health King, Safeway, and Kroger among others have
and production when animal caging and con- stated their intention to require gradual elimi-
finement are used appropriately. Public opinion nation of gestational crates by their suppliers.
tends to run against this practice, which has led This will also require farmers to restructure
to change in the industry. their operations to meet the market demand.
In 2013 California passed the California
Shell Egg Food Safety regulation, which
requires eggs sold in the state to follow testing
4.12.1 Ethical Views About
and vaccination protocols to reduce S. enteriti-
dis contamination and defines an increased
Animal Rights
amount of floor space per hen. This law is the The consumption of animal products as food
first of its kind in which a state defined animal provides an ethical dilemma for some people. In
care and housing regulations independently of 1975, the philosopher Peter Singer published his

views on animal rights in a popular book enti- An organization that promotes the complete
tled Animal Liberation. His primary theme was discontinuation of the use of animals for food,
that while there are differences between human research, clothing, or entertainment is PETA.
and nonhuman animals, all have the capacity to This organization began to recruit members
suffer and therefore should be treated the same. soon after Singer’s publication and organized
He argued that although most humans are intel- the first World Day for Laboratory Animals
lectually superior to animals, some humans such protest in 1980. This has grown to become a
as infants or those with disabilities may not be, very large movement and carries out protests
yet there is no suggestion that these people against companies that use animals. PETA has
should be placed in cages or used for food. In his been reported to embed undercover agents in
view, when humans use animals for food or animal facilities to capture pictures and video-
experimentation this is “speciesism,” a prejudice tapes of animal abuse. PETA uses disturbing
of the dominant group over the others. He con- images on its website and in publications to
tended that “. . .to avoid speciesism we must promote its message against the use of animals.
allow that beings which are similar in all rele- Celebrity spokespersons for PETA such as Paul
vant respects have a similar right to life—and McCartney and Emmylou Harris bring people
mere membership in our own biological species to this organization and encourage fundraising.
cannot be a morally relevant criterion for this The ALF is an organization with the mission
right” (Singer, 1976, p. 21). Singer’s ideas are “[t]o effectively allocate resources (time and
credited with starting the animal rights move- money) to end the ‘property’ status of nonhu-
ment in the United States and led people to think man animals” with the objective of the mission
about animal treatment in all aspects of society. “[t]o abolish institutionalized animal exploi-
As a result of growing concern for animal tation because it assumes that animals
rights, there were calls for important changes. are property” (www.animalliberationfront.
The Animal Welfare Act (AWA) of 1966 pro- com). The ALF has been responsible for break-
vided acceptable standards for animal treatment ing into research laboratories on university
and care, but the law did not cover birds, rats, campuses to destroy equipment and set ani-
mice, farm animals, or cold-blooded animals. In mals free. They recruit and promote activism
1970, the AWA was amended to include all and civil disobedience to achieve their goals.
warm-blooded animals used for experimental PETA and ALF define animal rights as equal to
research or testing and required humane han- those of people and disallow any dominance of
dling, housing, sanitation, and veterinary care. human needs over those of animals. The HSUS
In 1985, the AWA was further amended to also promotes animal rights and sponsors cam-
define minimum standards for handling, hous- paigns to protect animals. HSUS gathers local
ing, and feeding animals and minimizing pain. support and visibility through animal shelters,
Another requirement was that all research using mainly for cats and dogs, and rescue programs
animal models was required to be supervised by for abused animals. But they are also very
a board comprised of both scientists and non- active in monitoring, and speaking out against,
scientists (Institutional Animal Care and Use the housing and treatment of farm animals.
Committee) to ensure that experimental animals More moderate perspectives on animal
are cared for and treated humanely, according rights contend that caring for and treating
to the regulations. The APHIS within the USDA animals humanely and with compassion is
is responsible for overseeing the AWA. Farm essential, and humans have an obligation to
animals used for food or fiber are not covered reduce or prevent suffering. When this is
by the AWA, however. done, using animals for human benefit is

4.12 ETHICAL ISSUES IN ANIMAL HOUSING SYSTEMS 137
ethically acceptable to them. For example, ani- on the faculty at Colorado State University,
mals in research provide valuable tools to and credits her ability to relate to animals to
develop cures and treatments for human dis- the fact that she is autistic. She contends that
ease, and growing animals for human food autistic people are closer to animals than nor-
provide healthful benefits to humans, therefore mal people are, not because of intelligence but
justifying the use of animals in these ways. because of perception and emotion. Through
her research and advocacy work she has been
instrumental in changing the design of animal
housing and restraining facilities to reduce ani-
4.12.2 Assessing Animal Welfare mal stress and to help animal workers under-
When most people think about animals, they stand the causes of behaviors in their animals.
relate their emotions to their house pets—mainly The animal industry has embraced her ideas
cats and dogs. Most people have very close by modifying their corrals, chutes, and ramps
emotional connections to their pets and treat with her designs, which allow animals to
them with great care. Pets often live inside their calmly enter and move through them without
human’s house and may even sleep on their human prodding (Fig. 4.19).
human’s bed. Pets provide emotional support Tools to measure or quantify animal pain or
and enjoyment to their human owners. When suffering are fairly limited. It is also not clear
people think about how farm animals should be if animals perceive pain or suffer in the same
treated, they may consider how they treat their ways as humans. Can a cow be depressed? Is a
own pets. They envision that farm animals chicken aware that its life means nothing more
would want to be living in the open, not in than to be someone’s dinner? Do piglets miss
cages, and to be able to interact with other ani- their mothers when they are weaned? Do
mals and humans. Keeping chickens or hogs in sheep long to run free in the pasture? If so,
cages or preventing dairy cattle from roaming how would we know? There are clear changes
free in the pasture does not fit with that image. in behavior when an animal is in pain or sick,
There is currently substantial debate about but assessing subtle pain or stress is difficult.
how to define and measure animal suffering For example, some may argue that keeping
and emotion, especially of farm animals. hogs on concrete flooring is stressful for them
Because animals cannot verbally tell humans if and they would be more comfortable outside
they are hungry, hurt, sad, or happy, we typi- in the grass and dirt. But when given a choice,
cally look for changes in behavior that might hogs stay on the cool concrete on a hot day
give us a clue to their needs or state of mind. and prefer to be inside on a cold night. From a
Dogs may wag their tails when they see their management perspective it is easier to keep
humans or are playing, and cats purr when concrete clean, which reduces the risk of infec-
they seem to be content. Contrarily, when in tion and illness, and hogs inside a building
pain, most animals will stop eating, lie down will not be threatened or attacked by fox
and curl up, or growl when touched. Scientists or coyotes. Animals that are comfortable and
have studied farm animal behavior and there feel protected will eat and grow normally,
is a wide range of literature devoted to under- which is observed in well-managed confine-
standing their signs and symptoms. Perhaps ment operations.
the most influential animal scientist in terms of Chickens are territorial and hierarchal.
understanding animal behavior is Temple When allowed to interact with other chickens,
Grandin. Dr. Grandin holds a PhD in Animal they create a “pecking order” of dominance
Science from the University of Illinois and is and submission and some win and some lose.

FIGURE 4.19 Dr. Temple Grandin is an animal behavior scientist at Colorado State University and a leading expert
on designing corrals and housing facilities to minimize animal stress. She encourages the use of curved fencing and gates
to keep animals calm during transitions. Source: Photo from the American Society of Animal Science image gallery.
If they are housed in cages, this behavior is Beef Association, US Poultry and Egg
reduced so all have equal access to food and Association, National Dairy Council and
freedom from being pecked. Confinement of others, producers and processors are begin-
animals allows careful monitoring of their ning to engage with consumers about their
food intake, growth rates, and overall health. industries to inform and educate about pro-
If done with care and humane treatment, duction practices. Increasingly, consumers ask
some would argue that this is the best way to for information about animal husbandry
treat and manage farm animals. Other people approaches and demand transparency.
believe animals should not be housed together There is currently no FDA-approved stan-
in large groups but rather should be outside dard for labeling foods regarding animal hous-
in fields to enjoy the sunshine and green grass ing practices. For example, “cage-free” or
and given the freedom to behave naturally. “humanely raised” labels may be found on
Animals in the food system will continue some meat products in stores. There are no
to generate controversy and ethical debate. government or industry standards to define
The majority of farmers that raise food animals these labels, nor guarantees that they are accu-
are committed to providing a safe and rate. The USDA Organic Standard does define
nutritious product in a humane and environ- the types of feed and medical treatments
mentally sound manner. Through national that animals may receive and certain housing
organizations, such as the National Pork criteria and this is described in Chapter 8,
Producers Association, National Cattlemen’s Sustainability of the Food System.

4.13 CONSUMER INFLUENCE ON ANIMAL FOOD PRODUCTION 139
4.13 CONSUMER INFLUENCE ON confidence. But even if the food industry has
ANIMAL FOOD PRODUCTION done nothing wrong, consumer confidence can
be shattered by public input. A prime example
Consumers tend to fall into one of several of this is the “pink slime” situation, which is
groups when issues about food are discussed. described in Expansion Box 4.3.
The Center for Food Integrity (CFI) has con- In a 2015 CFI survey consumers were asked
ducted surveys of consumers for the past several if they agreed with the statement “US meat is
years (www.foodintegrity.org) to understand derived from humanely treated animals” and
how consumers view the food system and the about 82% responded with moderate or strong
factors that motivate their food choices. CFI has agreement. About 95% agreed with the state-
found that a group of consumers they identified ment “If farm animals are treated decently and
as “early adopters” seem to be most engaged humanely, I have no problem consuming meat,
with food-related issues. These early adopters milk, and eggs.” This suggests that the majority
tend to be well-educated and financially stable, of consumers have confidence that livestock
they are information seekers, and have large farmers are treating their animals humanely
interpersonal networks. They use social media and that this is an important consideration for
and other communication outlets well, which them. Consumers are ready and willing to take
allows them to gather and disseminate ideas away their trust, and their purchases, from a
quickly. Some of these early adopters utilize food producer if they believe they are not being
food-related blogs, YouTube videos, and other truthful about their practices.
social media to engage with other consumers. In Farmers who raise livestock are finding
some cases, having a web presence can become themselves in a unique position of having to
a full-time job by gathering financial backing defend and justify their approach for all
and sponsors. Very effective social media aspects of their operations. The burden of
celebrities have arisen who have huge follow- communication and trust is placed on the
ings to whom they can share their views and farmer to demonstrate that they are operating
opinions. in ways that are acceptable to consumers.
CFI found that of greatest importance to Breeding and care practices, types and ways
consumers is that food producers share their of feeding, antibiotics, growth promoting hor-
values and demonstrate that they are trustwor- mones, housing systems, waste removal and
thy. When trust is broken, for example if one management, animal health monitoring, air
egg producer was found to have mismanaged and water quality, transportation systems, and
their operation and caused a food-borne illness marketing have been questioned by consu-
outbreak, consumers extend their mistrust to mers. Some argue that as Americans have
the entire industry. When the HPAI outbreak become more removed from the farm there is
occurred and a massive egg recall was needed, a lack of understanding of farm practices,
consumers responded with mistrust and were especially related to livestock. To mitigate this
captured on news reports saying they were lack of understanding, communication about
only going to buy eggs from small, local farm- food production has now become a major
ers because they could not trust large egg pro- focus for farm producers and processors.
ducing facilities. Even though millions of safe Agriculture organizations and associations
and uninfected eggs had been and were still such as the Farm Bureau, Beef Industry
being produced by large egg producers, that Council, and National Dairy Council engage
segment of the industry lost consumer in public communications about their

industries to increase transparency. Farmers caring for the environment. In contrast, other
have opened their operations to visitors and documentaries have been produced such as
promote farm tours. The number of people Forks Over Knives (2011), which encourages
who participate in such events may be small, consumers to avoid animal foods for health,
especially considering the population distribu- animal rights, and environmental reasons, and
tion of the United States. Most farming opera- Meat the Truth (2008), which links food animal
tions are located in rural areas away from production to climate change and global
large population centers so reaching urban warming. Negative images of livestock pro-
consumers is challenging. To extend their duction are abundant on the Internet and on
reach, the US Farmers and Ranchers Alliance animal rights organizations’ websites. Animal
provided funding for a movie documentary food production is arguably the most chal-
about farming developed by James Moll. lenging aspect of our food system because of
Farmland (2014) follows the lives and opera- the social, political, ethical, cultural, economic,
tions of several livestock producers in differ- and environmental complexities. Balancing
ent parts of the United States to illustrate the the goals of providing safe, healthful, and sus-
challenges and rewards they encounter. Moll tainable animal foods with the rights of ani-
was given full independence to tell the story mals, protection of the environment, and
of these farmers with the intent of demonstrat- utilizing natural resources wisely is a chal-
ing their commitment to animal welfare and lenge for today and into the future.
EXPANSION BOX 4.3
PINK SLIME
Late Night talk show host David Letterman The fat, or beef tallow, is used in food products.
used to have his audience play a game called The lean meat is treated with small amounts of
“Know Your Cuts of Meat.” Audience partici- either ammonium hydroxide gas (process pat-
pants were asked to identify cuts of meat from ented by Beef Products Inc. (BPI); called lean
pictures, and most were unable to do so. finely textured beef or LFTB) (Fig. 4.20) or citric
Butchers working in beef processing facilities acid (process patented by Cargill; called finely
trim meat from the carcass according to defined textured beef or FTB) to reduce risk of patho-
“cuts” or recognizable pieces. Prime rib, sirloin, genic bacteria. Ammonium hydroxide and citric
tenderloin, and rump roast are cuts of beef, for acid are both approved by the FDA and are
example. In the process of making meat cuts, used in many other food products. They raise
trimmings remain that are too small to sell indi- the pH slightly to make an environment
vidually. Some of these trimmings are used to unsuitable for microorganisms to grow. The beef
make ground beef but a significant amount of product is then flash frozen, chipped into smal-
meat remains associated with the remnants. ler pieces, and packaged for distribution. LFTB
Over 30 years ago, processes using heat and and FTB are mixed with ground beef to increase
spinning to collect meat from these trimmings the lean component, or used in prepared and
were developed to produce a lean beef product. packaged meals containing beef. LFTB and FTB
The trimmings are cut into small pieces and allowed recovery of substantial amounts of con-
warmed to about 100 F to allow fat to be sepa- sumable meat that would otherwise be wasted,
rated from the meat by a centrifugation process. up to 25 pounds/cow, and produced a product

4.13 CONSUMER INFLUENCE ON ANIMAL FOOD PRODUCTION 141
that was high in protein and low in fat. Adding connective tissue and not muscle. Their criticism
LFTB reduced costs and therefore was adopted of the product was based on its composition of
by many large food chains and products, includ- the product, and not its safety. The USDA, based
ing those prepared for school lunch programs. on their own research and that of other scientists,
BPI has been producing LFTB since 1993 found that LFTB was a safe and nutritious prod-
and by 2010 had four facilities in the Midwest. uct and overruled the Zirnstein Custer report.
As it does for all meat processing, the USDA In 2009 investigative journalist Michael Moss
inspected and approved the BPI facilities where obtained documents from the FDA, via the
LFTB was produced. LFTB was approved by Freedom of Information Act, and wrote an arti-
the FDA to be added at up to 10% by weight to cle for the New York Times questioning the use
ground beef products. Because LFTB is made of LFTB in which he quoted Zirnstein’s use of
with meat, it is not considered to be an addi- the term “pink slime.” The article described the
tive, and therefore not required to be included process for making LFTB and raised concerns
in a product ingredient label. about its use in fast food and school lunches,
In 2002 an FSIS microbiologist Gerald but noted that there had been no health risks or
Zirnstein, questioned the appropriateness of food-borne illnesses associated with the prod-
LFTB as a beef product. Zirnstein used the term uct. On April 12, 2011 celebrity chef Jamie
“pink slime” to refer to LFTB in an internal email Oliver and host of Jamie Oliver’s Food Revolution,
conversation about the product. Zirnstein and demonized the process and the product on his
another FSIS colleague, Carl Custer, wrote an television show. He put pieces of scrap meat
internal FSIS report questioning whether the and fat into a washing machine, poured in bot-
product met the standards to be called beef tles of liquid ammonia and then showed
because they considered it to be mostly the audience the sticky product. This was a far
FIGURE 4.20 Lean finely textured beef (LFTB) is produced by Beef Products Inc. using a USDA and FDA
approved process. LFTB is used to increase the nutritional value of products containing beef. Source: Photo pro-
vided by Beef Products Incorporated.

stretch from the way LFTB is actually made. processing industry, but to no avail. “Pink
Liquid ammonia is not used; rather a small slime” had been smeared. The misrepresentation
amount of ammonium hydroxide gas is bub- of LFTB as an unhealthy food led BPI to file a
bled into the product. Oliver also inferred that lawsuit against ABC News, and their parent
the meat trimmings used to make LFTB were company Disney, for defamation, claiming $1.2
unfit for human consumption, which was also billion in damages. Despite the intense negative
inaccurate. The media followed this with a coverage, LFTB has survived. Today, the term
series of news stories aired by ABC News in “contains lean finely textured beef” can be seen
March 2012 in which LFTB was called a cheap on ground beef packages, ensuring consumers
meat filler made from the most contaminated know that it is being used. BPI re-opened one of
parts of the cow once used only for dog food its previously closed plants to process LFTB in
and cooking oil. This quickly led to public out- 2014 and LFTB is slowly regaining markets.
cry against “pink slime,” the manufacturer BPI, The “pink slime” story illustrates the power
the beef industry, and the government. of the media to influence consumer perceptions
The rate at which the public response to of foods and processes by which foods are
LFTB occurred was unprecedented in the food made. It shows the willingness of consumers to
industry. Through social media and YouTube follow celebrity recommendations for fashion,
videos the public demand to get LFTB out of health, exercise, and food. The contrast between
the food system was overwhelming. There was a process that reduces waste, lowers food costs,
never any recall of ground beef with LFTB and increases nutritional value and public per-
and no illnesses from the product were ever ception of collecting meat from leftover trim-
reported. Yet, in response to the fierce public mings is part of this discussion. Scientific
objection, it was renounced by fast-food restau- evidence of safety and quality may not be as
rants, particularly McDonald’s, several food important as the ideal of how people perceive
companies, and countless supermarkets. Parents food should be made. This requires scientific
were outraged and public schools stopped serv- thinking. The comeback of LFTB shows that
ing ground beef with LFTB in school cafeterias. media frenzies are usually short-lived and that
As a result of the negative publicity, sales of economics and sound science generally over-
LFTB plummeted. Production of LFTB decreased comes hype and misinformation. But in the pro-
from 5 million pounds a week to less than 1 mil- cess, companies suffered financial disaster,
lion pounds per week. BPI closed three of its people lost their jobs, food was wasted, and
four beef processing plants, lost over $400 mil- consumers were misled. Consumer behavior in
lion in sales, and was forced to lay off almost the marketplace has great influence and market-
1400 employees. ers are wise to follow the trends, but consumers
Dr. Elisabeth Hagen (USDA Under Secretary have responsibility to seek factual information
for Food Safety), The American Meat Institute, before making decisions about food.
BPI, several university meat scientists and the
governors of Iowa, Nebraska, Texas, and South Suggested websites: www.beefisbeef.com, http://www.abcnews.
go.com/WNT/video/pink-slime-15873068, and http://www.
Dakota responded with evidence for the safety nytimes.com/2009/12/31/us/31meat.html?
of LFTB and support for the jobs in the meat _r52&pagewanted5all

FURTHER READING 143
References Capper, J. L., & Hayes, D. J. (2012). The environmental and

economic impact of removing growth-enhancing tech-
deVries, M., & de Boer, I. J. M. (2010). Comparing environ- nologies from U.S. beef production. Journal of Animal
mental impacts for livestock products: A review of life Science, 90, 3527 3537.
cycle assessments. Livestock Science, 128, 1 11. Center for Food Integrity. (2015). A clear view of transparency.
Farmland. (2014). Documentary film. Available from Available from ,www.centerforfoodintegrity.org..
,www.farmland.com.. Clauer, P. (2016). Modern egg industry. PennStateExtension.
Forks Over Knives. (2011). Documentary film. Available University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State College of
from ,www.forksoverknives.com.. Agricultural Sciences. Available from ,http://exten-
Hartley, R. M. (1842). Historical, scientific and practical essay sion.psu.edu/animals/poultry/topics/general-educa-
on milk as an article of human sustenance. With a consider- tional-material/the-chicken/modern-egg-industry..
ation of the effects consequent upon the present unnatural Dibner, J. J., & Richards, J. D. (2005). Antibiotic growth
methods of producing it for the supply of larger cities. New promoters in agriculture: History and mode of action.
York, NY: Jonathan Leavitt. Poultry Science, 84, 634 643.
Key, N., & McBride, W. (2007). The changing economics of Dohner, J. V. (2001). The encyclopedia of historic and endan-
U.S. hog production. Economic Research Service, USDA gered livestock and poultry breeds. New Haven, CT and
Report Number 52. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of London, UK: Yale University Press, 514 p.
Agriculture. Dougherty, T. J., & Pucci, M. J. (Eds.), (2012). Antibiotic dis-
Marshall, B. M., & Levy, S. B. (2011). Food animals and covery and development New York, NY: Springer, 1107 p.
antimicrobials: Impacts on human health. Clinical Evershed, R. P., Payne, S., Sherratt, A. G., Copley, M. S.,
Microbiology Reviews, 24(4), 718 733. Coolidge, J., Urem-Kotsu, D., & Burton, M. M. (2008).
Meat the Truth. (2008). Documentary film. Alalena Media Earliest date for milk use in the Near East and south-
Productions. eastern Europe linked to cattle herding. Nature, 422,
Sinclair, U. (1906). The jungle. Toronto, ON: McLeod and 528 531.
Allen, 413 p. Ferrier, P., & Lamb, R. (2007). Government regulation and
Singer, P. (1976). Animal liberation. London, UK: Jonathan quality in the U.S. beef market. Food Policy, 32, 84 97.
Cape, 301 p. Gerber, P. J., Vellinga, T. V., & Steinfeld, H. (2010). Issues
and options in addressing the environmental conse-
quences of livestock sector’s growth. Meat Science, 84,
244 247.
Further Reading He, Y., & Sebranek, J. G. (1996). Functional protein compo-
nents in lean finely textured tissue from beef and pork.
Alexander, D. D., Weed, D. L., Cushing, C. A., & Lowe, Journal of Food Science, 61(6), 1155 1159.
K. A. (2011). Meta-analysis of prospective studies of Kaplan, H., Hill, K., Lancaster, J., & Hurtado, A. M. (2000).
red meat consumption and colorectal cancer. European A theory of human life history evolution: Diet, intelli-
Journal of Cancer Prevention, 20(4), 293 307. gence, and longevity. Evolutionary Anthropology Issues
Aykan, N. F. (2015). Red meat and colorectal cancer. News and Reviews, 9(4), 156 185.
Oncology Review, 9(288), 38 44. Kritchevsky, D. (1998). History of recommendation to the
Barkan, I. D. (1985). Industry invites regulation: The pas- public about dietary fat. Journal of Nutrition, 128,
sage of the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906. American 449S 452S.
Journal of Public Health, 75, 18 26. Landers, T. F., Cohen, B., Wittum, E., & Larson, E. L. (2012).
Bouvard, V., Loomis, D., Guyton, K. Z., Grosse, Y., El A review of antibiotic use in food animals: Perspective,
Ghissassi, F., Benbrahim-Tallaa, L., & Straif, K. (2015). policy and potential. Public Health Report, 127, 4 22.
Carcinogenicity of consumption of red and processed Luca, F., Perry, G. H., & Di Rienzo, A. (2010). Evolutionary
meat. Lancet Oncology, 16, 1599 1600. adaptations to dietary changes. Annual Reviews in
Bouwman, L., Goldewijk, K. K., Van Der Hoek, K. W., Nutrition, 30, 291 314.
Beusen, A. H. W., Van Vuuren, D. P., Willems, J., & Magolski, J. D., Shappell, N. W., Vonnnahme, K. A.,
Stehfest, E. (2011). Exploring global changes in nitrogen Anderson, G. M., Newman, D. J., & Berg, E. P. (2014).
and phosphorus cycles in agriculture induced by live- Consumption of ground beef obtained from cattle that
stock production over 1900-2050 period. Proceedings of had received steroidal growth promotants does not
the National Academy of Sciences, 110(52), 20882 20887. trigger early onset of estrus in prepubertal pigs. Journal
Boyd, W. (2001). Making meat: Science, technology and of Nutrition, 144, 1718 1724.
American poultry production. Technology and Culture, Pescatore, T., & Jacob, J. (2013). Kentucky 4-H poultry:
42(4), 631 664. Grading eggs. Cooperative Extension Service. Lexington,

KY: Department of Animal and Food Sciences, College U.S. Department of Agriculture (2012). Controls over shell
of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of egg inspections. Audit Report 50601-0001-23. Washington,
Kentucky. Available from ,http://www2.ca.uky.edu/ DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture.
agcomm/pubs/4AJ/4AJ05PO/4AJ05PO.pdf.. U.S. Department of Agriculture (2014). Antimicrobial resis-
Salque, M., Bogucki, P. I., Pyzel, J., Sobkowiak-Tabaka, I., tance action plan. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Grygiel, R., Szmyt, M., & Evershed, R. P. (2013). Agriculture. Available from ,http://www.usda.gov/
Earliest evidence for cheese making in the sixth millen- documents/usda-antimicrobial-resistance-action-plan.
nium BC in northern Europe. Nature, 493, 522 525. pdf..
Sawyer, G. (1971). The agribusiness poultry industry: A his- U.S. Department of Agriculture (2015). Overview of the
tory of its development. New York, NY: Exposition Press, United States hog industry. Washington, DC: National
231 p. Agricultural Statistics Service, Agriculture Statistics
Schlesinger, S., Lieb, W., Koch, M., Fedirko, V., Kahm, Board, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
C. C., Pischon, T., & Aleksandrova, K. (2015). Body U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2009).
weight gain and risk of colorectal cancer: A systematic Grade “A” pasteurized milk ordinance, 2009 revision.
review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Washington, DC: Public Health Service and Food and
Obesity Review, 16, 607 619. Drug Administration.
Selitzer, R. (1976). The dairy industry in America. New York, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2001). Emissions
NY: Dairy and Ice Cream Field and Books for Industry, from animal feeding operations. Washington, DC: U.S.
502 p. Environmental Protection Agency.
Skaggs, J. M. (1986). Prime cut, livestock raising and meatpack- Von Keyserlingk, M. A. G., Martin, N. P., Kebreab, E.,
ing in the United States 1607 1983. College Station, TX: Knowlton, K. F., Grant, R. J., Stephenson, M., & Smith,
Texas A&M Press, 263 p. S. I. (2013). Invited review: Sustainability of the U.S.
Sneeringer, S., MacDonald, J., Key, N., McBride, W., & dairy industry. Journal of Dairy Science, 96, 5405 5425.
Mathews, K. (2015). Economics of antibiotic use in U.S. White, S. (2011). From globalized pig breeds to capitalist
livestock production. Economic Research Service Report pigs: A study in animal cultures and evolutionary his-
Number 200. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of tory. Environmental History, 16(1), 94 120.
Agriculture. Winsten, J. R., Kerchner, C. D., Richardson, A., Lichau, A., &
Stewart, H., Dong, D., & Carlson, A. (2013). Why are Hyman, M. J. (2010). Trends in the Northeast dairy
Americans consuming less fluid milk? A look at gener- industry: Large-scale modern confinement feeding and
ational difference in intake frequency. Economic Research management-intensive grazing. Journal of Dairy Science,
Service Report Number 149. Washington, DC: U.S. 93, 1759 1769.
Department of Agriculture. Zeder, M. A., Emshwiller, E., Smith, B. D., & Bradley,
Tunick, M. H. (2009). Dairy innovations over the past 100 D. G. (2006). Documenting domestication: The intersec-
years. Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry, 57, tion of genetics and archeology. Trends in Genetics, 22
8093 8097. (3), 139 155.

C H A P T E R
5
Human Resources in the Food System
5.1 FARM LABOR population of the colonies expanded, land was

taken away from the Native Americans by
The United States is a nation of immigrants force and relationships deteriorated.
and all aspects of our country, including agri- It was common practice in the colonial
culture, have been molded by the diversity of period to use captive Native Americans and
the people who have settled here. The colonists European indentured servants, who worked in
and early settlers came to the United States exchange for their passage to America, land, or
looking for religious and political freedom, as other goods for agricultural labor. Laws and
well as financial gain. Some came with the regulations concerning humane treatment of
intent to farm and establish a homestead. The these workers were few and largely unheeded.
history of farming in the United States includes As early as 1619 it is thought that Africans
independent, driven people who worked the were brought to the colonies to work in agricul-
land to make a living. The complex history of ture and to do other manual labor. The slave
American agriculture includes the many immi- trade between Africa and the colonies became
grants who came voluntarily to the United very profitable for the slave traders and slave
States but also indentured servants, slaves, owners. The number of Africans brought to the
Native Americans, and undocumented migrant colonies as slaves quickly outnumbered
workers. In addition, a network of policies and European immigrants. West and Central
laws shaped US agricultural practices. Africans had experience with farming and
In the centuries before Europeans arrived in were therefore considered highly valuable
North America, Native Americans developed workers. It has been estimated that by 1775,
agricultural systems based on corn, beans, and there were 500,000 African slaves in the colo-
squash which were grown mainly by women. nies. As the slave population grew, so did the
Men fished and hunted to provide meat for the impact of Africans on agriculture. Africans
diet. In the Great Lakes regions, wild rice was were familiar with growing rice, tobacco, and
cultivated. When European colonists first indigo, which were not common in Europe,
arrived to North America, Native Americans and their skills helped make these crops profit-
assisted them with agriculture and shared their able. Many of the slaves brought knowledge of
knowledge of crops and farming. This assis- crop rotations, irrigation, and fertilization tech-
tance likely allowed the colonists to survive niques that were implemented by their owners.
during the early years of settlement. As the But it was the sheer work effort of slaves that

146 5. HUMAN RESOURCES IN THE FOOD SYSTEM
created the profitable agricultural system of the jobs. This tension increased in the latter part of
Southern plantations and farms along the the 1880s as people flooded into California
Atlantic seaboard. In Florida where large cot- from other areas of the United States seeking
ton and tobacco farms were established, the work. Under pressure to make jobs available to
total population in 1860 was 140,000 and nearly American settlers, the Geary Act of 1892, which
62,000 were African slaves. The estimates of blocked Chinese immigration and imposed
total slave populations are poorly documented, deportation of all Chinese illegally present in
but possibly as many as 4 million Africans the United States, was passed. This led to wide-
were working in the United States at this time. spread skirmishes across California and thou-
Not all areas of the United States engaged sands of Chinese workers were threatened,
slaves in agriculture labor. Settlers in Northern killed, or forced to leave the state. In 1902,
colonies and those moving into the Midwest Congress extended the exclusion of Chinese
preferred small farms that could be managed immigration indefinitely and denied naturali-
by a single family unit. In these families, zation to Chinese immigrants.
which were often multigenerational, everyone, Following the Civil War and passage of the
including children, was expected to work and Thirteenth Amendment in 1865, which abol-
contribute to the farm operations. The concept ished slavery, working conditions for African
of the landowner who himself toiled on the Americans (terms used to define African
land was very different from the Southern Americans have included Negros and blacks)
plantation owner who never touched a plow. did not improve. Southern states implemented
For the most part, the Northern states laws that imposed segregation of blacks from
denounced slavery and abolitionists provided whites in all aspects of society. The so-called
refuge for escaped slaves. During the 1830s the “Black Codes” and “Jim Crow” laws pre-
Underground Railroad, which was a network vented blacks from owning property, partici-
of safe houses and routes leading from the pating in local governance, and attending
Southern to Northern states, assisted slaves in public schools. Day-laborers, sharecropping,
escaping from their owners. This stark contrast and lease tenant arrangements were used
between Southern and Northern philosophies to keep black workers on the farm, but
about the acceptance of slavery and the without allowing them access to ownership.
approach to agriculture created a deep philo- Sharecropping was the process by which plan-
sophical divide in the country that eventually tation owners continued to own the land and
led to the Civil War. provide the inputs of seeds and tools, while
During and after the Civil War, the building the sharecroppers provided the labor to pro-
of the railroad system brought immigrants duce the crop. Part of the profit was shared
from China into the Midwest and West, many with the sharecroppers. This system allowed
of whom settled in California. From about 1860 more freedom for the sharecroppers, but in
to 1900, Chinese farm workers contributed sig- reality most sharecroppers remained in debt to
nificantly to converting the swamplands of the the landowners and thereby tied to them for
San Francisco Bay region and the years. Tenant relationships were often similar
Sacramento San Joaquin River delta regions to sharecropping because the options for rental
into fertile farmland. Chinese farm laborers payments could be defined by the landowner.
adapted to the needs of fruit and Not all sharecroppers and tenant farmers were
vegetable farming by arriving when crops former slaves; many white farmers who had
needed to be harvested. The Chinese labor lost their farms and income during the war
force was largely not welcomed by the white also were forced to rely on these arrangements
working class who viewed them as taking their to make a living.

5.2 FARM LABORER UNIONS 147
Freed blacks who were not engaged in agri- developed several programs to support black
culture were typically relegated to low-paying farmers in purchasing land, improving farm
jobs and segregation kept them from educa- production and diversification of crops.
tional opportunities. Blacks could be arrested Despite these efforts, the economic conditions
for being unemployed, or for just about any from 1920 through the Depression forced many
reason, and sent to prisons where they were black farmers off the land. The New Deal pro-
forced to work on farms or road crews in grams were generally not accessible to black
“chain gangs,” which essentially was a return farmers and the number who were able to con-
to slave labor. Black children could be tinue farming decreased. In the 1900 30s about
assigned to “apprenticeships,” which were 13% 14% of all farmer operators were black
also a form of indentured servitude. The poli- (Fig. 5.1). The distribution of black farmers was
cies of segregation of blacks in Southern states predominantly in the Southern states where
created racial divides that kept blacks from cotton and tobacco were the primary crops.
fully participating in society and eventually Black farm operations were generally smaller
erupted in the civil rights turmoil of the 1960s. than those of white farmers, which limited the
As agricultural technology advanced, less income potential and restricted the type of
manual labor was needed on farms. But a new farming that was possible.
problem arose: finding enough labor at peak For many reasons, black farm operators
times during planting and harvesting, without began to decline significantly after 1930, such
the costs of hired hands year-round. In some that by 1960 they represented only about 7% of
areas, farm families formed cooperatives to farmers in the United States. This trend was
help each other with these tasks. In other areas associated with expansion in the size of farms
where the demand was greater, seasonal work- and increased use of technology nationwide.
ers that moved with the crops provided the Black farmers tended to be tenant farmers, and
required labor. Migrant labor camps with min- were not financially able to adapt to these
imal housing and services were established, changes. Access to financial resources includ-
where families would live while working the ing loans and insurance was a challenge for
fields. With no oversight or regulations to black farmers in part due to discriminatory
ensure worker’s rights, migrant laborers were practices (discussed in Section 5.4)
frequently not paid for their work or given less
than what they had been promised.
Government programs to assist black farm- 5.2 FARM LABORER UNIONS
ers were attempted after the Civil War. The
Second Morrill Act in 1890 provided funding During the industrialization period in the
to establish agricultural colleges for black stu- United States employers were generally
dents (1890 schools). Booker T. Washington not held accountable for worker rights, includ-
and George Washington Carver were leaders ing wage minimums, working hours, and
in promoting agricultural education among conditions, and expectations of job security.
black farmers through their work at Tuskegee In factories and manual labor jobs, employees
University (Chapter 2: History of US were often placed in dangerous environments
Agriculture and Food Production). Washington where accidents and even deaths would occur.
was well respected by then-President Theodore Safeguards for workers were not ensured by
Roosevelt and the wealthy philanthropist federal laws. Attempts to improve the plight
Andrew Carnegie. Through these connections of the general working class population in the
and his work at the local level, Washington 1900s included the founding of the Industrial

FIGURE 5.1 The number of black farmers in the United States was high in the 1900s but has decreased to less than
34,000 today. As shown in the inset, about 1 in 4 farmers in southern states through the 1950s were black. Source: Banks, V. J.
(1986). Black farmers and their farms. ERS Agriculture and Rural Economics Division Research Report No. 59. Washington,
DC: Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture (Banks, 1986); Cohen, R. L., & Horton, C. (Eds.). (2012). Black
farmers in America: Historical perspective, cooperatives and the Pigford cases. New York, NY: Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
(Cohen & Horton, 2012).
Workers of the World (IWW, or Wobblies) the needs of the war, not enough workers
union. At that time, unions were not recog- were available for agriculture, mining, rail-
nized by the government as legal entities and roads, and construction projects. Prior to 1917,
employers could fire employees that started or Mexican workers had entered the United
joined a union. The IWW engaged workers States freely, but a bill passed that year imple-
from several manufacturing sectors, including mented a literacy requirement and $8 tax for
agriculture. In California, the IWW sponsored anyone over 16 years of age in order to enter
many strikes with agricultural workers to pro- the US. This severely limited the number of
test labor conditions and wages. But that came Mexicans who were either allowed to or could
to an abrupt end when the United States afford to enter the United States. With the
entered WWI. The federal government arrested increased demand for workers to support the
thousands of IWW members and accused war efforts, the industrial and agricultural sec-
them of obstructing the war activities of the tors put pressure on the government to change
government. As the United States prepared for this policy and it responded. In an abrupt

turnaround in 1918, all restrictions on Filipino workers from across the country, with
Mexican workers were lifted. Even after the the highest number of members in California.
war ended the Immigration Act was so lax Turmoil within the group eventually led to its
that farm owners had virtually unhampered dissolution in 1950.
access to Mexican labor. This led to a rapid During the Depression, the desperate state
shift in the population of Mexican workers of the economy and lack of jobs created an
across the Southwest, most of whom contin- environment where workers’ rights were
ued to live in Mexico but came to the United ignored. People needing any type of job would
States during the harvests. work long hours for little pay, children were
With the influx of migrant labor farmers put to work in dangerous jobs and some
were overwhelmed with finding and hiring employers cheated their employees on wages.
workers. Eventually, a contractor system devel- To correct this situation, Congress passed the
oped whereby a labor contractor negotiated National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) in 1935
work with the farmer for a group of workers. (Table 5.1). The NLRA protected the rights of
The contractor earned a fee from the farmer and employees and employers, ensured safe work
supervised the field work, taking a percentage environments, and allowed for collective bar-
of the profit. The farmers liked this system gaining. Under the NLRA, workers could form
because they did not have to negotiate with unions to negotiate wages, benefits, working
individual workers and were not responsible conditions, and other issues with employers
for their working conditions. This system was without risk of being fired. The National Labor
not ideal for workers as the contractors had Relations Board (NLRB) enforces NLRA and
great power and often did not treat them fairly. the rights of workers to bargain collectively.
Contractors would frequently keep a large per- Collective bargaining is negotiation between
cent of the wages earned by the workers and workers, usually through a union, and
would deny work to those who complained. employers to reach agreement about wages,
In an effort to protect workers from abuse hours, benefits, and working conditions.
by employers, unions were formed. A union is Negotiations are usually brokered by union
a legal representative of a group of employees leaders. While the NLRA was an important
who pay a fee to belong to the union. The legislation for American workers overall, agri-
union acts to negotiate or bring awareness of cultural workers were excepted from the
worker issues to the employer. Filipino work- NLRA protections and were not ensured the
ers based in Seattle and working in the fishing right to form unions. Despite the lack of pro-
industry in Alaska, Washington, Oregon, and tection, formation and dissolution of agricul-
California formed the Cannery Workers’ and tural unions occurred and were interconnected
Farm Laborers’ Union in 1933. This merged with political and social upheavals of the
with the United Cannery, Agricultural, emerging nation. The Associated Farmers of
Packing and Allied Workers of America California, a group of large landowners, broke
(UCAPAWA) union, which had been estab- up strikes by workers in the early 1930s and
lished in 1937 to address worker status during prevented migrant workers from organizing.
the Depression. UCAPAWA founder Donald The Southern Tenant Farmers Union was
Henderson was an economics instructor at established to protect the rights of sharecrop-
Columbia University and a member of the pers in Arkansas in 1934 in place of the
Communist Party, an affiliation that made UCAPAWA, which had been ostracized in the
the group highly controversial. Members of state due to the group’s association
the UCAPAWA included Mexicans, black with Communist ideals. Later, in the 1950s,
sharecroppers, and Chinese, Japanese, and young farmers in the Midwest organized the

TABLE 5.1 History of Agriculture Labor Regulations

1935 National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) Structure for collective bargaining, prevents employers from firing a
worker for joining a union. Farm workers were excluded from this
protection
1938 Fair Labor Standards Act (NLSA) Established minimum wage and overtime pay regulations. Farm
workers excluded until 1966
1942 Mexican Farm Labor Agreement (Bracero Negotiated agreement to allow Mexicans to work in US agriculture
program)
1966 Fair Labor Standards Act amendment Lifted exclusion for farm workers from the NLSA
1975 California Agricultural Labor Relations Provided protection to California farm workers to form or belong to a
Act (CALRA) union. Resulted from efforts by Cesar Chavez, and many violent and
passive protests by farm workers
1983 Migrant and Seasonal Agricultural Regulations to protect rights of farm workers to earned wages, safe
Worker Protection Act (MSAWPA) housing, and transportation. Requires farm labor contractors to be
registered
1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act Created the H2-A visa for temporary agricultural workers
(IRCA)
National Farmers Organization (NFO) based in workers remained low and their working con-
Corning, Iowa to negotiate with food market- ditions largely unregulated.
ers. Their approach was to withhold product The entry of the United States into WWII
from the markets until the buyers agreed to created new pressures on agricultural labor.
the prices they demanded. This was ultimately As well-paying jobs in cities became available
a flawed and ineffective strategy. Because to address wartime industrial needs, agricul-
farmers were not able to withhold their perish- ture labor became scarce. In response, the
able products indefinitely, the buyers simply United States government negotiated with the
waited them out. When the farmers could hold government of Mexico to establish the Bracero
out no longer and flooded the market with agreement of 1942. This was an executive
their products, wholesale prices fell and farm- order approving the temporary migration of
ers lost money. The NFO sometimes used tac- Mexican agricultural workers to the United
tics such as physically blocking farmers from States. The agreement, called the Mexican
taking their commodities to markets, killing Farm Labor Program, was negotiated by the
cattle rather than selling them, and dumping Mexican government with the hope of improv-
milk and grain in roadside ditches to bring ing working conditions for its citizens.
attention to their cause. These actions did not According to the agreement workers were to
gain them widespread support from either the be guaranteed payment of a wage comparable
agricultural community or the public, and the to domestic workers (30b/hour); adequate,
NFO changed their tactics. Today the NFO is a sanitary, and free housing; adequate meals at
nonprofit organization that serves to enhance reasonable prices; occupational insurance paid
communications between agriculture produ- by employers; and transportation back to
cers and the government. Other union groups Mexico at the end of the contract. In practice,
representing a wide range of agriculture and most of these regulations were not enforced
industry groups rose and fell during the early and labor wages dropped across the country.
1900s while the wages paid to agricultural Between 1942 and 1950 over 500,000 Mexicans

FIGURE 5.2 The Mexican Farm Labor Agreement of 1942, also known as the Bracero program, allowed agricultural
workers from Mexico to work in the United States. Mexican workers are shown going through a customs inspection at a
Bracero center in Texas in 1957. Source: Photo from the Department of Labor.
entered through Bracero contract centers the first year of the program and sent them
(Fig. 5.2). Originally intended to be in place back to Mexico. This process continued
only during the war, the Bracero agreement through 1962. The derogatory term wetback
became Public Law 78 in 1951, due to lobbying was given to Mexicans who crossed the Rio
from large farm owners who benefited from Grande to enter the United States and the term
the program, and was reapproved biennially became linked to any Mexican laborer.
until 1964. Throughout this period, despite the govern-
It is estimated that in California, Braceros ment deportation program, illegal migrant
were the main source of farm labor during this farm workers continued to enter the United
time, essentially displacing domestic workers. States and were hired by employers, resulting
In addition, illegal immigration outside of the in no real change in the population of undocu-
Bracero program was widespread. Outcry mented workers. Operation Wetback did not
from domestic workers about Braceros remain- end Mexican migrant labor in the United
ing in the United States after their contracts States, but it resulted in increased border con-
ended and the increased illegal immigration trol between the United States and Mexico and
from Mexico prompted the Immigration and highlights the ongoing struggle to find a bal-
Naturalization Service to implement Operation ance between the need for farm labor and
Wetback in 1954. Teams of Border Patrol access to legal work in the United States.
agents rounded up over 1 million Mexicans in Immigration policy concerning Mexican

workers remains a controversial issue in US 1962, which became the United Farm Workers
politics to this day. (UFW) union. Using nonviolent protests,
In an effort to address the issues of undocu- including strikes and marches, Chavez worked
mented farm laborers, Cesar Chavez founded to gain better working conditions and pay for
the National Farm Workers Association in agricultural workers (Fig. 5.3). To raise
FIGURE 5.3 Cesar Chavez founded the United Farm Workers of America union and led efforts to improve agricul-
tural workers rights in California. Through protests and strikes, workers sought better working conditions and fair labor
standards. This poster was printed around 1970 during a nationwide movement to boycott grapes in an effort to bring
attention to farm labor concerns. Source: Photo from the National Museum of American History.

awareness of his cause, he underwent periodic, is implemented by the Agricultural Labor
prolonged fasts. Some of these were joined by Relations Board, which reviews and settles
celebrities and political leaders of the time, petitions related to employer employee union
including Jesse Jackson, Martin Sheen, Emilio relationships.
Estevez, Kerry Kennedy (the daughter of Farm operators were also interested in form-
Robert Kennedy), Danny Glover, and Whoopi ing unions to increase their collective influence
Goldberg. UFW was successful in obtaining the on the political system. Farm groups such as
first collective bargaining agreement between the Farmers Union (organized in 1902) and the
farm workers and growers in 1966 that included American Farm Bureau Federation (AFBF;
required rest periods, toilets in the fields, clean established in 1919) organized farmers to
drinking water, and handwashing facilities, pro- address low commodity prices and the
tective clothing during pesticide applications, impending loss of farms and their livelihoods.
and testing of workers for pesticide exposure. The Farmers Union was radical, liberal, and
Senator Robert Kennedy was supportive of the willing to take risky actions (strikes, crop with-
farm workers’ movement and met with Chavez, holding, and destruction) and appealed to mar-
which gained the UFW national recognition. ginal and struggling farmers. The Farm Bureau
After Kennedy’s death, Chavez and Dolores was more conservative than the Farmers Union
Huerta, a coleader of the UFW, created the and supported by stable and wealthy farmers.
Robert F. Kennedy Farmworkers Medical Plan This division between the philosophies of these
to provide health benefits for farm workers, farm groups is still evident. Today, the
which still operates as a nonprofit organization National Farmers Union (NFU) has about
today. 200,000 members and 21 state chapters. The
The efforts of Chavez and others to bring a American Farm Bureau Federation is signifi-
focus on agricultural workers in California laid cantly larger with over 6 million members and
the groundwork for the passage of the California chapters in all 50 states. The mission of both
Agricultural Labor Relations Act (CALRA) of NFU and AFBF is to be a unified voice for agri-
1975 (Table 5.1). This legislation was the first culture, and to provide education and services
enacted by a state to allow agricultural workers to members. Legislative lobbying at the federal
protection to engage in collective bargaining and and local levels are part of both organizations’
form unions. Similar to the NLRA, CALRA activities.
EXPANSION BOX 5.1
UNION WORKER STRIKE AND LOCKOUT

Employers and unions negotiate contracts contract negotiations to force the other party to
for wages, benefits, and working conditions. If accept contract changes. Recently, lockouts in
an agreement cannot be reached, the conflict is professional sport leagues involving players
sent to “arbitration” by a neutral third party, and referees have generated much publicity.
according to NLRA regulations. The refusal of Lockouts and strikes are not uncommon negoti-
employees to work is referred to as a “strike” ation strategies in agricultural and food proces-
and a “lockout” is a denial of work for employ- sing industries. The lockout of 1300 Bakery,
ees by the employer. Both are used during Confectionery, and Tobacco Workers and Grain

Millers International Union (BCTGM) employ- the union employees a contract that included a
ees from American Crystal Sugar Company modest increase in wages, higher worker con-
plants in August 2011 is one example. tributions to health insurance, fewer seniority
The Red River Valley Sugarbeet Growers rights, and allowed ACSC the right to contract
Association (RRVSGA) was formed in 1926 to out union jobs. Workers were unhappy with
represent the farmers who produced sugar the contract, concerned that it would replace
beets for the American Beet Sugar Company. union workers with non-union workers, dis-
RRVSGA is a farmer cooperative corporation mantle seniority, and cut healthcare benefits, so
with 2800 grower-shareholders, managed by a they refused to accept the offer. When the nego-
CEO and board of directors. The farmers in this tiations broke down between ACSC and
corporation produce 15% of the sugar sold in BCTGM, ACSC locked out the union workers
the United States. The American Beet Sugar and hired temporary replacement workers
Company, which later became the American (Fig. 5.4).
Crystal Sugar Company (ACSC), is a publicly What had been a cordial and productive
held New Jersey corporation in operation since relationship for decades between the farmers
1899. ACSC built the first sugar beet processing and processing plant workers became a bitter
factory in East Grand Forks, Minnesota in 1926. and contentious battle. Communities that relied
Four other factories were built by ACS in sub- on both full-time and seasonal employment
sequent years: Moorhead, Minnesota (1948); in the “beet plant,” usually the town’s largest
Crookston, Minnesota (1954); Drayton, North employer, were torn apart. Management and
Dakota (1965); and Hillsboro, North Dakota employees in supervisory positions worked
(1974). overtime to keep plant operations going as
In 1973, RRVSGA acquired the business and workers picketed outside. Inexperienced replace-
assets of ACSC. The intent of the merger was to ment workers were not trained on the proces-
have close collaboration between growers and sing operations and several significant injuries
processors so that production acreage, quantity, were reported. Neighbors, relatives, and friends
and quality of sugar could be optimized to allow who found themselves on opposite sides of the
farmers to better manage market fluctuations. lockout stopped speaking to each other. The
The production and processing of sugar beets AFL-CIO and other unions boycotted ACSC pro-
has contributed significantly to the economic ducts in solidarity with the BCTGM union.
viability of local communities in the Red River ACSC production and profits decreased about
Valley region of northwestern Minnesota and 30%, from $811 to $555 million, affecting not
northeastern North Dakota. In 2011, the industry only the workers but the small towns that relied
represented an economic impact of $1.7 billion, on workers to spend money in their shops and
employed 2273 full-time workers and 18,830 sec- restaurants.
ondary jobs, generated tax collections of $105 As the lockout wore on, workers had to live
million, and contributed $15.4 million in prop- on unemployment insurance, odd jobs, or public
erty taxes. assistance. About 660 of the original workers
Employees working in the ACSC belonged decided to retire or find other work. After 20
to the BCTGM union. In 2011, ACSC offered months, in April 2013, 55% of the remaining

FIGURE 5.4 Members of the Bakery, Confectioners, Tobacco and Grain Millers Union were locked out by
the American Crystal Sugar Company during a labor dispute. American Crystal Sugar workers from Moorhead,
East Grand Forks, Crookston, and Chaska, Minnesota; Hillsboro and Drayton, North Dakota; and Mason City,
Iowa protest management on August 11, 2011. Source: Photo provided by BCTGM International Union.
union members ratified the original offer, which employer employee disputes, yet the process
was enough to end the lockout. The damage was divisive and frustrating, and took almost 2
done to the company was significant in terms of years to settle. These types of conflicts illustrate
both financial and personal relationships. The the interwoven relationships of the components
farmers had formed a cooperative for collective of the US food system that involve farmers,
bargaining power and the workers formed a workers, food processing industries, and the
union for the same reason. During the lockout complex interactions between economic, social,
sugar beet growers feared that their livelihoods and political factors.
were at risk because of the union workers’
demands, and union workers feared their jobs Suggested websites: www.nlrb.gov/resources/national-labor-
relations-act and http://www.mprnews.org/story/2011/12/14/
were being marginalized by the corporation. american-crystal-sugar-lockout-hillsboro
There were legal guidelines for resolving

5.3 GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS healthcare needs of farm workers. To protect

FOR MIGRANT FARM WORKERS migrant and seasonal farm workers from exploi-
tation by employers, the Migrant and Seasonal
Migrant farm work became an essential Agricultural Worker Protection Act was passed
component of US agriculture following WWII. in 1983. Within this law, farm labor contractors
During this time more Americans were attend- were required to register, and several protections
ing college and finding work in urban areas, were implemented to prevent farm workers from
while farms were being consolidated into being unfairly treated regarding wages, transpor-
fewer, larger operations. The number of people tation, housing, intimidation, and discrimination.
interested in agricultural work was decreasing. The Healthcare Safety Net Act, authorized
Migrant laborers, defined as temporary work- in 2008, provided funding for community
ers who move along with the crop rotations, health centers to serve medically needy popu-
became essential to meet the planting and lations and to expand healthcare services in
harvesting needs of farmers. Workers were rural areas. Today, all but 10 states have at
mainly Mexicans in the Southwest, but in least one migrant health centers (several states
Southeastern states American citizens, both have many) that provide care to farm workers,
black and white, were engaged in this work. which is administered by the Bureau of
Migrant farm laborers were not protected by a Primary Health Care in the Health Resources
union or government regulations. They were and Services Administration of the DHHS.
paid low wages, forced to live in temporary The Affordable Care Act (ACA), signed by
and inadequate housing, and had limited President Barack Obama in 2010, required
access to healthcare or education. all people living in the United States to have
During his campaign for president, John F. health insurance. Employers with more than
Kennedy had become aware of the deplorable 50 employees had to provide health insur-
living conditions of migrant workers. After he ance for full-time workers. Farm operations
was elected to the presidency, Kennedy signed with 50 or more employees needed to deter-
the Migrant Health Act of 1962, which provided mine how to cover the costs of insurance,
federally funded healthcare services in medically either to pay it from their profits or pass
underserved areas. Grants were given to over some of the costs to the employees.
120 community-based and state organizations to Beginning in 2015, agricultural workers on
provide comprehensive medical care for migrant H-2A work permits and who would be in
and seasonal farm workers and their families. the United States for more than 3 months,
The act was reauthorized in 1966 with the addi- were required to purchase health insurance.
tion of hospitalization services. Further improve- There were several options for obtaining
ment in healthcare for migrant and seasonal farm health insurance that varied by state, which
workers was implemented in 1972 with the for- made complying with the law challenging.
mation of the National Advisory Council on The ACA provided financial subsidies to
Migrant Health. Members of the council are assist workers with gaining access to health-
mainly farm workers who also serve as govern- care plans. Workers on H-2A permits are not
ing board members of local federally funded eligible for Medicare, and the ACA required
migrant healthcare programs. The mission of the employers to cover worker’s compensation
council is to inform and make recommendations costs for those injured on the job. The ACA
to the Secretary of the Department of Health and is under reconsideration by President Donald
Human Services (DHHS) regarding the Trump following his election in 2017.

5.4 FARM WORKERS TODAY 157
Migrant workers suffer from high rates of 5.4 FARM WORKERS TODAY
chronic disease including hypertension, dia-
betes, and obesity, as does the general US Farming has always been hard work, whether
population. Treatment for these conditions is done with mules and horses or computer-
costly. How the health of farm workers will managed machinery. At times the work requires
be impacted by the ACA or a policy that long hours, because when the crop is ready to
might replace it, and the economic effects of be planted, tilled, treated with pesticides, or har-
this law on farm operators and the food sys- vested, it must be done without delay or the
tem, will be determined in the coming years. crop will be reduced in quality or lost. Animals
EXPANSION BOX 5.2
H A RV E S T O F S H A M E
In 1960 Edward R. Murrow, Fred Friendly, interviewed suggested something needed to be
and David Lowe produced the CBS documen- done, but pointed out the costs, challenges, and
tary Harvest of Shame, which aired on national political nature of addressing the problem. A
television the day after Thanksgiving. The representative of the American Farm Bureau
awful plight of migrant workers was brought Federation, interviewed in the documentary,
to the public’s attention dramatically with this rejected the idea that government policies were
CBS News report. Their intent was to focus needed, instead implying that farmers should
public attention on the impoverished world of be able to manage their workers as they saw fit.
migrant farm workers, juxtaposed with the The impact of Harvest of Shame was signifi-
bountiful food supply enjoyed by Americans. cant because of the timing, and the connection
The producers spent 9 months traveling from Murrow had with the public. He was a well-
Florida to New Jersey interviewing migrant respected journalist and he used his position to
workers, elected officials, and leaders of farm advocate for change. His closing words in the
organizations. The film showed the desperate documentary were “The people you have seen
situation of both white and black workers and have the strength to harvest your fruit and
their children as they picked the seasonal crops. vegetables. They do not have the strength to
Families lived in shacks with inadequate sanita- influence legislation. Maybe we do.” Clearly
tion, and children were often left alone while this was a call to action. Some groups tried to
parents worked the fields. The amount of discredit the documentary, saying it was one-
money they earned, even when they had work, sided and inaccurate. A Time magazine edito-
was not enough to provide enough food or to rial considered it an “exaggerated portrait.” It
improve their living conditions. When weather is likely that the documentary was influential
damaged the crops, there was no work and no in moving Congress to pass legislation that was
pay and the workers were dependent on hand- already pending to fund health services for
outs from the community to survive. Children migrant workers and education for migrant
attended school infrequently when it was avail- children.
able but few were able to graduate from high In the over 50 years since Harvest of Shame
school. The government officials that were aired, migrant workers have been the focus

of other news stories and documentaries. be taken to the fields. Wages remained below
Journalists from NBC in 1990, CBS in 1995, and the poverty line, education of children was
CBS in 2010 interviewed workers in the same erratic, and most of the workers had no savings
locations that were visited in the 1960 docu- or hope for a better future. The role of migrant
mentary and found very similar situations. A workers in US agriculture is complicated and
change in the demographics of workers had politically charged. Paying a living wage to
occurred, with fewer blacks and more workers workers would raise the cost of food, but to not
from Mexico and Central America. Workers do so may be ethically and morally corrupt.
still lined up in the early morning hours to be
hired for work and were loaded onto buses to Suggested video: Harvest of Shame (1960).
must be fed, watered and cared for throughout sizes have increased and farm operations are
the day, and everyday. The unpredictability of more specialized than they were a century ago.
weather and market prices are a source of stress A consequence of these changes has been a
for those relying on crops for an income, regard- decrease in the percent of US workers involved
less of the size of their operation. Farmers, ran- in agricultural production to less than 2% of the
chers, and other agricultural managers today population. Concurrently with the decrease in
must interpret and follow governmental regula- the number of farmers, rural populations have
tions and requirements, manage finances and decreased from 60% to 20% of the total popula-
markets, keep up to date with new scientific tion in this time period. The percent of the gross
developments, participate in interest groups, domestic product (GDP) generated by agricul-
co-ops and unions, and stay abreast of political ture also decreased during this time.
changes that will affect their operations. Farmers The 2011 USDA Agricultural Resource
must enjoy working outside, doing physical Management Survey found there were 2.1 mil-
work, working with plants and animals, and lion farms operated by 3.2 million principal
operating and maintaining machinery. The farmers (Table 5.3). Principal farmers are those
entrepreneurial nature of farming is attractive to persons responsible for the day-to-day opera-
those who thrive on managing their own busi- tions of the farm. The majority of farmers were
nesses and are driven to innovate and apply new white (96%) and male (86%) with an average
ideas and technologies. Many farm operations
are intergenerational so the cultural and family
ties associated with farming are also important. TABLE 5.2 US Workforce in Agriculture and Value to
GDP
At the turn of the 20th century, 41% of
US workers were engaged in agriculture 1900 1930 1945 1970 2000
(Table 5.2). Since the 1900s mechanization and Percent of US workforce in 41 21.5 16 4 1.9
other innovations have decreased the need for agriculture
some types of farm labor, such as planting and
Agriculture percent of US — 7.7 6.8 2.3 0.7
harvesting of cotton, corn, wheat, and soybeans, GDP
or milking of dairy cows. As described in
Chapter 3, Innovations in US Agriculture, farm USDA Economic Research Service.

5.4 FARM WORKERS TODAY 159
TABLE 5.3 Characteristics of Farm Owners in the United States
Principal operators Total farmers Main type of operation Main size of operation
White, Male 1,821,039 2,210,402

Women 288,264 969,672 26% Combined crops 76% , $10,000
Black 33,371 44,629 48% Beef cattle 79% , $10,000
Hispanic 67,000 99,734 36% Beef cattle 68% , $10,000
Asian 13,669 22,140 36% Fruits and nuts 43% , $10,000
USDA-National Agricultural Statistics Service, AgCensus 2012.
age of 58 years. A higher percentage of farmers operated farms with sales of $1 million or
had completed high school (42%) than the more. Nearly half of farms operated by women
United States general population (29%) and specialized in grazing livestock, including rais-
nearly 25% of farmers had completed college. ing beef cattle (23%), horses and other equines
(17%), or sheep and goats (6%). Texas has the
most women farmers, but Arizona has the
highest percentage of women farmers (45% of
5.4.1 Women and Minorities
all farmers in the state).
in Agriculture The number of black farmers decreased
About 288,000 women are principal farm significantly after 1920 such that by 1960 they
operators and 1 million women are spouses of represented only 7% of farmers in the United
principal operators (Table 5.3). The average States (Fig. 5.1). There were many reasons
hours of farm work are substantial for women for this decline, including limited access to
principal operators (1097 hours/person/year) financial resources. Racial and economic dis-
and secondary operator spouses (895 hours/ crimination compounded the challenges
person/year). There are also nearly 1 million faced by black farmers. In 1997 and 1998 the
nonoperator spouses (spouses of farmers who National Black Farmers Association filed two
do not make management decisions), who also class-action lawsuits against the USDA claim-
contribute significant time (818 hours/person/ ing there had been systematic racial discrimi-
year) to farm operations. nation against African American farmers in
USDA statistics show that the share of US approving farms loans for decades. These
farms operated by women nearly tripled over two cases, Pigford v. Glickman and Brewington
the past three decades, from 5% in 1978 to 14% v. Glickman, charged that Secretary of
in 2007. The majority of women-operated Agriculture Dan Glickman, as the representa-
farms, roughly 75%, have annual sales of less tive of the USDA, had allowed racial discrim-
than $10,000 and overall accounted for only ination in the awarding of federal farm
16% of US agricultural sales. At the other end credit. The lawsuits were eventually settled
of the spectrum, 5% of women-operated farms with the federal government agreeing to add
had sales of $100,000 or more in 2007. Most of $100 million to the 2008 Farm Bill plus allo-
these farms specialized in grains and oilseeds, cating an additional $1.15 billion in 2010 to
specialty crops, poultry and eggs, beef cattle, compensate farmers who had been wrong-
or dairy. The poultry and egg specialization fully denied farm loans, loan servicing, or
alone accounted for roughly half of women- other benefits. These lawsuits brought public

attention to the discrimination that was wide- Occupational groups with higher suicide
spread among government agents in approv- rates might be at risk for a number of reasons,
ing funding for black farmers. The USDA has including job-related isolation and demands,
made changes in its approach to diversity stressful work environments, and work home
since these lawsuits were filed. It has put imbalance, as well as socioeconomic inequities,
more focus on assisting minorities to enter including lower income, lower education level,
and be successful in farming and to allocate and lack of access to health services. Previous
funding for minority and low-resource farm- research suggests that farmers’ chronic expo-
ers. The 2014 Farm Bill included funding for sure to pesticides might affect the neurological
the Outreach and Assistance for Socially system and contribute to depressive symp-
Disadvantaged Farmers and Ranchers and toms. Other factors that might contribute to
Veteran Farmers and Ranchers Program, also suicide among farmers include social isolation,
known as the 2501 Program. These funds potential for financial losses, barriers to and
were to be distributed as grants to academic unwillingness to seek mental health services
and other institutions that work with farmers (which might be limited in rural areas), and
from underrepresented groups. access to lethal means.
The number of minority farmers remains
low, but upward trends are evident. In 2007
about 1.4% of all principal farm operators 5.5 ECONOMICS OF FARMING
were black and this had increased to 1.6% by
2012. Black farmers are still more common in The USDA Economic Research Service
Southern states. Texas has the highest num- (ERS) gathers and analyzes an extensive range
ber of black farmers, but they make up of agricultural economic data. The information
only 3% of the total farmers in that state. The spans from the types and amount of crops
state with the highest percentage of black planted to export trade markets. The ERS gen-
farmers is Mississippi, where 12% of farmers erates reports and summaries of these data
are black. Other underrepresented groups that are freely available for public use on their
engaged in agriculture include Hispanic and website (www.ers.usda.gov). Farmers and
Asian farmers (Table 5.3). The number of agriculture-related industries utilize this infor-
Hispanic farmers has increased 21% since mation and the reports generated by the ERS
2007, and the state with the highest percent- staff to make decisions about their operations.
age of Hispanic farmers is New Mexico with Government agencies rely on the data for
36%. Asian farmers represent 38% of all farm- assessing trends in the agricultural sector that
ers in Hawaii, and the majority of Asian inform policies and set market conditions.
farmers specialize in fruits, nuts, vegetables, The economic balance of a farming opera-
and greenhouse crops. tion can be tenuous due to the volatility in
Farming can be a stressful occupation. markets and the unpredictability of weather,
Analysis of 2012 National Violent Death among other variables. Farmers must make
Reporting System statistics from the CDC decisions about what to plant or how many
found in 17 states workers in the farming, fish- livestock to raise before they know what the
ing, and forestry occupational group had the markets will bear or the prices they will
highest rate of suicide (84.5/100,000 people), receive. The amount of capital investment in
followed by workers in construction and large farm operations can be significant,
extraction (53.3/100,000), and installation, including the costs for land, machinery, labor,
maintenance, and repair (47.9/100,000). chemical inputs (fertilizer and pesticides),

5.6 HIRED FARM WORKERS 161
seed, feed for animals, and energy. Farmers (Fig. 5.5). Concurrent with the decrease in
rely on economic data and predictions of mar- income has been an increase in farm debt since
kets to make their decisions about their opera- 2000. These two economic forces created finan-
tions. Having the ability to interpret and apply cial stress on farmers but have not risen to the
such complicated economic data is essential level seen during the 1980 farm crisis.
for farming success. On-farm income is gener- Another tool to gauge the economic status of
ated from agricultural sales, government pay- agriculture is the assessment of overall produc-
ments, and farm-related activities. Agricultural tivity. Agricultural productivity is defined as
sales include the revenue from the sale of the ratio of outputs to inputs. Outputs include
crops or livestock produced on the farm. Some yield of crops and livestock and inputs include
farmers obtain conservation payments, direct fertilizer and pesticides, farm machinery,
payments, loan deficiency payments, disaster energy, and labor. Improvements in genetics
payments, and other forms of government and farm practices have generated an increase
support that add to their net income. Farm- in agricultural outputs. The USDA has ana-
related activities that generate income may lyzed the overall productivity of agriculture
include rent of land or other property, custom annually since 1948 (Fig. 5.6). The types of
work, forest product sales, recreational ser- inputs have shifted, from less human labor
vices, or crop and livestock insurance pay- to more use of technology, but the overall
ments. A balance sheet for income, expenses, costs of inputs have stayed constant during this
and net profit for all US farms combined in time. As a result, agricultural productivity has
2012 is shown in Table 5.4. The net profit for improved by over 250% since 1948. This growth
that year for all US agriculture was $92.3 bil- in productivity has occurred without an
lion. Government payments contribute a very increase in the total amount of land being
small amount to overall income compared to farmed in the United States, but the amount of
the agricultural sales, in contrast to public per- resources consumed by agriculture, including
ception. The average net farm income for the energy, soil, water, and chemicals derived from
United States followed a generally increasing fossil fuels has increased. Determining how to
trend from 2000 to 2015 but then decreased continue to increase productivity to meet the
essentially back to the 2000 level by 2016 future demand for food, while simultaneously
conserving these natural resources, is one of the
TABLE 5.4 Income and Expenses for All US Farms grand challenges facing the agricultural sector.
Combined
$ Billions 5.6 HIRED FARM WORKERS
Income Net profit
Source ($) Expenses ($) Mechanization of farm operations has
Agricultural sales 394.6
reduced the need for farm labor in some types
of agriculture. For certain crops, especially
Government 8.1 fruits and vegetables, manual labor continues
payments
to be essential for planting and harvesting.
Farm-related income 18.5 Caring for animals can be somewhat mecha-
Production expenses 328.9 nized, for example milking machines, but
other aspects require human skills. Overall,
92.3
about 27% of total farm operating costs are for
USDA-National Agricultural Statistics Service, AgCensus 2012. hired worker wages, but may be as high at

FIGURE 5.5 Net farm income tended to increase from 1999 to 2014 but has decreased since 2014. Farm income is
dependent on weather, crop yields, market demands, and input costs, which can vary widely from year to year. Source:
USDA Economic Research Service, www.usda.ers.gov.
FIGURE 5.6 Total agricultural output in the United States has increased over 2.5-fold since the 1940s while inputs
have remained fairly constant. US farmers have benefited from mechanization, high-quality seeds and animal breeds, and
scientific advances that have contributed to high productivity. Source: USDA Economic Research Service, www.usda.ers.gov.
5.7 US IMMIGRATION POLICIES 163
40% for some crops and animal operations. In commitments. In some states, agricultural work-
2012, there were over 1 million hired farm ers are allowed to be hired at less than the fed-
workers in the United States. About half of eral minimum wage (currently $7.25/hour). The
these were employed for the full year, one- Migrant and Seasonal Agricultural Worker
fourth worked part time (worked ,150 days Protection Act, which was passed in 1983, pro-
in a year), and one-fourth were agricultural vides workers with legal protection from being
service workers (brought to the farm by con- mistreated by employers. The enforcement of
tractors). Hired farm workers were predomi- these regulations is not uniformly guaranteed
nantly male (82%), white (92%), US citizens and in cases where workers do not have legal
(64%), and married (53%). Only about 25% had documentation abuse can occur.
attended college and 27% had less than a ninth
grade education. About 42% were foreign-
born, and 45% defined their ethnicity as 5.7 US IMMIGRATION POLICIES
Hispanic and spoke Spanish as their native
language. Hispanic is defined as persons from A major issue regarding migrant and sea-
Cuba, Mexico, Puerto Rico, South or Central sonal farm workers is the high percentage of
America, or another Spanish culture. The workers who do not have proper documenta-
Hispanic population in the United States has tion to work in the United States. Immigration
risen significantly over the past 30 years from laws in the United States are defined in the
around 15 to 51 million people. In some Immigration and Naturalization Act (INA).
regions, particularly the Southwestern states of This provides for a total of 675,000 new perma-
Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, and nent immigrants per year. The main goals of
Colorado, Hispanics make up more than 10% the INA are (1) reunification of families; (2)
of the local population. After 1970, part-time admitting immigrants with valuable skills of
wage workers, usually Hispanic, represented economic importance; (3) protecting refugees;
30% 35% of employees on farms. and (4) promoting diversity. Most farm work-
Farm work is physically demanding, requires ers would not fall into one of these categories.
standing and bending to pick crops and carry Family-based immigration is granted to a
buckets or trays, and must be done regardless of maximum of 480,000 people per year, for
the weather conditions. Laborers can be exposed spouses of US citizens or legal residents, their
to hazardous conditions in the fields from chem- children, and siblings. Employment-based
ical treatments, insects, and machinery. The immigration provides temporary visas (in 20
hours are long and inconsistent. Workers are types) and permanent immigration to those
typically paid by the amount of product picked with desirable skills and training (about
or hours worked. In 2011, wages paid to farm 150,000/year). Employment immigration has a
workers ranged from $8.99 per hour for farm cap that prevents immigrants from any one
workers and laborers to $20.48 per hour for first- country to exceed 7% of the total immigrants
line supervisors. In 2012, the average hourly in a given year. The president and Congress
earnings reported for farm laborers were $10.22 define the annual limit for refugees who are
per hour. This may seem like a reasonable seeking safety from threats in their home coun-
hourly pay rate, but farm workers are rarely try. In fiscal year 2013 the cap was 70,000,
able to find 40 hours of work per week every raised by President Obama to 100,000 for fiscal
week of the year. When the harvest is bad, the year 2017, but then decreased to 50,000 by
workers earn less, which can leave them without executive order of President Trump. Political
sufficient income to meet their financial asylum may be granted by the president

without limit. Individuals granted refugee or the fact that undocumented laborers could
asylum status may request visas after 1 year. find work in agriculture, manufacturing, con-
The diversity visa was started in 1990 and struction, and service jobs, there has been a
allows entry of 55,000 immigrants per year steady increase in the number of undocu-
from countries with a low US immigration mented persons entering the United States. In
rate. These are awarded on a lottery basis. 1986, President Ronald Reagan signed the
The route to citizenship in the United States Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA;
begins with securing a US Permanent Resident Table 5.1) in order to control and deter illegal
Card (“green card”), which provides for perma- immigration to the United States. The IRCA
nent residency. Green cards may be obtained included provision to enact the H2-A visa for
through family, job, or refugee/asylum status. temporary workers who perform agricultural
The process of securing a green card can be labor or services. It also allowed permanent
challenging, costly, and may take several years. residency status to individuals who had
A limited number of green cards are issued lived in the United States continuously since
each year. Once a green card is held for 5 years, January 1, 1986; had performed agricultural
application for US citizenship may be initiated. labor in the United States for at least 90 days
To be eligible, the individual must be 18 years in the year ending May 1, 1986; or had per-
of age or older, able to demonstrate continuous formed agricultural labor in each of the 3 years
residency in the United States, and be of good prior to 1986. It is estimated that about 2.7 mil-
moral character. They must pass an English lan- lion people took advantage of this law and
guage and US history and civics exam and pay became legal residents. The number of H-2A
an application fee. It may take several years to visas issued by the United States has increased
work through the citizenship process. from about 56,000 in 2010 to 108,000 in 2015
In part because of the limits and obstacles (Fig. 5.7) although not all of these would be for
associated with these immigration laws and agricultural workers.
FIGURE 5.7 The number of H2-A visas issued in the United States increased between 2010 and 2015. H2-A visas are
issued for temporary workers, including agricultural workers. Source: U.S. Department of State, www.state.gov.

5.7 US IMMIGRATION POLICIES 165
IRCA implemented penalties for employers Mexico. Hence, management of undocumented
that hired undocumented workers and increased workers in the United States is a major political
enforcement at US borders. In recent years, issue. In recent years, concerns about terrorism
programs have been implemented to help have further escalated border security concerns
employers determine if workers had the proper among some Americans and politicians. The
work authorization before they hired them. One southern border of the United States that is
example is the E-Verify system, an Internet- shared with Mexico is a primary entry point for
based program where employers can scan undocumented workers because they can move
records to identify an employee’s status. across some parts of the relatively unpopulated
E-Verify has been criticized because employers border region without being detected. During
are charged $150 per scan and the database is his campaign for the presidency in 2016,
not always accurate. It is also cumbersome to use Donald Trump declared that he would “build a
and frequently requires additional follow up to wall and make Mexico pay for it” to prevent
track an individual. Mexicans from entering the United States ille-
Despite these laws, there has been an gally. Efforts to stop undocumented workers
increase in the percentage of farm workers who from entering the United States have been part
are unauthorized to work in the United States. of the political debate since the 1960s but with
The USDA estimates that the percentage of no substantive plan to create a different system.
hired farm workers who were not legally Over the past decades, many social political
authorized to work in the United States factors have incentivized people from Mexico,
increased from 15% in 1989 to 55% in 1999, and and Central and South America, to come to the
remained fairly constant thereafter (Fig. 5.8). United States seeking a better future. The econ-
The highest percent of these workers are from omies of some of these countries have become
FIGURE 5.8 The number of hired farm workers who are not authorized to work in the United States increased
between 1991 and 2009. Overall the number of unauthorized farm workers has been fairly constant since 2000. Source:
USDA Economic Research Service, www.usda.ers.gov; National Agricultural Workers Survey.

weaker, and crime, drugs, and civil war have were charged with identity theft, given expe-
increased the flow of immigrants. Working dited hearings with judges over the next 3 days,
through the United States legal immigration sentenced to 5 months in prison and then
process is difficult, expensive, and takes years. deported when they were released. The effects
Desperate to find work and better living condi- on the community were devastating. Families
tions than in their own country, many thou- were torn apart, in some cases both parents
sands attempt to enter the United States were arrested and their children were left to be
illegally across the southern border with cared for by neighbors with no source of
Mexico. Those that are not caught by Border income. Because of the size of the raid, Postville
Patrol agents stay with relatives or friends, was in the national news and the issues of ille-
obtain fake identification, and find work doing gal workers’ rights and treatment were publicly
manual labor. Immigration and Customs debated. Some believed the government was
Enforcement (ICE) officials estimate that there right to enforce the law and arrest those in the
may be more than 10 million individuals in the country illegally; others thought the workers
United States illegally but are provided with an were being targeted unjustly when the owners
annual appropriation from Congress that should be held accountable. The owners were
allows only a limited number to be appre- held accountable and in the following months,
hended. This has led ICE to focus on three criminal charges were filed against many of the
main priorities: those that have broken criminal administrative staff for harboring illegal per-
laws, have repeatedly violated immigration law sons, use of child labor, nonpayment of over-
or are fugitives from immigration court. In time, and denial of medical attention for
2011, ICE removed more than 396,000 indivi- workplace injuries. Agriprocessors folded in
duals who fit those criteria. bankruptcy soon after the trials resulting in a
The federal government has been largely brief national shortage of kosher meat. Within 2
unable to prevent the use of illegal immigrants years the meat packing facility was reopened
in agriculture. In some sectors, particularly the under new ownership and the town of Postville
meat packing industry, unions have been tried to rebuild.
pushed out to reduce the costs of doing busi- President Barack Obama attempted to tackle
ness. Jobs that once paid a reasonable salary are the issue of immigration during the last 2
increasingly being done by nonunion, immi- years of his presidency. He took executive
grant workers who accept minimum wage or action on immigration in 2014 that included
less. Raids on these facilities to round up illegal proposals to streamline visa processing for for-
workers are frequently in the news. One of the eign entrepreneurs; retain graduates in science,
most extensive such raids occurred in the small technology, and engineering fields from
town of Postville, Iowa in 2008. The US universities; decrease the barriers that keep
Agriprocessors plant was one of the largest families apart; and enhance travel and tourism
kosher meat packing facilities in the United flexibility. But these executive actions were
States, employed more than 800 people, and blocked by the Supreme Court. There are con-
had been in Postville for 20 years. The entire cerns that border security should be the prior-
population of Postville was less than 2500 peo- ity and that opening more routes for foreigners
ple and the packing plant was the main to enter the United States will excessively
employer. On the morning of May 12, helicop- burden social programs and reduce opportu-
ters, buses, and vans carrying hundreds of fed- nities for Americans. There is agreement that
eral agents descended on the plant and arrested immigration reform is needed, but the path to
almost 400 employees. Most of the workers achieve that will be rocky.

5.8 NONFARM AGRICULTURE WORK 167
As the stories of migrant laborers in the 5.8 NONFARM
1960s and illegal meat packing workers in 2008 AGRICULTURE WORK
made clear, agricultural labor practices in the
United States face significant challenges. There Since the 1950s, when the term agribusiness
are workers who are willing to take on low- was first introduced, the breadth of agriculture-
paying, difficult, and physically taxing jobs in related industries has expanded dramatically.
the hopes of building better lives for them- According to the Agriculture Council of
selves and their families, and some employers America, there are over 22 million people work-
are willing to use that to their advantage. ing in agriculture-related fields. The types of
Underpaid and illegal workers have always work include agribusiness management; agricul-
been part of the US agricultural workforce tural and natural resources communications;
despite government regulations and enforce- building construction management; resource
ment. Consumers today seem to be more development and management; parks, recrea-
focused on the plight of animal rights than tion, and tourism, packaging; horticulture; for-
human rights in agriculture. Raising the stan- estry; food science; and fisheries and wildlife
dards for pay and working conditions for agri- management. Statistics compiled by the USDA-
cultural workers will clearly result in higher ERS of agriculture-related industries also
prices for food. Deciding what values and ethi- include the food and beverage sectors, textile
cal principles we demand in our food system and mill products, paper and allied products,
must include the role of human workers. leather products, and animal and veterinary
EXPANSION BOX 5.3
FA R M W O R K E R P R O G R A M I N A L A B A M A
A concern often voiced about undocu- increased from about 25,000 to 120,000 between
mented persons living in the United States is 2000 and 2010 as jobs in agriculture, meat packing,
that they are utilizing community services and and construction came available. Concern for the
sending their children to school without paying high number of undocumented workers led the
taxes, thereby burdening these systems. Some state legislature to pass an immigration law in
believe that undocumented people are taking 2011, House Bill 56 (HB56), which allowed law
jobs away from US citizens. Others worry that enforcement officers to request anyone at any
criminals or persons with severe contagious time to produce their paperwork demonstrating
diseases may be coming into the United States. they were legally in the United States. The law
Many political debates have been waged over also required farmers to use the E-Verify system
immigration issues, but finding a working solu- to track the status of all workers before they were
tion has been challenging. hired. The law made it a felony for a farmer to
Some states, particularly those near the provide transportation, housing, or meals to an
Mexican border, are frustrated with a lack of fed- undocumented worker. Soon after the law was
eral laws controlling undocumented workers and passed, the great majority of farm workers, even
have decided to take action at the state level. In those with legal work permits, left the state over
Alabama, the number of undocumented workers concerns that they would be arrested and

deported. Rural communities were vacated, The Alabama example demonstrates the com-
leaving store owners and businesses without plexity of issues regarding illegal immigrants and
customers. migrant farm workers. Producers are increasingly
The Governor of Alabama, Robert Bentley, developing mechanization of crop production
launched a campaign called Work Alabama, and harvesting to avoid the regulations and
which attempted to connect workers with the problems associated with seasonal workers.
jobs left open by the migrant workers. Many of Mechanization can reduce the need for human
the jobs were in the agricultural sector and labor but will also affect the types and quality of
required manual labor. Despite a high unem- food that reach the marketplace. Intensely culti-
ployment rate in the state, few people applied vated horticultural crops, that include the healthy
for such work and those that did lasted only a fruits and vegetables consumers are increasingly
few days before quitting. Unintended conse- demanding, require substantial human labor to
quences, such as having to arrest an executive produce. More fresh fruits and vegetables are
of the Mercedes-Benz Corporation when he being imported from other countries, in part to
was stopped while driving in Alabama with meet the increased consumer demand, but
only a German ID card, hit the national news. also because of the labor challenges of production
Churches and clergy risked criminalization for in the United States. As found in Alabama,
providing soup kitchens or Spanish-language American workers may not be willing to accept
services to potentially undocumented persons. the low-paying, manual labor jobs required to
The effect of this law was reduced crop and produce these crops. Workers from outside the
livestock productivity leading to economic loss United States find it difficult to obtain authoriza-
to the state and negative national press. As a tion to work in the United States and employers
result, the law began to unravel. Lawsuits struggle to determine which workers do have
against the state, claiming discrimination and legal permits. Finding a way to balance these
unconstitutionality, were filed that effectively issues in an economically, politically, and socio-
blocked enactment of the law. By 2013 the state logically acceptable manner is challenging.
had agreed to pay $350,000 to settle various
suits and the tenets of HB56 were proven to be Suggested website: Alabama HB 56, http://www.ago.state.al.
us/Page-Immigration-Act-No-2011-535-Text
unconstitutional, unmanageable, and politically
unviable. Within a few years, most of the law
was rescinded.
services. Additional related industries include of producers (farmers, ranchers, and growers).
finance, insurance, equipment manufacturer In 2014, over 1.4 million people worked in food-
and sales, marketing and sales (including coop- related manufacturing based on the US Bureau
eratives), transportation, land and real estate of Labor Statistics data (Table 5.5). This number
management, technical consultants and a wide is probably an overestimate of the people
range of input suppliers. The number of directly engaged in food production as it
workers associated with agriculture and food includes all aspects of the manufacturing sector,
production is far greater than the actual number but clearly demonstrates the significant impact

TABLE 5.5 Agriculture-Related Workers and Wages which was first opened in 1948. When
Ray Kroc took over the franchise in 1954, he
Annual
US Bureau of Labor Number of mean wage implemented assembly line, standardized
Statistics category employees ($) approaches to food preparation, and marketing
strategies that attracted children. These strate-
Seafood product preparation 33,310 31,550
and packaging
gies were highly successful. By 1959 there
were 100 McDonald’s restaurants, by 1983
Animal food manufacturing 54,590 40,280 there were 7778 in 32 countries, and today
Grain and oilseed milling 59,080 44,700 there are over 36,000 restaurants in 100 coun-
Sugar and confectionery 69,920 36,830
tries. It is estimated that McDonald’s employs
product manufacturing over 1.7 million people worldwide and may be
the most well-recognized business in the
Dairy product 132,820 41,300
manufacturing
world. Other fast food chains began in the
1950s, including Taco Bell and Burger King,
Fruit and 163,830 36,930 followed by Wendy’s in 1969, showing similar
vegetable preserving and
specialty food
growth and expansion. The fast food section
manufacturing has been widely criticized for providing high-
calorie, inexpensive food that contributed to
Other food manufacturing 187,470 39,800
the obesity epidemic, and for not providing a
Bakeries and tortilla 290,820 32,300 living wage for employees. In contrast, the
manufacturing growth of this sector indicates consumer
Animal slaughtering and 485,120 29,590 acceptance of the products, marketing, and
processing employment opportunities of the fast food
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
industry. With their substantial market impact,
the types of foods sold by fast food chains
directly impact agriculture. For example, when
food manufacturing has on the US economy. McDonald’s decided to offer a salad that con-
The annual mean wage earnings for agriculture- tained edamame (green soybeans) they spent
related work ranges from around $30,000 to several years prior to launching the product
$45,000 (Table 5.5). working with soybean growers preparing to
The food service industry is a significant produce enough edamame to meet their needs.
employer within the agriculture-related sector, This created a new market niche for those
contributing $1.24 trillion in wages in 2010 farmers. Similarly, when these large marketers
according to the USDA. In 2014 over 4.7 mil- try to meet consumer demands for local and
lion people were employed in the food service organic foods, cage-free eggs and non-GMO
industry earning an average of $8.92 per hour. ingredients, they must rely on the agricultural
This sector includes restaurants, schools, sector to change their production systems to
hospitals, cafeterias, and other dining places. provide these products.
In 1963, about 28% of food expenditures were According to the National Restaurant
spent on food consumed away from home, Association, there are over 1 million restaurants
and by 2010 that increased to 48%. More in the United States employing over 14 million
opportunities to purchase food outside the people, which is roughly 10% of the entire work-
home, especially from fast food outlets, force. The median pay for servers, with tips
account for a large amount of this spending. included, was $16.13 per hour. Workers in fast
The fast food industry leader is McDonald’s, food establishments do not benefit from tips and

TABLE 5.6 The Minimum Wage (MW) as Defined by Each State

Greater than federal MW
No MW Less than federal MW Federal MW Less than $9.00 Less than $10.00 $10.00 or more
AL—No MW GA—$5.15 IA—$7.25 NM—$7.50 AK—$9.75 CA—$10.00
LA—No MW WY—$5.15 ID—$7.25 ME—$7.50 CT—$9.60 MA—$10.00

MS—No MW IN—$7.25 MO—$7.65 MN—$9.50 DC—$11.50
SC—No MW KS—$7.25 AR—$8.00 NE—$9.00
TN—No MW KY—$7.25 AZ—$8.05 NY—$9.00
NC—$7.25 FL—$8.05 OR—$9.75
ND—$7.25 MT—$8.05 RI—$9.60
NH—$7.25 OH—$8.10 VT—$9.60

OK—$7.25 IL—$8.25 WA—$9.47
PA—$7.25 DE—$8.25
TX—$7.25 NV—$8.25
UT—$7.25 CO—$8.31
VA—$7.25 NJ—$8.38
WI—$7.25 HI—$8.50
MI—$8.50
SD—$8.55
MD—$8.75
WV—$8.75
U.S. Department of Labor, www.dol.gov.
there is great variation in the size and distribu- would need to work a total of 203 eight-hour
tion of tips within the restaurant sector. As of days per year and a family would need to work
September 1, 2016, fourteen states followed the 418 days per year, assuming no withholdings
federal minimum wage of $7.25 per hour and taxes. The poverty threshold does not
(Table 5.6). The majority of states had rates above address differences in cost of living within
the federal level, ranging from $7.50 to $11.50 per regions of the United States including housing,
hour. Five states have no minimum wage transportation, and taxes, which can vary dra-
requirement (Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, matically. Controversy around the minimum
South Carolina, and Tennessee) and two states wage versus a living wage is ongoing. Some
have rates below the federal minimum (Georgia argue that raising the minimum wage will
and Wyoming). The poverty threshold as defined increase the costs of goods and services for con-
by the US government is $11,770 per year for a sumers. Others argue that workers making less
single person and $24,250 for a family of four. To than a living wage receive government subsidies
achieve this minimum level of income while in the form of food or housing assistance, which
making minimum wage, the single worker is essentially allowing employers to make more

TABLE 5.7 Top 10 Largest Food and Beverage Companies in 2014
2014 Food sales
Company ($ million) Example name brands and products
PepsiCo 38,224 Pepsi beverages, Frito-Lay snacks, Quaker Oats cereals, Tropicana juices, Lipton
Incorporated tea, Aquafina water
Tyson Foods 36,077 Tyson, Jimmy Dean, Ball Park, Hillshire Farms meats and meat products
Incorporated
Nestle 27,978 Nestle and Gerber baby foods, Nescafe coffee, CoffeeMate, Lean Cuisine and
Hot Pockets, Carnation milk, Nesquik and Nestea, Dreyer’s, Edy’s, and Haagen
Dazs ice cream
JBS USA 24,000 Beef, pork, chicken, and lamb
Coca-Cola 21,462 Coke beverages, Dasani water, Minute Maid, Powerade and Odwalla drinks,
Company Bacardi mixers
Anheuser-Busch 16,093 Budweiser, Michelob, Rolling Rock, Stella Artois, and Beck’s beer
InBev
ConAgra Foods 15,832 Banquet meals, Act II, Orville Redenbacher’s and Jiffy Pop popcorn, Blue
Incorporated Bonnet and Fleischmann’s margarine, Libby’s foods, Marie Callender’s
products, Peter Pan peanut butter, Slim Jim, Swiss Miss cocoa, SnackPack
pudding, Wesson oil
Kraft Heinz 14,343 Kraft Macaroni & Cheese, Oscar Mayer meats, Planters snacks, Jell-O, Velveeta,
Company Kool-Aid, Heinz condiments, Cool Whip
Smithfield Foods 13,426 Farmland, John Morrell, Nathan’s, Cook’s meats
Incorporated
General Mills 12,502 Cereals (Cheerios, Lucky Charms, Trix, Fiber One), Annie’s products, Green
Incorporated Giant frozen vegetables, Gold Medal and Pillsbury flour, Cascadian Farm
cereals and granola bars
Food Processing, www.foodprocessing.com.
profits by paying employees less. In response to ingredient; and everything in between. Food
these concerns, several states have committed scientists make up a small percent of the total
recently to a stepwise increase over a period of employees in the food industry, but play
years to raise their minimum wage levels, but no important roles in product development, safety
change in the federal level has been approved. and quality control, marketing, and new tech-
Another major employer in the food sector nology development.
is the food industry. Food processing and The organization that represents food scien-
manufacture is described in more detail in tists, the Institute of Food Technologists, found
Chapter 6, Food Processing. The types of jobs from an employment survey of members in
in the food industry are broad including pro- 2013 that the level of education was fairly
duction and manufacturing, quality control, evenly divided across employees with 38%
research and development, packaging, sales having completed BS degrees, 34% MS, and
and marketing, and regulatory compliance. 24% PhD degrees. The mean salary for
The food industry includes large multinational employees was $75,000 for those with a BS,
corporations (Table 5.7); small, focused opera- $90,000 for those with MS, and $95,000 per
tions that produce a single product or year for those with PhD degrees. Most major

food companies employ a wide range of per- and consultation services, as well. Increasingly,
sonnel, with degrees in business and market- co-ops are engaging in market analysis and
ing, human resources, communication, law, predictions to assist farmers with financial
engineering, statistics, and basic sciences (biol- decisions and the use of technology for
ogy, chemistry, and math). improving efficiency and productivity. Growth
For many farmers, the local cooperative, or in farmers’ co-ops is also occurring in local
co-op, provides many services. Co-ops are food systems with small operators in niche
defined as owned and controlled by their pro- markets working together to deliver and mar-
ducer members. Rapid growth in co-op size ket their products.
and operations has occurred recently. In 2014 Expansion of technology in agriculture has
the USDA reported that there were over created growth in several agribusiness sectors.
135,000 co-op employees, which had increased Large agribusinesses include those engaged in
from 7000 in 2012. Examples of top agricul- animal breeding and care, inspection and grad-
tural cooperatives are listed in Table 5.8. In ing, plant and seed development, commodity
grain producing areas, co-ops serve as brokers processing, chemical input manufacturing, and
for crops by buying them from farmers, stor- equipment operations and manufacturing. The
ing them in elevators (silos); processing them types of work defined by the US Bureau of Labor
into secondary products, animal feed, or ingre- Statistics in these areas are shown in Table 5.9.
dients; and marketing the grain and products. Corporations associated with agriculture
Co-ops may also provide farmers with fertili- include seed and chemical companies, brokers
zers, which are often purchased in bulk from and processors, farm implement manufac-
international markets. Animal producers utilize turers, insurance and finance, and farm and
co-ops to supply feed, medications, and breed- data management. Some examples are shown
ing services, as well as slaughtering and pro- in Table 5.10. Companies such as Monsanto,
cessing of animals. Some farmer co-ops DuPont Dow, and BASF began their
provide transportation, financial, insurance,
TABLE 5.9 Agriculture-Related Professions
TABLE 5.8 Top Agricultural Cooperatives in 2014 Annual
US Bureau of Labor Number of mean wage
Cooperative Location Products Statistics category employees ($)
CHS Inc. St. Paul, MN Energy, farm supply, Animal scientists 2350 72,590
food and grain
Pesticide, fertilizer, and other 35,870 54,250
Land O’Lakes St. Paul, MN Dairy and food agricultural chemical
Inc. manufacturing
Dairy Farmers Kansas City, Dairy Soil and plant scientists 15,150 64,680
of America MO
Agriculture and food science 20,640 37,330
GROWMARK Bloomington, Farm supply technicians
Inc. IL
Agricultural inspectors 13,800 43,630
Ag Processing Omaha, NE Farm supply and grain
Inc. Animal breeders 1110 43,470
California Artesia, CA Dairy Graders and sorters, 36,100 22,320

Dairies Inc. agricultural products
United Suppliers Eldora, IA Farm supply Agricultural equipment 26,100 28,490

Inc. operators
Rural Cooperatives Magazine, September/October 2014. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

TABLE 5.10 Corporations With Investment in Agriculture
Headquarters Products
SEED AND CHEMICAL COMPANIES

Monsanto St. Louis, MO Agriculture and vegetable seeds, plant technology traits, and crop
protection chemicals
DuPont Pioneer Johnston, IA Animal nutrition and disease prevention products, crop protection and seed
Syngenta Basel, Switzerland Crop protection, seeds, seed treatment, farm management
Bayer Crop Science Cambridge, UK Crop protection and seeds
Dow AgroSciences Indianapolis, IN Crop protection and seeds
BASF Plant Science Research Triangle Pest control, seeds, and animal health
Park, NC
FERTILIZER COMPANIES
Koch Ag and Energy Wichita, KS Fertilizer, energy, and methanol
Solutions, LLC
PotashCorp Saskatchewan, Fertilizers
Canada
FARM IMPLEMENT COMPANIES
Deere & Company Moline, IL Agriculture, construction, and home equipment
Case-IH (International Racine, WI Agriculture and construction equipment

Harvester)
New Holland New Holland, PA Agriculture and construction equipment
COMMODITY PROCESSORS
Cargill Minneapolis, MN Commodity trading and processing; animal feed and nutrition; meat,
food, and beverage ingredients; energy
Archer Daniels Midland Chicago, IL Oilseed processing, corn processing, agriculture services, ingredients
Bunge North America St. Louis, MO Commodity trading and processing, food ingredients, animal feed and
bioenergy
FARM MANAGEMENT COMPANIES
Hertz Farm Management Nevada, IA Farm management, real estate, and appraisals
Inc.
Farmers National Omaha, NE Farm management, real estate, appraisals, insurance, and commodity
Company marketing
Northwestern Farm Marshall, MN Farm management, real estate, and appraisals
Management Company
AGRICULTURE DATA MANAGEMENT COMPANIES

AGDATA Charlotte, NC Data collection, analysis, and market assessments
OnFarm Fresno, CA Data collection systems, analysis, and market assessments
Farm Logs Ann Arbor, MI Data collection systems and analysis

businesses producing chemicals or pharmaceu- Farm Managers and Rural Appraisers

ticals, then expanded into agricultural chemi- (ASFMRA) provides accreditation programs
cals. As plant biotechnology innovations for farm managers, rural appraisers, and
(hybridization and genetic engineering) were agricultural consultants, which require work
developed these became more profitable and experience, coursework and examinations.
expanded their portfolio of products. People Accredited farm managers and appraisers
with degrees in plant science, genetics, soil sci- often work as independent contractors.
ence, agronomy, entomology, and horticulture With recent advances in technology, data
are employed by these companies. Farm analysis and collection have also become major
implements, including tractors, harvesters, industries in agriculture. Companies such
combines, balers, sprayers, dryers, planters, AGDATA, OnFarm, and FarmLogs help farm-
and irrigation systems are manufactured by ers collect, manage, and interpret information
companies such as Deere & Company, Case- about their operations. Hardware and software
IH, and New Holland. These companies engineers and designers make up the work-
employ agricultural, electrical, and mechanical force for these companies. The agriculture
engineers, and computer scientists and soft- workforce is diverse and increasingly based on
ware designers to develop this equipment. technology. Companies that provide precision
Another segment of the agriculture industry agriculture technologies in irrigation, crop
includes large companies engaged in buying management, animal breeding, pest control,
and processing commodities, producing ingre- and soil assessment and enhancement are
dients for food and animal feed and, more becoming part of the industry. These technolo-
recently, biofuel production. These companies gies have great potential to improve crop and
include Cargill, Archer Daniels Midland, and animal production systems while reducing
Bunge North America. Companies such as inputs and environmental impact.
PotashCorp and Koch Ag & Energy LLC are
the main suppliers of fertilizer for the agricul-
ture industry. The scope of these companies is
broad and global. Processing plants are located 5.9 COMMODITY BOARDS
where the crops and animals are produced AND CHECKOFFS
and products are marketed around the world.
Mainly, these companies operate as business- Commodity boards are organizations that
to-business rather than direct-to-consumer support the producers of specific agricultural
operations. Within the past decade, biofuels commodities, and a few are listed in
and biobased chemicals have become impor- Table 5.11. The mission of these organizations
tant market areas for agriculture-related typically includes informational, marketing,
companies because they have facilities and and promotional information for their pro-
expertise in commodity processing. ducts aimed at consumers, educational and
Farm operation management companies, support programs for members, and lobbying
such as Hertz Farm Management Inc., Farmers efforts. In some cases, there are state organiza-
National Company, and Northwestern Farm tions or chapters of the national organizations
Management Company oversee farming opera- as well. Lobbying efforts are supported by
tions for owners who do not live on the farm, membership dues, but promotion and market-
serve as real estate brokers for agricultural ing can be funded through checkoff programs.
land, and carry out appraisals and assessments Research and promotion (R&P) programs,
of farm operations. The American Society of which are approved by Congress and

5.9 COMMODITY BOARDS AND CHECKOFFS 175
TABLE 5.11 Examples of National Commodity Organizations
Year founded Checkoff program
American Sheep Industry Association 1865 No

National Cattleman’s Beef Association 1898 Yes
United Fresh Produce Association 1904 No
American Dairy Association and National Dairy Council 1915 Yes
American Soybean Association 1920 Yes
National Turkey Federation 1941 No
National Association of Wheat Growers 1955 No

National Corn Growers Association 1957 Yes
Cotton Board 1966 Yes
US Potato Board 1971 Yes
American Egg Board 1974 Yes
National Pork Producers Council 1985 Yes
American Sugar Alliance 1987 No

US Rice Producers Association 1997 No
National Peanut Board 2000 Yes
National Alfalfa and Forage Alliance 2006 No
American Goat Federation 2010 No
managed by the Agricultural Marketing Board, comprised of 36 dairy producers from

Service of the USDA, were established to 12 geographic regions and 2 members that
allow commodity groups to pool resources to represent dairy importers, operates under
enhance marketing, and conduct research Dairy Management Inc. The board is responsi-
within a commodity group. R&P programs, ble for determining how the checkoff funds
sometimes referred to as checkoff programs, are used to promote dairy farmers. Some of
are defined fee assessments on producers. A the funding supports research at academic
commodity board comprised of elected or institutions and research centers, but the
appointed producers must be established to majority is spent in advertising and promotion
oversee the spending of the funds. The funds of dairy products. Examples are the Fuel Up
must be used for promotional, marketing, to Play 60 program, which encourages activi-
education, or research and not on lobbying ties and healthy food choices in youth. The
efforts. An example of an R&P program is the Fluid Milk Processors Promotion Program is
Dairy Research and Promotion Program, or another checkoff program that assesses large
Dairy Checkoff Program. Dairy farmers pay processors that produce more than 3 million
150b per hundred-weight of milk produced pounds of fluid milk per month to pay 20b
and milk importers pay 7.5b. The Dairy per hundred-weight. The 20 members of the

Fluid Milk Board are appointed by the American Crystal Sugar Company. (2016). History.
Secretary of Agriculture and represent 15 geo- Available from ,https://www.crystalsugar.com/..
Anonymous. (2014). Republicans for immigration reform.
graphic regions of the United States. This Available from ,http://www.republicansforimmigra
organization has sponsored familiar ad cam- tionreform.org/..
paigns to promote milk such as the got milk? Bakery, Confectionery, Tobacco, and Grain Millers
campaign with the celebrity milk mustaches. International Union. (2016). History and purpose.
The AMS oversees more than 20 checkoff pro- Available from ,http://www.bctgm.org/..
Bangsund, D. A., Hodur, N. M., & Leistritz, F. L. (2012).
grams across the range of commodities, Economic contribution of the sugarbeet industry to
including not only the main agricultural com- Minnesota and North Dakota. AAE Report No. 668.
modities of eggs, beef, pork, soybeans, cotton, Fargo, ND: Department of Agribusiness & Applied
and potatoes, but also smaller crops such as Economics, North Dakota State University.
mango, watermelon, avocado, mushroom, Barboza, D. (December 21, 2001). Meatpackers’ profits
hinge on pool of immigrant labor. New York Times.
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tions employs staff to develop and implement 21/us/meatpackers-profits-hinge-on-pool-of-immigrant-
promotional activities, organize meetings, and labor.html..
oversee research, and to work on legislative Bloom, S. G. (2000). Postville: A clash of cultures in heartland
issues that are part of the agriculture-related America. New York, NY: Harcourt, Inc, 362 p.
Boggess, B., & Bogue, H. O. (2016). The health of U.S. agri-
workforce. cultural worker families: A description study of over
The agricultural workforce is diverse and 790,000 migratory and seasonal agricultural workers
integrated across the US economy. Farmers, and dependents. Journal of Health Care Poor Underserved,
growers, and animal producers are the basis of 27, 778 792.
agriculture, but the food system comprises Bureau of Labor Statistics (2015). Agricultural and food scientists.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor. Available
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become a significant component of agriculture social-science/agricultural-and-food-scientists.htm..
and food production with increasing demand Census of Agriculture (2016). 2012 census publications.
for workers with these skills. Ensuring the con- Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture.
tinued progress of food production will Available from ,https://www.agcensus.usda.gov/
Publications/2012/..
require advanced educational opportunities Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (July 1, 2016).
and training for future workers. CDC suicide rates by occupational group—17 states,
2012. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 65(25),
641 645. Available from ,http://www.cdc.gov/
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New York Times. Available from ,http://www. www.whitehouse.gov/issues/immigration..

C H A P T E R
6
Food Processing
6.1 DEFINITION OF FOOD ensuring foods are safe, nutritious, and

PROCESSING palatable.
Food scientists describe food processing as
The role of processed foods in a healthy diet “one or more of a range of operations, includ-
has become increasingly confusing. Some recent ing washing, grinding, mixing, cooling, stor-
headlines suggest “processed foods are respon- ing, heating, freezing, filtering, fermenting,
sible for the obesity epidemic” or warn that extracting, extruding, centrifuging, frying, dry-
“eating processed foods lower IQ.” Many foods ing, concentrating, pressurizing, irradiating,
that people consume throughout the day, such microwaving, and packaging” (Floros et al.,
as coffee, orange juice, soy milk, cheese, bread, 2011). Nutritionists and dietitians define pro-
pasta, or pickles, are processed in some man- cessed foods as “any food other than a raw
ner. The term “processed food,” however, has agricultural commodity, including any raw
become negatively associated with foods that agricultural commodity that has been subject
have low nutritional value, are high in fat, salt, to washing, cleaning, milling, cutting, chop-
and sugar, that cannot be properly digested, ping, heating, pasteurizing, blanching, cook-
make people addicted to them, and come with ing, canning, freezing, drying, dehydrating,
excessive packaging. A 2008 International Food mixing, packaging, or other procedures that
Information Council (IFIC) survey revealed that alter the food from its natural state” (Fox,
43% of respondents viewed processed foods 2012). Simply, processed food is any food that
unfavorably compared to 18% who viewed pro- has been altered from its state at harvest
cessed foods favorably. According to Sloan including washing, cutting, and cooking.
(2015), most consumers (87% of those surveyed) Food processing involves modifications to
feel that fresh foods are healthier, 80% believe ingredients or food products in many different
they are tastier, and 78% are trying to eat more ways. A primary role of food processing is to
fresh than processed foods. Consumption of ensure the safety, quality, and availability of
fresh foods has grown 20% in the past 10 years perishable foods. Increased shelf-life (the period
and fresh foods accounted for 29% of all US of time between harvest or preparation and
grocery sales for 2014. Consuming healthful consumption) is achieved through processing.
and tasty foods should be everyone’s goal and Processing foods at the peak of their ripeness
processed foods have an important role in ensures nutrients are retained and food waste is

180 6. FOOD PROCESSING
reduced. This results in a more sustainable food packaged, such as heads of lettuce and fresh
production system. Prevention of food-borne broccoli, washed and precut lettuce, peeled
pathogens is a goal of processing and involves carrots, shredded cheese, roasted and ground
using heat or other physical measures to reduce coffee, and chopped walnuts. “Ready-to-eat”
microbial contaminants, or adding preservative foods such as breakfast cereals, cookies, and
agents. Foods are processed to enhance their luncheon meats, are processed by extrusion or
convenience and accessibility, which reduces toasting, emulsification and heating, and bak-
the amount of time needed to prepare meals. ing, respectively, need minimal or no prepara-
Processing may involve the addition of ingredi- tion and add to the types of convenient food
ents or approved additives to the food, such as items enjoyed by US consumers.
colors and flavors, or texture enhancers that Other “convenience foods,” such as frozen
make the food more palatable, enjoyable, or meats and meals, are fully prepared, then pack-
fun, and allows creation of new food products. aged and preserved for use later. The ingredi-
Some additives increase the nutritional value of ents are combined, baked and frozen as in
the foods, for example essential nutrients, desserts, pot pies and pizza. These preprepared
which contribute to reducing risk of nutritional foods reduce food preparation time and require
deficiencies. little skill in cooking. There has been a trend for
Processing of foods, including the addition spending less time in meal preparation over the
of ingredients, may reduce, increase, or leave past decade. The average home-prepared meal
unaffected the physical and nutritional charac- for US families is assembled in less than
teristics of raw agricultural commodities. For 30 minutes, and many recipes are designed to
example, wheat berries (intact seeds with the be prepared in less than 20 minutes. Canned
bran, germ, and endosperm) are a raw agricul- tuna, beans and tomatoes, frozen fruits and
tural commodity. Whole wheat flour is ground vegetables, and jarred pureed baby food are
wheat containing the bran, germ, and endo- foods processed to help preserve and enhance
sperm. Wheat cereals can be whole grain (such nutrients and freshness of foods at their peak.
as “Ralston”) or only endosperm (mainly Some processed foods combine ingredients and
starch and protein) that is milled (“Cream of preservatives to improve the safety, flavor, and
Wheat” and farina), puffed (“Puffed Wheat”), visual appeal such as cake mixes, instant pota-
or extruded (“Wheaties” and “Shredded toes, tomato sauce, salad dressings, and sauces.
Wheat”). Cakes, bread, and cookies are made The food processing industry has provided con-
with cake, bread, or all-purpose wheat flours sumers with thousands of new food products
of ground endosperm with different protein for convenient and easy preparation.
amounts for the specific characteristics of each
type of baked product. Chocolate chip cookies
from the bakery and “Twinkies” from a pack- 6.2 HISTORY OF FOOD
age represent examples of convenience foods PRESERVATION AND PROCESSING
made from refined wheat flour (white flour
from wheat endosperm). From the beginning of civilization, humans
have processed foods to improve digestibility.
Cooking was the earliest form of food proces-
sing. Raw grains, roots, and tubers are not
6.1.1 Degrees of Food Processing
well digested, and although raw meat can be
Different degrees of processing are used for tender, cooked meat is a wiser choice from a
different types of foods. “Minimally pro- food safety standpoint. Cooked or smoked
cessed” foods are those that are washed and meat will not spoil as fast as raw meat. People

6.2 HISTORY OF FOOD PRESERVATION AND PROCESSING 181
discovered that food could be kept longer if it business acumen, religious zeal or eccentric
was dried, smoked, or salted. Wheat, barley, health advocacy, and sometimes serendipity,
and rice could be made into breads or fermen- of innovators. Table 6.1 lists the broad scope of
ted into beer. Through the process of fermenta- innovations in food processing technologies
tion, which produced alcohol, bacterial and their impact on the food system. Major
contamination was prevented, and beer could innovations in technology include refrigeration
be stored for later use. and freezing, and microwave ovens, and the
Early attempts at effective food preservation introduction of improved packaging techni-
included cooking (application of heat), drying ques and materials, that made food more con-
(removal of moisture), fermenting (addition of venient and easier to prepare.
microorganisms), preservation (addition of The stories of food processing innovations
spices such as mustard seed, sugar, honey), and are integrated into America’s history. Kellogg’s
pickling (addition of acid such as vinegar). These and Post cereals arose from a desire (by W.K.
methods have been used for centuries to pre- Kellogg and C.W. Post) for a more healthful
serve food at harvest or during times of plenty. choice than the beef, pork, hominy, and bread
Processing allowed food to be saved for seasons that were regularly consumed for breakfast
in which food was not plentiful or available at meals in the 1850s. Their precooked shredded
all. Caves and cellars were early forms of cool wheat, corn flakes, and “Grape Nuts” cereals
temperature storage. Before refrigeration or rail were sold as health food alternatives. Inventor
transport, fruits such as bananas, oranges, and Gail Borden had several failed attempts to
strawberries, and vegetables such as lettuce and make compact, nutritious foods for explorers
spinach were luxuries available only at special before he created “condensed” milk (patented
holidays or locally during the summer months. in 1856). Reverend Sylvester Graham, who
In 1810, Nicolas Appert in France and Peter eschewed gluttony and sensual pleasures such
Durand in England successfully preserved food as tasty food, promoted bran as a laxative.
in bottles and metal “tin” cans, but neither Whole wheat bread became known as
knew the reason for their success. The process “Graham bread” and we are still eating gra-
of food canning became much safer once the ham flour and graham crackers today.
role of microorganisms was understood by Processed cheese (patented in 1917 by J.L.
Louis Pasteur (in 1864). Food preservation tech- Kraft) began as a way to prolong the shelf-life
niques for fish, meat, and fruit developed rap- of cheeses that were delivered by horse-drawn
idly in the 20th century. During that time food wagons in Chicago. John T. Dorrance
processing and distribution moved from farms (Campbell’s soup), Henry J. Heinz (who mar-
and individual homes to industrial businesses. keted horseradish and pickles before ketchup
The first home refrigerator, Frigidaire, was sold and relishes brought the total number of pro-
in 1925 and Clarence Birdseye developed the ducts to “Heinz 57”), Oscar Mayer (who
industrial plate freezer for frozen foods in 1929. started selling liverwurst, bratwurst, and other
These technological advances dramatically German sausages with his brother in a meat
changed the way food was stored and the types market in Chicago in 1883), and J.M. Smucker
of foods that were available. (who made apple cider and apple butter in
Orrville, Ohio in 1897) created products that
are still on store shelves today. William
Underwood started a condiment company in
6.2.1 Development of New Foods Boston in 1822 and became famous for
The development of unique foods through- Underwood Deviled Ham. His grandson,
out US history illustrates the ingenuity, William Lyman Underwood, and Samuel

TABLE 6.1 Commercial Developments in Types and Marketing of Processed Foods During the 20th Century and
Their Impacts on US Food Habits
Change in retail or processed food Impact
1900 Double-crimped can Reduced costs for processors and assured an air-tight
container for improved food safety
1901 A&P grocery incorporates with 200 stores Food production begins to move out of individual homes
1913 refrigerators for home use invented; 1923 Frigidaire Increased shelf-life of foods and reduced food-borne illness
introduced first self-contained refrigerator
1916 Piggly Wiggly grocery opens first self-service food Increased variety of prepackaged foods available
store
1935 First canned beer; 1960 first aluminum cans; 1963 first New foods available; lighter containers reduced
pull-tab cans (beer) transportation costs
1940 Home freezers available; 1950 Swanson’s frozen Frozen foods and convenience foods common
chicken pot pie; 1952 Birdseye frozen peas, Mrs. Paul’s
frozen fish sticks
1941 Controlled atmosphere storage Access to fruits and vegetables year round due to reduced
spoilage
1945 Raytheon made first microwave for airlines; 1955 first Homemakers learned to cook frozen foods; convenience
microwave for home use by Tappan ($1300); 1967 Raytheon foods more available; new foods developed; by 1997, 90% of
(Amana) produced countertop microwave oven for less US households had microwave oven
than $500
1948 McDonald’s hamburger restaurants established Availability of high-quality fast foods, indicative of less
home cooking
1954 60s bulk aseptic packaging, storage, and New types of containers for shipping opened global food
transportation trade
1959 Soy protein isolate made by Central Soya Co. Protein available as functional food ingredient
1960 aluminum can; 1963 foil-laminate fiber can (for frozen Innovative packaging for more economical processing and
OJ); 1966 plastic milk containers transportation
1963 Mechanically deboned chicken; McDonald’s Fabricated meat product and popular fast food. By 1992,
introduced Chicken McNuggets in 1980 Americans ate more chicken than beef
1990s quick freezing, modified atmosphere packaging, Novel methods of food preservation
freeze-drying, irradiation
1993 SnackWell’s cookies and crackers First low-fat food product
Prescott (who graduated from the Societal changes are reflected in the types of
Massachusetts Institute of Technology) con- foods available, notably convenience foods,
ducted research to determine the optimum ethnic foods, snacks and microwave products.
time and temperature exposures for canned Various types of processed foods have been
meats, vegetables, and seafood in 1895 and are marketed over the years and have become
credited with beginning the food technology favorites in US households (Table 6.2). It may
profession. be surprising that many of these products

TABLE 6.2 Commercially Developed Food Products in
the US Marketplace Since 1900
Year Food product
1900 Hershey’s chocolate bar
1903 Dole canned pineapple; Kellogg added sugar to corn

flakes, boosting popularity; Pepsi Cola introduced
1904 Quaker markets first puffed cereal
1910 Aunt Jemima pancake flour

1912 Oreo cookies; Hellman’s mayonnaise
1926 General Mills created Betty Crocker, indicating the
importance of advertising
1928 Peter Pan peanut butter; Velveeta cheese
1930 Wonder Bread markets first automatically sliced bread
1932 Fritos corn chips
1937 Kraft Macaroni & Cheese dinner
1942 Dannon yogurt; La Choy canned Chinese food
1946 Maxwell House instant coffee

1951 Swanson produces first frozen meals (pot pies)
1965 Cool Whip and Shake ‘n Bake
1970 Hamburger Helper
1981 Stouffer’s Lean Cuisine frozen dinners
1982 Bud Light lower calorie beer

1986 Pop Secret microwave popcorn FIGURE 6.1 Food companies offer new products to
1989 Garden Salad ready-to-eat salad bags meet consumers’ needs. This gluten-free cake mix was
developed to provide an alternative product for consumers
2003 Wholly Guacamole high-pressure processed avocados with Crohn’s disease or those who choose to avoid gluten,
which is a protein present in wheat and other grains.
Source: Photo provided by General Mills.
have been in the marketplace for over 100

years. beverages (“Vitamin Water”), special dietary
Food companies must keep ahead of consu- foods (low-fat or gluten-free; Fig. 6.1), interna-
mers to retain their market share. Some pro- tional foods (wasabi or curry flavors), and con-
ducts lend themselves to what are called line venience foods (dried fruit and nut snacks,
extensions (size or flavor variations of a partic- microwave breakfast sandwiches). In today’s
ular food, such as mini-Oreos, mint-flavored world of rapid information dissemination,
Oreos and “double stuff” Oreos), which draw responding to consumers’ demands for new
interest from consumers. They may develop foods is a challenge for food companies and
new types of foods in response to consumers’ requires an environment of speedy product
desire for healthful foods (high fiber) and development and marketing.

6.2.2 Processing of Single Ingredients evaporation of tomato sauce (for tomato paste),
and supercritical fluid extraction of caffeine
The extraction of single ingredients, such as from coffee beans and tea leaves (for caffeine-
fat, sugar, protein, vitamins, minerals, or starch, free coffee and tea) are additional methods to
from raw agricultural commodities was an extract a variety of molecules, resulting in new
important innovation in food processing. types of foods. Membrane technology is rap-
Soybeans provide a useful example of how one idly being implemented for separation of food
food source can provide many ingredients. Oil components because it requires low capital
can be extracted from soybeans, and the investment in equipment as well as less water
remaining material processed into flour contain- and energy consumption than other methods.
ing 50% protein, soy protein concentrate Extracted and purified ingredients are more
containing 70% protein, and soy protein isolate stable biochemically and less susceptible to
containing 90% protein. Soy oil is used for fry- spoilage microorganisms. “De-constructed”
ing and salad dressings and can be made into grains, oil seeds, and animal products allow
shortening, margarine, and spreads. Soy protein new formulations to be developed, such as
products can be texturized or extruded into fibers low-calorie snacks, cholesterol-lowering
for use as meat analogs, meat extenders, and spreads, and high-protein drinks.
other vegetarian foods. Similarly, cow’s milk is
separated into the protein components casein
and whey, lactose, milkfat, and minerals. Whey
6.2.3 Current Food Processing and
protein was once a waste product discarded into
rivers as a by-product of cheese manufacture, but
Manufacturing
is now used as an additive in breads, crackers, As described in Chapter 5, Human
cookies, nutrition bars, and sports drinks. Resources in the Food System, the food system
Although the majority of “dent” corn (the type of involves many types of businesses and work-
field corn grown in the Midwest) is used for ers. As a rough estimate, there are 300,000
animal feed and ethanol production, it is also individual companies in the US food system.
processed for corn oil, corn meal, and flour for The food processing or food manufacturing
tortillas and snack chips, starch used as a thicken- segment of the food system is comprised of
ing agent, corn syrup (100% glucose), and high 30,000 individual food and beverage plants
fructose corn syrup (HFCS). The type of corn we owned by 24,500 companies, representing 14%
consume as corn-on-the-cob and canned and fro- of US manufacturing. The food industry con-
zen corn is “sweet” corn, a different variety of tributes 8% 10% of the gross domestic prod-
corn that is grown on a very much smaller scale uct and employs about 15% of the US
than dent corn. “Value-added” processing of workforce. Thirty-two percent of food industry
crops and animal foods for human food produc- workers are in meat processing, 17% in baker-
tion has opened new markets and expanded the ies, and 11% in fruit and vegetable processing.
food industry. California has the highest number of food
Screening, centrifugation, and filtration are processing plants (4510), followed by New
physical or mechanical methods used to sepa- York (2186) and Texas (1774). Large facilities
rate food components in applications such as (with over 100 workers) are 12% of the total
juice extraction, sucrose crystallization, and number of plants but they produce 77% of the
recovery of proteins from whey. Distillation of total value of food shipments. There are many
oils and flavors (for beverages), solvent extrac- more small plants (,20 workers) but they pro-
tion of oils (for refined vegetable oils), duce only 4% of the value of shipments. Just

as there is increased consolidation in food pro- • Starbucks
duction, there is increased concentration in • M&M/Mars
food processing, especially of beef, pork, and • Campbell Soup Co.
milk products. From 1997 to 2007, 43% fewer • Dr. Pepper Snapple Group
farms produced over twice as much milk per • J.M. Smucker Co.
farm and, during the same time, 21% fewer • McDonald’s
milk facilities processed 27% more milk per • Ocean Spray and Odwalla
plant. Pork and broiler industries are vertically
Current trends in consumer dietary habits
integrated, that is, production, processing, and
have resulted in a decline in sales of packaged
marketing are controlled by one company,
food products and food companies have
with increased reliance on contract growers
adapted to consumers’ desires for unprocessed
(Chapter 3: Innovations in US Agriculture).
and fresher foods. Growth has been limited in
Major areas of food processing include grain
boxed and canned products, particularly in
and oilseed milling, dairy products, fruit and
bake mixes and refrigerated doughs, because
vegetable preservation, animal foods, sugar
busy consumers prefer ready-made cookies,
and confectionery products, seafood products,
pies, and cakes. The entire baking mix busi-
and bakeries and tortillas. In 2014, the top 10
ness fell 4.6% in 2013 and 6.4% in 2014.
companies with the most sales were
General Mills, maker of Betty Crocker cake
1. PepsiCo mixes, has responded with lower prices and
2. Tyson Foods, Inc. simplified products targeted for specific audi-
3. Nestlé ences and seasonal cooking experiences. In
4. JBS USA addition, General Mills and other companies
5. Coca-Cola Co. have learned to connect with consumers via
6. Anheuser-Busch InBev digital technology and now offer recipes, cook-
7. ConAgra books, video instructions, and baking sugges-
8. Kraft Foods tions on their websites to encourage use of
9. Smithfield Foods Inc. their products.
10. General Mills According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics
employment classifications, there were 15,400
It is notable that beverages and meats are
college graduate level food scientists and
the primary products of 8 of the top 10 compa-
food technologists in the United States work-
nies, likely due to the profitability of these
ing in food manufacturing facilities (45%), sci-
types of products. Other large food processing
entific research and development for food
companies include:
companies (13%), management (10%), research
• Hershey’s Co. in colleges and universities (6%), and testing
• Dean Foods laboratories (3%).
• Kellogg’s Food science professionals strive to provide
• Land O’Lakes novel, safe, healthful, and nutritious foods to the
• McCormick and Co. public. Food companies are businesses that must
• MOM Brands make a profit in order to continue operating. The
• Ocean Spray United States has a consumer-driven economy
• H.J. Heinz and food companies must provide products that
• Hormel consumers will buy. Consumers choose, buy,
• Frontier Natural Products Co-op and eat foods that they like and can afford.

A survey conducted by the IFIC in 2016 found form of precut vegetables, prepared salads,
that taste was the number one factor in food- portioned meats, frozen soups and sauces and
buying decisions for consumers, followed by desserts provide savings in labor, storage, and
price, healthfulness, convenience, and sustain- purchase of special equipment as well as con-
ability. Convenience was the primary reason sistent quality and less inedible waste.
consumers purchased packaged foods. Recent
food industry initiatives to increase dietary fiber,
reduce fat, reduce carbohydrates (sugar), and
6.3 METHODS OF FOOD
reduce sodium have created a wide variety of
PROCESSING
products touting these features based on con-
sumer demand. For example, when nutritionists
The history of food processing in the United
claimed dietary fiber could reduce cancer risk, a
States parallels advances in science and technol-
plethora of high-fiber foods appeared on the
ogy. Machinery built to produce food and food
store shelves. When fat was determined to be a
ingredients was first powered by water, then
cause of heart disease, low-fat products domi-
steam, and eventually electricity. Innovations in
nated the markets. Today, there are foods made
home appliances led to novel types of food pro-
without HFCS, gluten, GMOs, or artificial colors
ducts. Following WWII, innovations in technol-
and flavors because these are issues in the fore-
ogy were applied to food processing.
front of consumers’ minds.
Refrigeration and freezing, microwave ovens,
The food industry is constantly searching for
irradiation, extrusion, and other approaches
ways to attract consumers and provide foods
were used to create new products to entice con-
they will buy. There are over 20,000 new food
sumers. Science and technology in food was
product introductions each year. Candy, gum,
viewed positively. During the space race of the
and snacks; beverages; condiments; and pro-
1960s, the powdered orange juice drink Tang
cessed meat are the food categories with the
became widely popular because it was used by
most new product introductions. However,
the astronauts. TV dinners, Jiffy Pop popcorn
from 2006 to 2010, introductions of candy,
(made on the stove in a pop-up foil wrapper),
gum, and snack products have declined while
colorful breakfast cereals with cartoon charac-
new fruits and vegetables, dairy products, and
ters, and many other innovations were market
cereals have increased. New advertising cate-
successes. Developments in chemistry created
gories, such as “natural,” “sustainable,” “single
new food additives, flavors, and colors, and pro-
serving,” and “fresh,” are among the health-
ducts to increase the shelf-life of foods.
and convenience-related attributes that account
Convenient packages were developed including
for one-third of all new product claims.
the pop-top can and plastic milk bottles. More
Processed foods are used in restaurants,
people owned cars and did their shopping in
schools, hospitals, airlines, military, food ser-
grocery stores, and drive-in restaurants were
vice institutions, vending machines, and con-
everywhere. This environment allowed the food
cessions. Forty-seven percent of the US
industry to prosper and expand.
consumer’s food dollar is spent in over 1 mil-
lion US restaurants, representing expenditures
of $1.8 billion every day. The restaurant indus-
6.3.1 Processing Cereal Grains by
try projected sales of $709 billion for 2015, 4%
of the US GDP. Many food companies manu-
Milling
facture food products in retail versions for con- In the early years of grain processing, local
sumers and larger sizes for restaurants and mills served farming communities throughout
food service operations. Processed foods in the the country but, with the building of railroads

6.3 METHODS OF FOOD PROCESSING 187
and improved transportation during the late example, whole wheat flour is made using the
1800s, grain processing moved to larger cities. entire wheat kernel that includes both the
With ready access to major waterways and germ (part of the kernel that contains most of
railroads to deliver grain and distribute pro- the vitamins and minerals) and the endosperm
ducts, Minneapolis, Chicago, and Omaha (inner part of the kernel that is mostly starch).
became the nation’s largest grain processing White flour is made from just the endosperm.
centers (Fig. 6.2). Because unsaturated fatty acids contribute to
Milling is a process in which grains such as rancidity and subsequent off-flavors, removal
oats, wheat, rice, and corn are dehulled and of the germ (which contains about 10% fat in
ground into smaller pieces or flours to most cereal grains) from the rest of the kernel
improve palatability, reduce cooking time, and improves the storage time of white flour com-
create food products. Each type of grain has a pared to wheat flour. The germ, however, con-
unique processing method that yields a wide tains most of the B vitamins and minerals, so
range of products. The milling process usually whole wheat flour has more of these nutrients
includes removal of the outer hull which con- than white flour. A process of bleaching white
tains tough fibrous material. The grains may flour, by exposed it to small amounts of chlo-
then be toasted, soaked, or cooked to soften rine gas or benzoyl peroxide, was found to
and release the starch and other carbohydrates. improve the elasticity of the dough made from
Flaking, crushing, or grinding the grains is the flour and inhibited mold growth. This
done to generate the desired product. For made bleached white flour a desired product.
FIGURE 6.2 The city of Minneapolis was a hub for grain milling in the early 1900s because of its location on the
Mississippi River and proximity to wheat growing regions. The Washburn-Crosby Milling Complex in Minneapolis later
became General Mills, which marketed Gold Medal Flour. Source: Photo from the Library of Congress image library.

In addition to producing flours with different kill the most heat-resistant vegetative patho-
compositions, modern milling techniques can gens (disease-causing microorganisms) and
separate flour particles of different sizes to undesirable enzymes. Pasteurization improves
produce flours with exact protein contents the safety of milk, cheeses, and fruit juices and
for cakes, cookies, doughnuts, and breads. extends the shelf-life of the food. For milk, pas-
Different types of wheat are also processed for teurization is described by the Grade “A”
pastas, cereals, and additives for a wide vari- Pasteurized Milk Ordinance as a specific tem-
ety of foods. Processing of grains can create perature for a defined time such as 161 F for
more convenient food products. For example, 15 seconds for fluid milk. This scheme is the
whole brown rice requires about 50 minutes of minimum processing needed to kill Coxiella
cooking to become softened enough to eat. burnettii, the organism that causes Q fever in
Polishing the grain to remove the hull allows humans, which is the most heat-resistant path-
the white rice to be cooked and ready to eat in ogen currently recognized in milk. By using
about 20 minutes. Fully cooked and dried rice the length of time required to kill the most
(instant rice) can be cooked (rehydrated) in a resistant organism it is inferred that all of the
minute. Reduced cooking times provide conve- other, less heat-tolerant organisms will also be
nience and saves time and energy. destroyed. At the turn of the 20th century, the
Before industrial breadmaking was wide- milk-borne illnesses of typhoid fever, scarlet
spread, bread was made at home using whole fever, tuberculosis, septic sore throat, diphthe-
grain flours. At that time, commercially made ria, and diarrheal diseases were common.
white bread, made from bleached white flour, These illnesses were virtually eliminated with
was considered a modern food and was more the commercial implementation of pasteuriza-
expensive than whole wheat breads. The addition, in combination with improved manage-
tion of B vitamins and iron replaced the nutri- ment practices on dairy farms. In 1938, milk
ents lost in milling (enriched flour). White products were the source of 25% of all food-
bread was favored by those who could afford borne illnesses, but now account for less than
it and being able to serve white bread was a 1% of all food-borne illnesses.
bit of a status symbol. In the 1920s the white Pasteurization is not a sterilization tech-
bread product “Wonder Bread” was marketed nique (milk sterilization requires 285 F for
as “helping build strong bodies 12 ways” due 15 seconds) so foods must be refrigerated to
to the addition of 12 vitamins and minerals prevent other bacterial growth. Orange and
and was heavily advertised as a healthy food other juices, liquid eggs, carbonated bev-
for children. With further understanding of the erages, and beer are pasteurized at a range of
nutritional value of whole wheat, white bread temperatures (140 212 F for ,1 minute).
has become less favored. Today, whole wheat Ultrahigh temperature (UHT) pasteurization
bread is more expensive than white, refined uses higher temperatures than pasteurization
bread, illustrating the changing dynamic of (but not as high as sterilization) resulting in
food technology and nutrition science on food longer shelf-life for the products. UHT can
choices. generate off-flavors but is popular in Europe,
Canada, and Asia. Products treated with
UHT, such as milk, can be held at room tem-
perature until opened.
6.3.2 Processing Food by Pasteurization The current interest in “raw” or unpasteur-
Pasteurization (thermal pasteurization) is a ized milk and milk products presents a food
mild heat treatment (140 212 F) designed to safety problem. The CDC reported that

unpasteurized milk is 150 times more likely to temperature calculations for canning processes
cause illness than pasteurized milk. From 1993 are designed to destroy the most heat-resistant
to 2006, 1500 people became ill from drinking microorganism, specifically the spores of
raw milk or eating cheese made from raw Clostridium botulinum, which can produce a
milk. Consuming unpasteurized foods is espe- deadly toxin if they sprout and grow under
cially dangerous for immune-compromised the anaerobic conditions of a canned food.
people, including the elderly, children, and Acid foods with pH less than 4.5 can be pro-
pregnant women. There have been recent cases cessed safely at 212 F, the temperature of boil-
of food-borne illness associated with products ing water, because C. botulinum spores cannot
that were marketed to consumers as unpro- grow in acidic conditions.
cessed with claims that this made the product Botulism is a paralytic illness caused by
more healthful. In 1996, unpasteurized fruit ingestion of the toxin produced by C. botuli-
juices made by Odwalla caused illnesses in 66 num; death results from muscle paralysis and
people and 1 child died from kidney failure respiratory failure. (“Botox” is the application
caused by Escherichia coli infection. Odwalla of this nerve toxin for cosmetic and medical
now “uses a pasteurization process to elimi- purposes.) Clostridium botulinum spores (resis-
nate harmful bacteria while preserving great tant reproductive bodies) are present in the
taste and vital nutrients.” soil and can contaminant fruits and vegetables.
Spores will not germinate in the presence of
oxygen or in acidic conditions but can germi-
nate in sealed jars of low-acid foods such as
6.3.3 Processing Food by Canning or
asparagus, green beans, beets, and corn, if not
Thermal Sterilization destroyed by temperatures above boiling
Canning preserves food by heating food in achieved under pressure during the canning
a jar or can (originally “canisters”) and sealing process. The food industry is highly regulated
with a vacuum (anaerobic or no oxygen) that to ensure canned foods are processed correctly
occurs when the container cools. Because there to avoid this contamination. Home canning of
is no oxygen in the container, aerobic microor- foods can be a risk if not done properly. From
ganisms cannot grow but any anaerobic 1996 to 2008, there were 116 outbreaks of food-
microbes that survive the heating process can borne botulism, with 48 of these from home-
grow in this environment. The heating time is canned foods. In 2015, botulism poisoning
designed to destroy any microorganisms that occurred at a church potluck dinner; the cause
could grow without oxygen (anaerobic). Acidic was identified as a potato salad made with
foods (pH ,4.5), such as fruits and tomatoes, improperly processed home-canned potatoes.
naturally contain citric, malic, tartaric, and Home canners are urged to use sanitary proce-
other organic acids that limit the growth of dures, follow USDA guidelines, and process
many pathogens and are less of a concern for low-acid vegetables and meats in a pressure
food safety. Low-acid foods (pH 4.5 7) such canner. The botulinum toxin is destroyed by
as meat, fish, mixed soups, and boiling so it is also recommended that all
vegetables provide a favorable environment home-canned foods be boiled for 10 minutes
for microorganisms and must be canned at before consumption.
higher temperatures. Boiling water reaches a Properly preserved canned food is safe and
temperature of 212 F (100 C) but water and wholesome for consumption for months and
food in a pressure canner or retort achieve even years. Preservation of food at home by
higher temperatures (230 250 F). Time and canning was a necessity for early settlers and

was promoted during WWI and WWII for eco- Before mechanical refrigeration, blocks of ice
nomic reasons. Home canning has experienced cut from rivers and lakes were delivered to
a resurgence in popularity recently as more food processing facilities and household ice
people are returning to home gardening and boxes to provide cooling of foods. Problems
are interested in processing their own fruits with ice availability and sanitation, especially in
and vegetables. It is essential that proper can- the meat, dairy, and brewing industries, made
ning techniques and equipment are used to the development of mechanical ice-making and
avoid food-borne illness when doing home refrigeration a necessity. Mechanical refrigera-
canning. Methods such as heating jars of food tion revolutionized food processing, transporta-
in the oven or even a dishwasher are unsafe tion, and storage, and, with the adoption of
and very risky. household refrigerators (by 1950, more than
The heating used to process canned foods 80% of farm homes and over 90% of urban
does change the color, texture, and flavor of homes had one), changed the way Americans
foods. Also, salt may be added to canned ate. Instead of relying on daily shopping for
vegetables or sugar to fruits to retain color and fresh foods or relying on preserved foods, con-
texture. Many consumers prefer the firmer tex- sumers could store perishable food in home
ture and more intense flavors of frozen or refrigerators and freezers. New foods such as
fresh foods over canned foods, and may want ice cream and frozen dinners were possible.
to avoid added salt or sugar. New technologies Today, foods are sourced from around the
to reduce the amount of heat used to preserve world, and transported by refrigerated air,
food, such as aseptic heating, are being devel- train, and truck to be available in supermarkets
oped. Beverages, dairy products, wine, sauces, all year long.
and soups can be rapidly heated in thin films
or as highly agitated fluids at pasteurization or
sterilization temperatures, then aseptically
(sterilely) packaged in foil laminate packages
6.3.5 Processing Food by Freezing
or pouches. Ohmic heating and microwave- Freezing kills some microorganisms, but not
assisted heating also are used to eliminate all. Some bacteria continue to grow, albeit at a
pathogenic bacteria and reduce the amount of slower rate, during freezing. Enzymes that
heat damage to retain the quality of the food. cause deterioration are also slowed by freezing.
In commercial freezing technology,
vegetables and some fruits are blanched by a
short heat treatment (,212 F for 2 3 minutes)
6.3.4 Processing Food by Refrigeration before freezing. Blanching inhibits enzymes that
Fruits and vegetables are living plants and cause the color, texture, and flavor of the food
contain enzymes that cause softening of their to deteriorate during storage and kills surface
texture, the conversion of starch to sugar, or bacteria. This is typically done in home freezing
sugar to starch as ripening occurs. With time, as well. The major difference between home
these enzymes also cause deterioration and and commercial freezing is that commercial
spoilage. By chilling food to temperatures of processors use blast freezers that generate very
32 40 F, spoilage processes are slowed or low temperatures (240 F) to freeze the water in
reduced. Enzymes, the catalysts for biochemi- the food very quickly. This rapid freezing pre-
cal reactions found naturally in plants, are less vents the breakdown of the cellular structure
active at low temperatures and less able to that occurs with the slower freezing process in
break down cell walls and cause spoilage. a home freezer. Commercial freezers use cold

air or liquid refrigerants in cabinets, plates, heat able to grow without water and degrading
exchangers, and air-blast equipment for indirect enzymes are inactivated. Historically, foods
freezing, and air-blast, fluidized bed, immer- were dried by exposing them to the sun or
sion, and conveyers in direct contact freezing. hanging over a fire. Modern drying techniques
The temperature of the freezer, as well as the involve controlled heat and air flow for more
type of food packaging, are the most important rapid removal of water and better preservation
factors that determine the quality of frozen of the quality and texture of the foods. Dried or
food. Freezers should be less than 0 F and dehydrated foods are usually cut into small
packaging should be moisture/vapor-proof. pieces, blanched or treated with antioxidants to
The quality of frozen foods stored in frost-free preserve the color, then exposed to circulating
freezers (which use a cycle of increased and dry air to remove moisture from the food by
decreased temperatures) will be negatively evaporation. Food that is dried in a solar dryer
affected if packaging is not adequate to prevent is referred to as “dried” while foods dried
freezer-burn (loss of water). Frozen foods are of under controlled conditions with electric hea-
the highest quality if used within a few months. ters and fans are referred to as “dehydrated.”
Frozen foods have become the preferred Commercial dehydrating processes also employ
type of processed food among US consumers evaporation of water under vacuum or reduced
because of the high quality of the products pressure (freeze-drying or spray-drying).
and ease of preparation. Ice cream and other In spray-drying, small droplets of fluid are
desserts, meats, microwave-ready vegetables, forced into drying chambers, resulting in pow-
main dish meals, breads, baked products, dered products such as nonfat dry milk,
snacks, fruit mixtures, pizza and other ethnic instant coffee, and fruit drinks. Freeze-drying
dishes are mainstays of many American meals. occurs when water is removed from frozen
Freezing is the most expensive type of food foods by sublimation (directly from frozen to
preservation because of the continual use of water vapor), and this process occurs under
electricity to maintain the frozen conditions. vacuum. The texture and flavor of dried foods
Canning, drying, and other food preservation may be very different from the fresh product
methods are less energy-intensive because the and vitamin loss can be great if the exposure
energy use occurs once. Freezing is the easiest to heat and air during drying is prolonged.
type of food preservation (in terms of labor Dehydrated foods are very convenient for
and special equipment needed) and is often camping and other outdoor activities and do
used by home gardeners to preserve surplus provide variety and interest to the diet.
fruits and vegetables. Frozen foods are not as Intermediate moisture (IM) foods, such as
susceptible to food-borne pathogens as canned raisins and other dried fruit, are moist enough
foods due to the limited ability of microorgan- to be consumed without rehydration. Water
isms to grow at low temperatures. Sanitary activity (aw) is the availability of water for
processing, including blanching prior to freez- microbial, enzymatic, or chemical activity in
ing are important to reduce any potential path- foods. The water activity of a food can be mea-
ogenic or spoilage microorganisms in the food. sured using hygrometers and is often moni-
tored during food processing. Bacteria need at
least aw 0.9 to grow, fungi and enzymes 0.8,
and yeasts 0.6. Reducing the aw to less than 0.6
6.3.6 Processing Foods by Dehydration limits microbial spoilage. IM foods contain
Removal of water from food reduces the 10% 50% water but water activity is
potential for spoilage because bacteria are less decreased (0.65 aw) by the addition of glycerol

or sorbitol. Sugar and salt also decrease water prevent the growth of C. botulinum, which is a
activity and may be added to foods to enhance significant concern due to the anaerobic envi-
their shelf-life for this reason. ronment of these cured meats. Celery powder,
which is naturally high in nitrate, acts similarly
to nitrite as a curing agent and has been pro-
6.3.7 Processing Foods by Fermentation moted as a ’natural’ curing method. But the
levels of nitrite in celery are variable. Current
Fermented foods are preserved by the pro-
regulations require that meats cured with celery
duction of citric, lactic, or acetic acids by benefi-
powder be labeled “uncured” to distinguish
cial bacteria such as Lactobacillus, Streptococcus,
them from conventionally preserved meats due
Bacillus, and Pseudomonas, yeasts, and fungi that
to this lack of control in the amount of nitrite. If
use the food as a substrate for their growth and
the statement “no nitrates or nitrites added” is
metabolism. Most bacteria grow best between
used, it must also say “other than those which
pH 5.5 and 7.0 and do not thrive in acidic
naturally occur in celery powder.”
environments (below pH 4.5). This type of food
Some meat products, as well as cheeses and
preservation has been used for centuries and
fish, are smoked for additional flavor and
provides unique flavors and textures to foods.
improved palatability. In modern facilities, the
Commonly consumed fermented foods include
temperature of smoke generation is controlled
sausages, sauerkraut, pickles, yogurt, cheeses,
to reduce the formation of carcinogenic com-
soy sauce, and balsamic vinegar. The fermenta-
pounds. Old-fashioned smoking procedures
tion process generates new flavors and textures
with hardwood fires preserved meat because
to foods and keeps them from spoiling. The
the surface was sterilized by heat, there was a
addition of salt and heat during canning can
reduction in moisture content, and the salt
prolong the storage time of fermented foods
concentration was high enough to limit micro-
even longer.
bial growth. Smoked foods today are generally
Beer, wine, and hard apple cider are exam-
preserved using lower temperatures with
ples of beverages in which alcohol and acid
added preservatives.
are by-products of fermentation. The alcohol is
produced by yeasts, such as Saccharomyces,
from the naturally occurring sugars in the
beverages. 6.3.9 Processing Foods by Irradiation
In 1958, the Food Additives Amendment to
the Federal Food Drug, and Cosmetic Act
6.3.8 Processing Foods by Curing
approved food irradiation as a means of pre-
(Salting or Brining) and Smoking
serving foods. Unlike all previous types of
Salt (sodium chloride) preserves meats and food processing, irradiation is considered an
fish, dairy foods (butter and cheese), and additive and foods processed with irradiation
vegetables (cabbage/sauerkraut, olives, cucum- must be labeled with the Radura symbol and
bers) by removing moisture and suppressing the words “treated with radiation” or “treated
undesirable microorganisms. Mixtures of salt, by irradiation” (Fig. 6.3).
sugar, sodium nitrate, and sodium nitrite are The reasons for this response likely reflect
used to pickle and cure meats. Ham, bacon, the world situation at the time the legislation
corned beef, frankfurters, and many sausages was passed. The United States had ended
are cured using these ingredients. The nitrites WWII by dropping two atomic bombs on Japan
preserve the red color of meat (myoglobin) and and radiation was widely feared as a weapon.

foreign countries. This reduced exposure to
these chemicals by handlers and consumers.
Higher doses of irradiation, similar in results
to heat processing, are approved for preserva-
tion of meats, fish, and poultry. Irradiation can
destroy Trichina parasites in pork and
Salmonella in poultry as well as delay ripening
and spoilage of fresh fruits and vegetables.
Irradiation has been shown to be an effec-
tive food processing technology for more than
50 years, with countless research studies to
support its safety and efficacy. Over 30 coun-
tries have approved irradiation of some foods
and the Food and Agriculture Organization,
World Health Organization, and International
FIGURE 6.3 Irradiated foods must be labeled with the Atomic Energy Agency concluded that food
Radura symbol or have the words “treated with irradia-
tion” or “treated by irradiation” on the package according
irradiated to any dose appropriate to achieve
to FDA regulations. Source: FDA, www.fda.gov. the intended technological objective is both
safe to consume and nutritionally adequate.
Perhaps because of the need to label irradi-
It was misunderstood that foods do not become ated foods and the connotation with radia-
radioactive, and no residual radiation exists in tion, irradiation has been controversial and
irradiated foods. Irradiation is the process of resisted by consumers. Fears that irradiation
exposing foods to ionizing radiation to reduce allows unwholesome foods to be processed
microbial load, destroy pathogens, extend shelf- for sale, or that unusual chemicals are pro-
life of perishable products, and remove infesta- duced in the food, are unscientific and
tion of produce. Foods are irradiated with unfounded. Irradiation could be a means of
gamma rays from cobalt-60, cesium-137, beta reducing the use of chemical additives and
rays from an electron beam, or X-rays. preservatives in food processing, and spoilage
Irradiation damages the DNA of insects and that contributes to food waste. Other benefits
bacteria but is of insufficient strength to cause are also possible; for example, irradiated
any structural damage to the food. ground beef has much longer shelf-life than
Foods for space travel and the military were untreated meat, which would allow more
among the first foods to be treated with irradi- stores, including convenience stores, to sell
ation and continue to be so today. The FDA ground beef, making it more available to con-
has approved irradiation at 10 kGy for preven- sumers. Consumer-driven concern has limited
tion of sprouting in potatoes; destruction of this potentially beneficial industry from
insects in wheat, cocoa, fruits, and spices; expanding. Irradiated strawberries and a few
reduction of bacterial spoilage of tropical other fruits are available and some private
fruits, fresh ground meat, poultry, and sea- brands, for example Schwan’s, sell irradiated
food; and treatment of packaging materials. meat. Irradiation is an example of a technol-
Irradiation replaced chemical fumigation (by ogy that has been tested extensively by
ethylene oxide and methyl bromide) to kill respected scientists and documented as safe,
microorganisms and insects in spices and trop- yet is not accepted by consumers due to con-
ical fruits that are imported from Hawaii and fusion and misunderstanding.

EXPANSION BOX 6.1
F O O D I N S PA C E
The first space food was “cubes and tubes” irradiated. In NASA terms these are referred to
and not very palatable. These astronauts spent as natural form, rehydratable, thermostabilized,
only a few days in space, and food was intended and irradiated. Foods are packaged in single-
to just keep them healthy for that short time. service, disposable containers to eliminate the
When people began to spend months in space, need for a dishwasher (Fig. 6.4).
tasty food that was similar to their diets on Electrical power for ISS is generated from
Earth became more important. Today, astronauts solar panels so no extra water is generated from
to the International Space Station (ISS) have a fuel cells, as it was on the Shuttle vehicles. Water
wide variety of tasty, nutritious, and safe foods. is recycled from cabin air but there is not enough
Foods are similar to foods prepared on Earth for use in foods so the amount of
and many are available commercially. rehydratable foods was decreased and thermo-
Astronauts select their own menus, and diets stabilized food increased compared to the
are designed to supply each astronaut with Shuttle foods. All food is precooked or
100% of the daily value of vitamins and minerals processed, requires no refrigeration and is ready-
they need, as determined by food scientists and to-eat or prepared by addition of water or heat-
dietitians at the Johnson Space Center in ing. Fresh fruits and vegetables must be eaten
Houston, Texas. within the first few days of arrival or spoilage
Astronauts need the same number of calories will occur. Natural form foods such as nuts, gra-
and most of the vitamins and minerals in space nola bars, and cookies are ready-to-eat, packaged
as they would on Earth. Astronauts have fewer in flexible pouches, and require no preparation.
red blood cells while in space so the require- Rehydratable foods include soups, casseroles
ment for iron is less. To retain bone mass, which (such as Macaroni & Cheese), shrimp cocktail
is reduced while in zero gravity, sodium is lim- appetizer, scrambled eggs, and cereals.
ited and vitamin D is supplemented. Rehydratable food packages are flexible to aid in
On ISS, there is an 8-day menu cycle of three trash compaction. Beverages are in powdered
meals per day plus snacks. Half the food sys- form and include coffee, tea, apple cider, orange
tem is from the United States and the other half juice, and lemonade. The beverage package is a
from Russia, with other foods added if the foil laminate, similar to commercial juice boxes
crew includes Japanese and Canadian mem- with straws, with maximum barrier properties
bers. Crew members usually eat breakfast and for longer shelf life. There is a septum that fits
dinner together. Food is prepared in the with the water dispenser and a straw is inserted
Russian Zvezda service module. Russian cans for consumption. Only ambient, warm, and hot
and packages are heated in a specially designed water is available on the ISS.
warmer and US foods are heated in a food Thermostabilized foods are heat-treated for
warmer “suitcase.” safety and are preserved in cans, plastic cups,
The types of food processing required of or flexible retort pouches. These foods include
foods for space travel are similar to the types of fruits, tuna, salmon, puddings, and entrées
food processing technologies available on such as beef and mushrooms, tomatoes and
Earth, i.e., fresh, freeze-dried, canned, and eggplant, Chicken à la King, and ham. Pouches

FIGURE 6.4 Food scientists have created a variety of food items and meals for astronauts. The challenges for
space food development include the need for a long shelf-life without refrigeration, extreme sanitation, and mini-
mal water or preparation. Food packaging innovations, such as the retort pouch, were developed for NASA but
have become part of terrestrial food products (juice boxes for example). Shown here is an example food tray with
typical packaging systems used on the International Space Station (ISS). Source: Photo from the Iowa State University
NASA Food Technology Commercial Space Center.
are heated, cut open, and eaten directly from the similar to a vegetarian diet. Sweet and white
container. Irradiated foods in flexible pouches, potatoes, soybeans, wheat, peanuts, dried
such as meats and main dishes, are also ready to beans, lettuce, spinach, tomatoes, herbs, carrots,
eat and only require warming before consumption. radishes, cabbage, and rice are crops that could
Future space travel to the moon or Mars be grown. Produce would be processed into
would require food with a shelf life of 3 5 edible ingredients for immediate consumption
years. In transit, foods similar to those for ISS or stored. Issues related to water and energy
could be used, but once residence on a plane- conservation, nutrient retention, microbial
tary surface is established, food could be grown safety, packaging, and waste reduction would
in climate-controlled, hydroponic laboratories be of utmost importance, similar to the con-
(not unlike the 2015 movie The Martian). It is cerns of food processors on Earth.
proposed that this food system would be
Suggested reading: Bourland, Kloeris, Rice, and Vodovotz (1999).

6.4 NEWER FOOD PRESERVATION size or shape. Sausages and pasta have been
AND PROCESSING made by extrusion for over 100 years. Many
TECHNOLOGIES types of breads, cereals, snacks, cookies, crack-
ers, candies, doughs, textured vegetable and
Recent technologies in food processing soy proteins, meats, and pet foods are now
include extrusion, controlled atmosphere (CA) made by this process. Single- and double-
storage, modified atmosphere packaging screw mechanisms inside a barrel control the
(MAP), microwave heating, pulsed electric pressure, rate of movement, amount of mois-
field (PEF), and high-pressure processing ture, temperature, and mixing of components
(HPP) (Table 6.3). The combination of two or through the barrel. The size and length of the
more methods to produce safe and more fresh- barrel and the shape of screws and dies can be
like foods is the current trend in food proces- varied for different applications. Extrusion can
sing. Nonthermal preservation methods and be a noncooking process or heat can be gener-
reduced use of preservatives will likely ated during extrusion. Cooking is done inside
become more popular techniques to produce the barrel where the product creates its own
“minimally processed” products. heat and friction generated by the pressure
exerted by the screw(s) inside the barrel. The
heat of extrusion can denature proteins and
6.4.1 Extrusion gelatinize starch. Many products with high
Extrusion is a process in which a mixture of starch content expand or puff as they exit the
ingredients is forced through an opening in a extruder, creating the unique characteristics of
perforated plate (or die), then cut to a specific corn curls and puffed cereals.
TABLE 6.3 Advanced Technologies for Food Preservation and Processing

Technology Mechanism Function Types of foods
Extrusion Temperature, pressure, and shear HTST treatment, changes shape Pasta, cereals, snack foods
by screw press and texture
Controlled Reduced oxygen and increased Slow ripening of fruits by Apples, bananas, tomatoes,
atmosphere carbon dioxide in storage inhibiting enzymes melons
storage
Modified Selective packaging to limit, Reduce deterioration during Meats, salad greens
atmosphere maintain, or remove gases refrigeration
packaging
Microwave Sterilization by heat; Aseptic packaging in flexible Sweet potato puree
sterilization pasteurization; dehydration pouches for military and space
Pulsed electric Very high voltage for Pasteurization treatment, speed Fruit juices and peeled fruits
fielda microseconds drying and vegetables
High-pressure Very high pressure without Destruction of microbes by Guacamole, raw oysters,
processing temperature increase pressure, little alteration of food meats, juices, baby food
Infrared heating Electromagnetic vibrations Destruction of microbes without Baked goods, roasting,
long heating peeling
a
Process not approved by FDA.

6.4 NEWER FOOD PRESERVATION AND PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES 197
6.4.2 Controlled Atmosphere Storage permeability are used to create defined oxygen
and nitrogen levels around the food.
To prolong the shelf-life of fruits and vege- Elimination of all oxygen would result in pick-
tables, it is possible to reduce the respiration led products due to anaerobic respiration so
rate in these foods by lowering the levels of the packaging must allow gases to escape and
oxygen, increasing carbon dioxide and adding oxygen to enter. Each plant has a different rate
nitrogen around them. This controlled atmo- of metabolism so finding the correct conditions
sphere (CA) storage is effective in delaying is necessary. Newer technologies in plastics
ripening of “climacteric” fruits and vegetables. have also provided materials that change per-
Apples, tomatoes, bananas, melons, kiwi, meability based on temperature, which allows
plums, avocados, peaches, pears, and apricots additional levels of control.
are climacteric foods that can be harvested MAP is used along with measured levels of
before the onset of ripening and stored in CA carbon dioxide (CO2), oxygen, nitrogen, and/
conditions. They continue to ripen after being or carbon monoxide (CO) in packaging fresh
harvested. Some of these fruits and meats. Beef and pork will undergo a loss of
vegetables naturally produce ethylene gas dur- red color during storage, causing it to look
ing the ripening period, and this can be either brown and unappealing. Consumers confuse
removed or added to delay or hasten ripening. this lack of red color with spoilage, even
Hastening the ripening of tomatoes by placing though it is not. The loss of red color is from
them in a paper bag works because the ethyl- the release of oxygen from myoglobin (the
ene produced by the fruit is concentrated muscle form of hemoglobin). CO binds to
inside the bag. A banana added to the bag con- myoglobin more tightly than oxygen and
tributes more ethylene and speeds ripening. keeps the red meat color. CO2 is used to limit
Commercial management of ethylene gas microorganism growth and nitrogen is used as
allows fruits and vegetables to stay fresh lon- a carrier gas to allow other gases to be mixed
ger so that food waste is reduced. in the correct percentage. The most common
CA storage also slows the spread of micro- modified atmospheres used for red meat con-
bial diseases such as fungal diseases in cab- sist of 80% oxygen and 20% carbon dioxide, or
bage and reduces the incidence of some 0.4% carbon monoxide, 30% carbon dioxide,
physiological disorders such as browning of and 69.6% nitrogen.
cabbage, pitting of oranges, sprouting of pota-
toes, and development of bitter flavor in car-
rots. CA storage can be used in conjunction
with vacuum conditions during transport of 6.4.4 Microwave Sterilization
tropical fruits such as bananas, mangoes, Microwave ovens use nonionizing radiation
papayas, and guavas to keep them from spoil- in the electromagnetic spectrum (2450 and
ing before reaching the market. 915 MHz with heating capacities between 10
and 200 kW) to excite polar molecules, such as
water, in food. This results in the generation of
6.4.3 Modified Atmosphere Packaging heat. Commercial microwave ovens are used
Similar to CA, modified atmosphere pack- in food processing facilities for precooking
aging (MAP) is used to slow down respiration bacon, tempering frozen meats, and precook-
and prolong the storage life of fruits, vegeta- ing other foods. Microwave processing
bles, and salad greens. Selective packaging requires less heating time, uses less energy,
films and materials with specific gas and retains more nutrients in foods than other

thermal processing methods. Because it is a specialty products such as guacamole, deli

faster heating process, food retains more fresh meats, salsa, and seafood. HPP is an attractive
characteristics and has similar microbiological alternative to the use of heat and chemical
reduction properties as commercial heat and additives in foods but is an expensive process
pressure treatments. Used in combination with due to the high cost of the equipment.
prepackaging, microwave sterilization can
increase the shelf-life of foods without
refrigeration. 6.4.7 Infrared Heating
Infrared (IR) radiation releases energy in
electromagnetic wave form and causes molecu-
6.4.5 Pulsed Electric Field
lar vibration of food components (water,
Pulsed electric field (PEF) processing is a organic compounds, biological polymers) in the
nonthermal treatment (although the tempera- 2.5 10 µm wavelength range. IR heating was
ture of the food does increase during first used in the 1930s for curing rubber in the
treatment) of food in a chamber with a high- automotive industry and later in the
voltage electrical field (20 400 kW) that causes manufacturing and electronics industries. IR is
increased permeability or rupture of biological used for baking breads and other baked goods,
cell membranes (microorganisms and plants). roasting nuts and browning meats, and has
PEF kills vegetative bacterial cells but does not potential for blanching and peeling fruits and
inactivate spores. Pasteurization of fruit juices, vegetables; drying fruits, herbs, nuts, shrimp,
soups, milk, and other liquids can be accom- and cereals; and destroying pathogens on
plished by treatment with PEF. PEF is used to foods. Because IR does not require a heating
extract juices from apples, grapes, and carrots; liquid, less water is used and improved energy
make beet, broccoli, and kale mashes; enhance and processing efficiency is achieved compared
peeling of tomatoes and prunes; and accelerate to traditional canning. IR is most suitable for
drying of potatoes, onions, and peppers. PEF heating thin layers of food materials and heats
is capable of replacing some traditional food only a few millimeters below the surface.
processing methods with lower energy use
and shorter processing times, making it an
increasingly attractive new technology.
6.5 FUNCTIONAL ADDITIVES IN
PROCESSED FOODS
6.4.6 High-Pressure Processing Food scientists developed methods to not
The application of high pressure (up to only preserve foods, but also to maintain and
600 MPa) to juices and beverages destroys bac- even enhance the color, flavor, and texture of
teria at a similar level to pasteurization. HPP food during storage. Legally, the term “food
does not generate heat and foods do not additive” refers to “any substance where the
undergo flavor or color changes. Pressure with intended use of which results—directly or
a small amount of heat (,240 F) can be used indirectly—in its becoming a component or
to sterilize low-acid products such as sweet otherwise affecting the characteristics of any
potatoes and mashed potatoes, which can then food” (Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act). This
be stored at room temperature. Because of the definition includes any substance used in the
high quality and nutrient retention that results, production, processing, treatment, packaging,
HPP is used to preserve baby foods and transportation, or storage of food. The primary

6.5 FUNCTIONAL ADDITIVES IN PROCESSED FOODS 199
categories of additives are preservatives, fla- antimicrobial properties over the pH range of
vors and spices, coloring, fat replacers and sta- the food, and be economical and practical.
bilizers, nonnutritive sweeteners, thickeners, Sugar, salt, nitrites, butylated hydroxy anisol
and texturizers. These are added to improve (BHA), butylated hydroxyl toluene (BHT), tert-
the quality and shelf-life of foods, for preserva- butylhydroquinone (TBHQ), vinegar, citric acid,
tion, ease of manufacture, and improvement of and calcium propionate are all chemicals that
appearance, texture, or flavor. Vitamins and preserve foods. Salt, sodium nitrite, spices, vin-
minerals added to improve the nutrient con- egar, and alcohol have been used to preserve
tent of foods are also additives. foods for centuries. Sodium benzoate, calcium
propionate, and potassium sorbate are used to
prevent microbial growth that causes spoilage
and to slow changes in color, texture, and fla-
6.5.1 Regulation for Food Additives vor. Potassium sorbate and sodium benzoate
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) both prevent spoilage by inhibiting mold and
has the primary and legal responsibility for yeast. Sodium benzoate may be in foods such
approving food additives as safe. Today, food as salad dressings, soft drinks, canned tuna,
and color additives are more regulated and and mixed dried fruit. Potassium sorbate is
monitored than at any time in the past. When found in cheese, wine, and dried meats. BHA
evaluating the safety of food additives, the fol- and BHT are antioxidants that prevent rancidity
lowing criteria are examined by the FDA: the of fats and are added to shortening, margarine,
composition and properties of the substance, and fried snacks such as potato chips.
the amount that would typically be consumed, Consumers have raised concerns about the
immediate and long-term health effects, and use of preservatives in foods that have compli-
various safety factors. The term generally recog- cated chemical names that make them seem
nized as safe (GRAS) is used by the FDA to more appropriate for a chemistry experiment
describe various products that are added to than a meal. Sodium benzoate, BHA, BHT, and
food. Over 700 additives on the GRAS list are TBHQ have especially been targets of consumer
accepted as safe, either by a long history of apprehension. These compounds have been
safe use or by extensive testing. Substances can approved for their safe use in foods and have
be removed from the GRAS list if new evi- not been linked to any human illness or compli-
dence indicates that they may be harmful. If cations for the general public. As is the nature
the FDA does not approve a product, it will of scientific inquiry, reports of adverse effects
take action to prevent the distribution of that of these compounds can be found in the litera-
product. Products must be demonstrated as ture. The abundance of evidence suggests that
safe for the intended use before they are the risks of these compounds, which are used
allowed to be used in foods. in small amounts, to human health are insignifi-
cant. And, in contrast to having a negative
impact on health, BHA and BHT have been
linked with having a positive effect due to their
6.5.2 Preservatives in Processed Foods antioxidant capacity. Weighing the risk/bene-
Food preservatives are specific additives to fits of using these chemicals in foods is an
prevent deterioration from enzymes, microor- ongoing debate and the FDA, food companies,
ganisms, and exposure to oxygen. All chemical and consumers must all participate. No food,
preservatives must be nontoxic and readily additive, or ingredient will be 100% safe for
soluble, not impart off-flavors, exhibit 100% of the people. Using scientific thinking to

consider these complicated decisions is essential specifications. Annatto extract, beet powder,
to avoid emotional reactions based on sodium copper chlorophyllin, grape extract, car-
misinformation. rot oil, paprika, titanium dioxide, iron oxide,
and many other “natural colors” are example of
colors exempt from certification.
6.5.3 Flavorings and Spices Concerns about the potential health effects of
synthetic food colors have been in the public
Natural flavoring, artificial flavor, spices,
arena for several years. In the 1970s, pediatrician
and monosodium glutamate (MSG) improve
Dr. Benjamin Feingold raised the hypothesis
the palatability of foods. Natural and artificial
that hyperactivity in children was caused by
flavors are found in a number of products like
additives in food. Around this time, changes in
granola bars and flavored juices and bev-
how attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
erages. MSG, a common additive in soup, bar-
(ADHD) and autism were diagnosed and man-
becue sauce, and seasoning mixtures, gives
aged were being made by mental health profes-
food enhanced flavor, similar to adding soy
sionals, and more children were being
protein, mushrooms, or other savory ingredi-
diagnosed with these conditions. The Feingold
ents. There has been some concern among con-
Diet, which required avoidance of all food col-
sumers that MSG causes allergic-type
ors and other food additives, became popular
reactions. There is little scientific evidence to
with parents as a means of addressing behaviors
support that concern and the FDA considers
in their children. Debate as to whether there was
MSG to be a safe food additive. Some people
any scientific rigor to the claims that synthetic
may experience a mild reaction to MSG, but
food colors affected behavior continued for the
these are usually short-term and do not
next decade. In 1982, the National Institutes of
require medical treatment.
Health conducted a broad review of the litera-
ture and concluded that for a small percentage
of children with ADHD and confirmed food
6.5.4 Color Additives in Processed
allergy, dietary modification may produce some
Foods improvement in behavior. This conclusion was
Color additives are used in foods and bev- made despite the lack of scientific evidence to
erages to enhance and correct colors already predict which children would benefit from a
present, provide color identity to colorless dietary restriction, or strong evidence that food
foods, and account for color loss during storage. colors were responsible for the changes in
Any dye, pigment, or substance made or behavior. In 1997 another scientific review con-
obtained from a vegetable, animal, mineral, or cluded that there was minimal evidence of effec-
other source capable of coloring a food is a tiveness of dietary restriction of food colors on
color additive, according to the FDA. Synthetic behavior in children and noted the extreme dif-
or artificial colors are derived from petroleum ficulty of getting children and adolescents to
or coal and identified with FD&C numbers, comply with restricted diets.
such as FD&C Blue No. 1. Natural color addi- In 2007, synthetic certified color additives
tives are derived from plants, animals, or again came under scrutiny following publica-
minerals. Both types of color additives are regu- tion of a study commissioned by the UK Food
lated by the FDA. Synthetic colors must be cer- Standards Agency to investigate whether cer-
tified for identity and purity by the FDA, while tain color additives cause hyperactivity in
natural color additives do not require certifica- children. Both the US Food and Drug
tion but must meet identity standards and Administration and the European Food Safety

Authority independently concluded that the for human use that contains Yellow No. 5
study did not show a substantial link between must specifically declare it as an ingredient.
color additives and behavioral effects. But The addition of any coloring must be identi-
despite these negative conclusions, the fied on food packaging and labeled as “con-
European Union currently requires foods that tains artificial color,” “colored with,” or “color
contain any of the six colors tested in the added.” FD&C colors must be identified by
report, including Yellow 5 and 6, to be labeled name. “Natural color” is not allowed as the
as “may have an adverse effect on activity FDA considers all color additives to be artifi-
and attention in children.” cial but a definition for “natural” on food
Yellow 5 (tartrazine) and Yellow 6 are syn- labels is being reviewed. In response to con-
thetic FD&C yellow dyes used in foods, can- sumer demand, many food companies are
dies, drugs, and cosmetics. Yellow 5 is Lemon replacing synthetic color additives with natural
Yellow and Yellow 6 is Sunset Yellow. Some colors. These uncertified color additives may
consumers (0.01% 0.1% of the population) vary in purity, quality, and safety. Because
cannot tolerate tartrazine. In these consumers, they are derived from plants, animals, or soil,
tartrazine may cause symptoms similar to an they must be tested for microbial contamina-
allergic reaction, including hives and swelling, tion. Also, organic solvents are often used to
but the reaction is not considered a true extract, purify, and concentrate these natural
allergy. Tartrazine was also thought to be asso- colorants and it is not yet known if these che-
ciated with the onset of asthma attacks, but micals are fully removed during processing.
recent scientific evidence indicated that tartra- The trade-off of switching from well-studied
zine is an unlikely cause of asthma symptoms. and tested synthetic colors to natural colors
To help protect people who may be intolerant with limited oversight and safety testing is just
to tartrazine, the FDA requires that any food beginning to play out in the food system.
EXPANSION BOX 6.2
KRAFT MACARONI & CHEESE

Kraft Foods Group Brands LLC is one of Kraft Foods introduced packaged Macaroni
North America’s largest consumer packaged & Cheese in 1937 and the product became
food and beverage companies, with annual rev- immediately popular. Today the “Blue Box”
enues of more than $18 billion. The company’s line includes many varieties, including different
iconic brands include Kraft, Capri Sun, Jell-O, cheese flavors such as Buffalo Cheddar, Cheesy
Kool-Aid, Lunchables, Maxwell House, Oscar Southwest Chipotle, Garlic & Herb Alfredo,
Mayer, Philadelphia, Planters, and Velveeta. Three Cheese Jalapeño, Cheddar Explosion,
Oscar Mayer became part of General Foods in Thick and Creamy, Three Cheese, and White
1981 and General Foods was purchased by Cheddar, and kid-friendly shapes of pasta
Kraft Foods in 1989. In 2015, Kraft Foods and including Minions, SpongeBob, Star Wars, and
H.J. Heinz Co. merged to create the third larg- Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles. Kraft Macaroni
est food and beverage company in North & Cheese comes in Whole Grain, Organic
America and the fifth largest food and beverage White Cheddar, and Organic Cheddar. In addi-
company in the world. tion, there is the Homestyle line with 7 options,

Microwavable Macaroni & Cheese with 17 all ingredients (all additives are GRAS) in Kraft
options of sizes and flavors, and the Deluxe Macaroni & Cheese and the organic versions
line with 9 options. also offer consumers a choice of ingredients.
Kraft Macaroni & Cheese is a popular food What are the functions for the “chemicals”
with children and families because it is inex- in Macaroni & Cheese? Niacin, iron, vitamins
pensive, easy and quick to prepare, nutritious, B1 and B2, and folic acid are nutrients added to
and tasty, and the packaged product has a long refined wheat flour for enrichment. The cheese
shelf life. The two basic ingredients of Kraft sauce mix is composed of cheese components
Macaroni & Cheese are: that, as dry ingredients, can maintain high
quality and safety for a long time. Whey and
• Enriched macaroni, which contains
milk protein concentrate are proteins from milk
• wheat flour
(whey fraction and cheese curd, respectively)
• durum flour
and are added to the cheese mixture for nutri-
• vitamins and minerals (niacin, ferrous
tion and thickness. Sodium tripolyphosphate is
sulfate (iron), thiamin mononitrate
an emulsifier to help bind fat and water
(vitamin B1), riboflavin (vitamin B2), and
together and make the sauce creamy. Citric
folic acid)
acid, lactic acid, sodium phosphate, calcium
• Cheese sauce mix, which contains
phosphate, enzymes, and cheese culture are by-
• whey
products of the cheese-making process and con-
• milkfat
tribute to flavor. Citric and lactic acids also act
• milk protein concentrate
as preservatives. Chymosin is the primary
• salt
enzyme in rennet, used to coagulate casein
• sodium tripolyphosphate
curds from milk. Lactobacillus and Streptococcus
• less than 2% citric acid, lactic acid,
are the bacterial cultures used to make many
sodium phosphate, and calcium
cheeses.
phosphate
These ingredients have all been approved
• spices paprika and turmeric
for use by the FDA and have a specific function
• annatto added for color
that gives Kraft Macaroni & Cheese its charac-
• enzymes
teristic taste and look. Consumers have become
• cheese culture
interested in foods that are “clean” meaning
Consumers have criticized Kraft for using they do not contain “unnecessary” ingredients
artificial colors and preservatives. In March or chemicals or have only a few ingredients.
2016, Kraft responded by changing the Products such as Kraft Macaroni & Cheese may
Macaroni & Cheese recipe. Calories and fat seem like they have a lot of ingredients with
were decreased 12% and 14%, respectively, complicated names. An understanding of what
sodium was decreased slightly, protein and these ingredients are and why they are present
fiber amounts were increased and artificial col- in the foods can alleviate some of the hesitation
ors (Yellow 5 and Yellow 6) were replaced with consumers may have about consuming pro-
annatto, paprika, and turmeric. The label lists cessed foods.

6.5.5 Thickeners and Texturizers in maltodextrin or polydextrose. Other functional

Processed Foods properties of sugar (browning, water binding,
crystallization) are not replaced by substitute
Gelatin, pectin, gums, and protein concen- sweeteners and must be provided by other
trates and isolates are stabilizers, thickeners, ingredients.
and texturizers that provide body to foods such
as soups, sauces, salad dressings, and desserts.
These ingredients give foods a smooth, creamy
texture that we enjoy in ice cream, yogurt, 6.5.7 Fat Replacers and Stabilizers in
cheese, and soups. Gums that are extracted Processed Foods
from plants, seeds, shrubs, and seaweed, or The function of fat in foods is to provide
produced by bacteria, are a natural source of creamy mouthfeel, rich flavor, and smooth tex-
thickeners. Examples of extracted gums include ture. Foods made to be low in fat, do not have
guar gum, locust bean gum, gum acacia, carra- these characteristics and are less enjoyable to
geenan gum, and xanthan gum. Gelatin (from eat. Olestra, cellulose gel, carrageenan gum,
animal collagen) is used in “Jell-O,” cream modified food starch, guar gum, and whey
cheese, and frozen desserts, and pectin protein concentrate are ingredients used to
(extracted from apple pomace and citrus rinds) replace the characteristics of fats in food.
is used in jellies, jams, and candies. Consumers Gums are a common fat replacer because they
consider gelatin and pectin gums as more “nat- thicken, have a gel-like consistency, and give
ural” (likely because their names are familiar products stability. Fat replacers such as
and easy to pronounce) and manufacturers xanthan gum are used in fat-free salad dres-
often use these gums in food because they are sings, sauces, and ice cream.
more consumer-friendly. But all gums are Chemically modified food starches can be
obtained from natural sources. used to thicken many different types of pro-
ducts. Gravies, sauces, and pie fillings are
common items that contain modified corn
6.5.6 Nonnutritive Sweeteners in
starch as a thickener. Chemically modified
Processed Foods starches provide stability during canning and
Consumers have long sought replacements freezing. For example, tapioca starch is used in
for sugar (4 kcal/g) in order to reduce the calo- making home-made cherry pie filling because
rie content of desserts, beverages, and baked it is translucent. When frozen, tapioca starch
products. Saccharin and acesulfame-K are non- becomes opaque and when canned, becomes
nutritive sweeteners approved for use in foods clumpy and does not provide an appetizing
and are about 200 times sweeter than sugar, appearance for cherries. By using a modified
and sucralose is a nonnutritive sweetener that starch that is both clear and remains thick and
is 500 1000 times sweeter than sucrose. stable during processing, frozen cherry pies
Aspartame (4 kcal/g) and sugar alcohols such and canned cherry pie filling can be produced
as mannitol, xylitol, and sortibol (1.6 2.6 kcal/ without these side effects. Modified starches
g) have calories but are several hundred times can be made to have unique functional charac-
sweeter than sucrose so a very small amount teristics, to allow new products such as instant
can be used to sweeten foods. In no-sugar pudding to be created. In food processing,
foods, the physical bulk of sugar is usually modified starches are widely used to ensure
replaced by a noncaloric fiber such as food quality and stability.

6.6 BENEFITS OF PROCESSED topics are discussed in more detail in

FOODS Chapter 7, Nutrition and Food Access.
The benefits of food processing to consu-

mers include increased efficiency of food prep- 6.6.1 Processing Increases Efficiency
aration, improved safety, and enhanced Processing reduces the cost of food by limit-
palatability (Table 6.4). Processed foods can be ing postharvest losses. In developing countries
high-quality foods that are healthy, safe, con- where food processing is not readily available,
venient and enjoyable. The societal benefits of nearly 50% of foods that are grown are not con-
food processing include keeping food costs sumed due to postharvest damage from pests,
low by optimizing food retention, reducing spoilage, or deterioration. In the United States,
food waste, and adding nutritional value to processing facilities located near agricultural
the food supply. Food processing facilities production sites have reduced this type of loss
employ thousands of workers, which aids the significantly. Top-quality fruits and vegetables
local and national economy. The application of are transported to markets for direct consumer
newer technologies to food processing is sales and seconds or less desirable products are
aimed at reducing the use of additives and canned, frozen, or made into juices. Efficient
chemicals in foods, minimizing water use, and and effective tools to reduce microbial spoilage
conserving energy. Negative aspects of food of foods further reduce food waste. It has been
processing include the high use of water and suggested that packaged foods result in 2.5%
energy needed in food processing, transporta- product loss to waste while fresh foods may
tion and fuel use to deliver foods from proces- have up to 50% product loss to waste.
sors to consumers, and the control of food Processing facilities increase the efficient
processing by large food corporations. use of by-products that might otherwise be
Consumers have concerns about chemicals and wasted. For example, citrus oil for flavoring
additives in foods; the ready availability of and pectin can be extracted from citrus peels,
foods high in fat, salt, and sugar; and the ways beta carotene can be extracted from palm ker-
foods are marketed to children. These latter nel oil, and glycosaminoglycan protein can be
extracted from egg shells. Agricultural by-
TABLE 6.4 Comparison of Commercial Brands of
products can be collected from processing
Macaroni and Cheese plants and added to animal feed or used for
biofuels or other uses, whereas excess food
Servings per material (broccoli stalks, meat fat, potato peel-
Package container Cost per
Brands size (oz) (1 cup) package ($)
ings) produced at home is generally discarded
and sent to landfills.
Kraft 6 3 1.39
Annie’s 6 2.5 2.29
Homegrown 6.6.2 Processing Improves Food Safety
Hodgson 7.25 3 2.29 The United States has one of the safest food
Mill
supplies in the world. The food industry fol-
Pasta Roni 7.2 2.5 2.19 lows defined regulations that require sanitary
Back to 6 2.5 2.23 food handling and packaging, as well as test-
Nature ing, to assure safety. Standards are in place to
ensure foods are properly processed to reduce
Our Family 5.5 2 0.89
the risks of food-borne illness and other

6.6 BENEFITS OF PROCESSED FOODS 205
hazards. The FDA defines Current Good Network (FoodNet) to provide annual data
Manufacturing Practices (CGMPs), food iden- from designated surveillance sites on actual
tity and microbiological quality standards, and numbers of laboratory-diagnosed cases of pre-
the processing methods and equipment for dominantly food-borne bacterial (Campylobacter,
food manufacturers. The FDA and Food Safety Listeria, Salmonella, STEC-O157 or Shiga toxin-
and Inspection Service of the US Department producing E. coli, Yersinia, and non-O157 STEC)
of Agriculture (FSIS-USDA) inspect and moni- and parasitic pathogens (Cryptosporidium,
tor US food production, processing, and mar- Cyclospora). FoodNet collaborators conduct
keting. We take for granted that our salads, active, population-based surveillance at ten US
fruit, and other uncooked foods are safe to eat, sites (representing 15% of the US population or
and that meat and dairy foods are wholesome 46 million people) for confirmed cases of food-
and fresh. Because of this safety assurance, borne illnesses. FoodNet scientists monitor
when a food safety issue does arise it becomes trends, identify sources, implement epidemio-
headline news. logical studies to determine risk and protective
The population of the United States is about factors, and conduct surveys about behavior
324 million people; if it is assumed each person regarding food handling, consumption, and
eats three meals a day, that equals 974 million prevention of food-borne illness.
meals consumed per day. The Centers for Despite these safeguards and monitoring,
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates pathogens do enter the food system. About 89%
that there are about 48 million food-borne ill- of all food-borne illnesses that occurred between
nesses a year. This roughly predicts that the 2006 and 2010 in the United States were from
chances of contracting a food-borne illness are noroviruses (49%) and bacteria (40%; Fig. 6.5).
less than 0.01% or less than 1 in 10,000 meals. Norovirus contamination is spread through con-
The number of illnesses, hospitalizations, tact with environmental factors (soil, water) and
and deaths caused by food-borne pathogens is infected people. The most common food-borne
difficult to quantify because many people do bacterial pathogens are Salmonella, Clostridium,
not see a doctor when sick with gastrointestinal and Campylobacter (Table 6.5). The risk of dis-
disorders, the doctor is unable to diagnose the ease from E. coli or Listeria contamination is low
problem, or the illness is not reported to the and the risk is even lower from the toxin of C.
CDC. It is important for healthcare providers botulinum. Seafoods, improperly cooked meats
and government agencies to know the number and eggs, and cross-contamination of produce
and sources of food-borne illnesses in order to are the most likely sources of food-borne illness.
prevent contamination problems throughout Children younger than 5 years of age, pregnant
the food chain. Scientists use a method called women, adults over 65 years of age, and people
food-borne illness source attribution as a way with weak immune systems are more likely to
to obtain a more accurate estimate of the num- become ill from contaminated food than other
ber of illnesses associated with specific foods. people, and the effects of illness may be more
County health departments across the country serious.
report diagnosed cases of food-borne infections Salmonella infections are often associated
to state health departments who, in turn, report with poultry and eggs. Eggs can be contami-
to the CDC. These actual numbers of food- nated on their surface from contact with
borne illnesses are usually lower than “esti- manure, and the yolk of an egg can become
mates” of food-borne diseases. contaminated during development from an
In 1995, the USDA, CDC, ten state health infected hen. Escherichia coli infections occur
departments, and the FDA established the from meats when, during the slaughter pro-
Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance cess, pathogens on the animal’s hide or

TABLE 6.5 Benefits of Processed Foods

Reason Example
Efficiency Commercially canned vegetables

increased
Shelf-life Refrigerated vegetables, bananas in CA,

increased frozen meat
Quality Frozen peas, tortillas, and breads
improved
Availability Kiwi, pineapple, strawberries, frozen
increased orange juice
FIGURE 6.5 According to the Centers for Disease Waste reduced Packaged meat, bagged salad greens,
Control and Prevention (CDC) norovirus and bacteria are frozen broccoli
the main causes of food-borne illnesses in the United Safety Pasteurized milk, canned vegetables,
States. Norovirus is a highly contagious virus that is read- improved cured meats
ily spread from person to person or through contaminated
foods. Hand washing, and proper handling and storage of Packaging Refrigerated doughs, fresh meat, snack-
foods at home, are effective ways to avoid food-borne ill- protection size crackers
ness. Source: CDC, www.cdc.gov.
Variety Instant oatmeal, pastas, frozen waffles
enhanced
intestines contaminate the meat product. Nutrition added Enriched bread, fortified milk, cereals
Salmonella and E. coli are, as are most bacteria, with folate
destroyed by heat, so proper cooking of eggs Flavor Potato chips, low-fat ice cream, pudding
and meat will reduce the risk of food-borne ill- improved with aspartame
ness. Fresh produce can be contaminated with
Convenience Breakfast cereals, frozen pizza, reduced
Listeria or Shigella that are present in water or provided calorie frozen meals
soil, or by E. coli from contact with animal or
human fecal material.
Spoilage microorganisms, molds, yeasts, and The food industry uses strategies such as
bacteria reduce the quality and palatability of risk-based prevention controls, monitoring
foods but do not cause illness. Molds can cause procedures, verification, and record-keeping to
spoilage in fairly low-moisture foods (about reduce the risk of food-borne illness. The
12% or water activity aw 0.80) such as jams and Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point
jellies, especially when exposed to oxygen. (HACCP) system, a method of monitoring
Yeasts require higher moisture conditions to food safety by anticipation and prevention of
grow (about 30% or 0.88 aw) and can thrive in problems, is required for all facilities that
both aerobic and anaerobic environments. “manufacture, process, pack or hold food and
Bacteria require the most moisture (about 30% that are required to register with the FDA”
or 0.91 aw), can be aerobic or anaerobic, and can (Section 415 of the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic
grow in a range of temperatures: thermophiles, Act). Food processors develop a HACCP plan
above 113 F, mesophiles about 68 113 F, and by assessing all possible hazards during the
psychrophiles below 50 F (refrigeration temper- production process, eliminate avoidable
ature or less). Food preservation techniques are hazards, and set limits for hazards that are dif-
designed to limit or destroy both pathogenic ficult or impossible to eliminate. Processing
and spoilage organisms that are likely to occur facilities are required to have food safety per-
in a particular type of food. sonnel trained in the HACCP process, as well

as quality assurance staff who monitor sanita- United States. Marketing is a very important
tion, personnel, suppliers, transportation, stor- part of packaging, as a walk through a super-
age, and plans for managing complaints, market will show. In addition to the required
recalls, and traceability. HACCP has been labeling, packaging provides cooking instruc-
shown to greatly reduce the prevalence of tions, recipes, health information, pricing, cou-
pathogens in foods. pons, packing and “use by” dates, and coding
Challenges to food safety are continually to facilitate identification of the batch. Other
arising. New food production technologies convenience features of packaging include
require safety testing and evaluation, imported ability to reseal, container portability, ease of
foods must be monitored and tested, extreme opening, convenient preparation, and product
weather events such as floods and droughts visibility. Although we may enjoy the experi-
change the types of pathogens present in the ence of scooping rolled oats from a bin or
environment, and antibiotic-resistant bacteria weighing pasta on a scale before packaging it
are emerging. Each new food product or ingre- ourselves, oats and pasta packaged at a proces-
dient brings new potential sources of contami- sing facility are cleaner and fresher than pro-
nation. Ensuring that the millions of food ducts stored in open containers being handled
preparers, including those who prepare food by many people.
in their own homes, are well-educated and Food packaging is made from glass, metals
trained in proper food handling is a major (primarily steel, with tin and chromium lining
undertaking. Even with all the government to prevent rust, and aluminum), paper and
and food industry controls, the most important paperboard, plastics (polyolefins and polye-
factor in prevention of food-borne illness are sters are the most common), and combinations
the humans who handle and prepare food. of these materials (Fig. 6.6). In the United
The simple act of washing hands effectively States, over 50% of all packaging, including
remains the primary way to prevent food- food, is paper-based. Packaging is regulated
borne illness. by the FDA in Section 409 of the Food, Drug
and Cosmetic Act. Food contact substances
(FCS), and any material used in manufacture,
packing, holding, packaging, and transport
6.6.3 Benefits of Food Packaging that could reasonably be expected to migrate
Prior to WWI, food was transported and into food under conditions of intended use,
sold out of bulk barrels, tanks, or bags. must be either GRAS or regulated as food
Consumers brought containers from home or additives.
merchants would wrap food in paper for Food manufacturers must balance the cost
transport. Milk was delivered in open tanks of packaging materials with their functional
and dispensed on the street corner into con- properties (barrier to air and moisture, flexibil-
tainers consumers brought from their homes. ity, weight, ability to withstand processing,
Advances in transportation, storage, and food and strength). It is important for food technol-
packaging materials, especially plastic, chan- ogists involved in packaging to understand all
ged how food was offered to the consumer. the physical, chemical, microbiological, and
Food packaging is designed to prevent con- biochemical characteristics of the food and the
tamination, protect food during handling and likely changes that will occur over time in stor-
storage, maintain freshness and reduce spoilage, including interactions between the food
age, and provide information about the food. and the package materials. These interactions
Effective packaging is a primary reason for the include the movement of gases and water that
safe and high-quality food available in the could potentially result in contamination of the

FIGURE 6.6 Foods are packaged in paper, glass, aluminum, plastic, and combinations of these materials for safety
and convenience. The type of food will determine how it should be packaged and processed to ensure quality and safety
are retained. Source: Photo by authors.
food, loss of package integrity, or loss of food is derived from petroleum, so the price of oil
quality. Flavors and aromas may move directly influences the economic value of
between the food and the packaging materials recycled plastics. When oil is cheap, it is more
and some food components, such as fats or cost effective to make new plastic than to recy-
acids, may affect the integrity of the package. cle used plastic. The increased use of plastics
Low molecular weight substances such as plas- in food packaging, notably water and drink
ticizers, stabilizers, antioxidants, and mono- bottles, have generated problems for landfills.
mers and oligomers from plastic materials Recently, some cities have been forced to ban
may migrate into foods. the sale of beverages in plastic bottles because
Glass, aluminum, paper, plastic, and metals the capacity of the landfills are being
are reusable and recyclable types of packaging exceeded. As an alternative to petroleum-
materials. Americans express the desire to use based plastics, biopolymers from starch, cellu-
environmentally friendly packaging yet recycle lose, proteins, and polylactic acid produced by
only 40% of all packaging materials. Recycling bacteria can be formulated into packaging that
any material involves costs for collecting, is biodegradable. There are challenges to the
cleaning, and processing the material, all of economical production of food packaging with
which require water and energy. Paper and similar characteristics to conventional packag-
paperboard is the most recycled material, but ing from these materials, but research in this
use in foods is limited because of contaminants area has progressed. Coca-Cola recently
remaining in the paper and the weaker struc- announced that a 100% biosourced plastic bot-
ture of recycled paper. Glass and aluminum tle would replace their current plastic bottle of
retain their strength after recycling but con- polyethylene terephthalate.
taminants can remain in glass. Plastics are the Sausage casings and rice paper for candies
least recycled packaging materials (only 13%) are examples of edible film packaging that have
due to physical changes in the plastic, incom- been in use for many years. Edible films of poly-
patibility of plastic types, and difficulty of saccharides (cellulose, pectin, starches, gums),
cleaning and removal of contaminants. Plastic proteins (casein, whey, soy, corn zein, gelatin),

and lipids (waxes, fatty alcohols, fatty acids) PepsiCo, Inc. has developed specially designed
have been produced but applications in food are Gatorade bottles for professional soccer players.
limited. Some examples of edible films include The Gatorade mixture was custom-engineered
breath strips with active ingredients and flavor- for each player in bottles with sensors that mon-
ings, sore throat treatments and toothpaste, cake itor the amount of Gatorade consumed during a
decorations, pouches for vitamin and mineral game. Sensors imbedded in packaging are being
enrichment, and glaze sheets for ham. There are developed that will detect spoilage or contami-
likely to be more applications of edible packag- nation of foods, and track the temperature foods
ing as a means of reducing packaging waste and are exposed to during storage.
in response to consumer demand for more sus-
tainable food products.
Smart or active packaging uses materials
6.6.4 Processing Enhances Nutritional
that sense and change with the food and envi-
ronment. Oxygen scavengers, used to prevent
Value of Foods
oxidation of oil, flavor, and color ingredients, and The digestibility of foods is improved by
vitamins, can be incorporated into the package milling cereal grains, curing and aging meats,
or included as a sachet. Moisture absorbers, eth- and cooking legumes. The bioavailability
ylene scavengers, antimicrobial agent releasers, (uptake and utilization by the body) of some
and flavor and odor absorbers are used in nutrients can be improved by food processing.
specific packaging applications to prolong the For example, the carotenoid lycopene, which is
shelf-life of a variety of foods. Self-heating considered an important antioxidant, is much
packages for coffee, tea, and ready-to-eat meals better absorbed from processed tomato sauce
are commercially available and self-cooling than from raw tomatoes. Through enrichment
packages have been produced. and fortification, the nutrient value of foods
Nanotechnology, which is the application of can be enhanced. Enrichment is the term used
technology at the atomic scale, is being used to for adding back nutrients that were removed
develop sensors to detect contaminants in food. during processing (Fig. 6.7) and fortification is
The molecular form of plastic bags made of the process of adding nutrients to foods in
side-chain crystallizable polymer (SCCP) which the nutrients are not normally present.
changes in response to temperature to modify The Dietary Guidelines for Americans rec-
the permeation rate of environmental gases into ommend that consumers increase their intake
and out of the bags. This could be applied to of dietary fiber, vitamin D, calcium, folate,
delay ripening of bananas during transport, for potassium, iron, and vitamin B12. Data from
example. Metal organic framework (MOF) the NHANES survey of 2003 08 found that
sachets can be embedded with materials that processed foods contribute 40% 50% of the
scavenge volatiles, regulate water, and absorb intake of fiber, calcium, potassium, and vita-
oxygen, or with natural antimicrobials such as min B12, and over 60% of iron and folate by
wasabi to keep beef jerky flexible and salad consumers. In a study by Fulgoni and others
greens fresh. Food scientists at the US (2011), 88% of participants consumed less than
Army Soldier Research, Development, and the estimated average requirement (EAR) for
Engineering Center in Natick, Massachusetts folate from natural sources. The consumption
have been researching microwave-assisted ther- of fortified or enriched foods raised folate
mal sterilization (MATS) with pouch and lidded intake such that only 10.7% of participants fell
tray packages to provide 4-year storage life for below the EAR. This is clearly a nutritional
MRE (Meals Ready to Eat) combat rations. benefit to the consumption of processed foods.

masa for tortillas by Central American cultures

for thousands of years.
The nutritional value of fats, protein, carbo-
hydrates, and minerals are rarely affected by
processing (Table 6.7). Fat-soluble vitamins
such as vitamins A, D, E, and K are quite
stable to heat but may be oxidized under some
conditions (exposure to light and prolonged
heating). The water-soluble vitamins can be
lost from food by migrating into the liquid
during blanching, canning or cooking.
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is the nutrient most
sensitive to loss during food processing, espe-
cially heat. Vitamin C loss is higher in canned
foods than in frozen foods.
6.7 NEGATIVE ISSUES IN

PROCESSED FOODS
The Dietary Guidelines for Americans rec-
ommend that consumers reduce their intake
of salt, refined or added sugars, fat (espe-
cially saturated fat), and calories. Processed
FIGURE 6.7 Breakfast cereals, such as Total, are fortified
with vitamins and minerals to enhance their nutritional foods are the primary dietary source for these
value. Vitamin and mineral deficiencies became rare in the nutrients. The addition of sodium, sugars,
United States in part because of food fortification and enrich- and fats enhances the flavor of processed
ment programs. Source: Photo provided by General Mills. foods.
Processing can both positively and nega-

tively impact the nutrient content of some
6.7.1 Salt
foods. Nutrient retention in fresh foods is Salt refers to sodium chloride, but sodium is
maintained by freezing or canning foods the specific health-related target. Processed
within hours of harvest, while nutrients are and prepared foods are the main sources of
lost from fresh foods held for long periods of sodium in the diet. Breads and rolls, cured
time. Some nutrients are destroyed during pro- meats, pizza, soups, cheese, snack foods, and
cessing by heat or exposure to acids, alkali, prepared meat and pasta dishes provide more
light, oxygen, or air, while others are more than 40% of the sodium in the average
stable to these treatments (Table 6.6). Most American’s diet. Sodium is added to foods in
foods are processed in neutral conditions, nei- the form of sodium chloride, sodium nitrate,
ther acidic nor alkaline, but there are excep- sodium bicarbonate, and MSG. Sodium chlo-
tions. Alkaline treatment of corn, called ride and MSG are flavor enhancers, sodium
nixtamalization, actually increases the bioavail- nitrate is a preservative for meats, and sodium
ability of niacin, and has been used in making bicarbonate, or baking soda, is a leavening

6.7 NEGATIVE ISSUES IN PROCESSED FOODS 211
TABLE 6.6 Occurrence and Control of Common Food-Borne Pathogens
CDC statistics
Pathogen Likely source of contamination Control (each year in US)
Norovirus Contaminated person, food, Hand-washing and general 19 21 million illnesses,

water, or surfaces cleanliness 56,000 71,000 hospitalizations,
570 800 deaths
Salmonella Foods of animal origin; reptiles Cook poultry, meat, eggs; do not 1.2 million illnesses, 19,000
and birds eat raw eggs or drink hospitalizations, and 450
unpasteurized milk deaths
Listeria Soil, water, animal foods Wash fruits and vegetables; do 1600 illnesses, 260 deaths
monocytogenes not eat unpasteurized milk
products
Shiga toxin- Intestines of people and Wash hands and cooking areas; 265,000 infections
producing humans cook meats
Escherichia coli
(STEC)
Shigella Human feces, contaminated Wash hands 500,000 cases

water
Campylobacter Poultry, unpasteurized dairy Cook poultry; wash hands; 1.3 million cases (est.), 76
products, contaminated prevent cross-contamination deaths (est.)
produce and water
Clostridium Low-acid home-canned food Preserve vegetables with 145 cases (15% are food-borne
botulinum pressure canner (240 F) types)
agent used in baked goods. High sodium not easily achieved by other compounds.
intake is associated with increased blood pres- Sodium chloride adds not only salty taste to
sure (hypertension), which can lead to a wide food, but also enhances sweetness, and masks
range of cardiovascular disorders including bitter or off-flavors. Sodium chloride enhances
heart attack, stroke, and kidney failure. It has and stabilizes the texture and color and retains
been estimated that 1 in 3 people in the United moisture in foods.
States have hypertension (Chapter 7: Nutrition Food companies, recognizing that consumers
and Food Access). The FDA has recently estab- are aware of the high sodium content of pro-
lished voluntary sodium reduction goals for cessed foods, are introducing more reduced-salt
the food industry, which include recommenda- products. Frito Lay, for example, is working to
tions to reformulate food products over time reduce artificial ingredients, use 30% less salt,
to include less sodium. Removing sodium and keep the ingredient list short. Low-sodium,
from processed foods is a challenge for the reduced sodium, and no-salt meats, breads,
food industry, not only because of the flavor snack foods, desserts, and frozen entrees have
aspects of sodium-containing compounds, but been available for many years, but consumers
more importantly because of the functional have not responded favorably to low-sodium
and safety aspects these compounds contrib- products because it is difficult to replace the fla-
ute. As a curing agent, sodium nitrate is vor associated with salt. Ready-to-eat meals,
uniquely able to inhibit the growth of patho- sauces and seasonings, cereal products, snacks,
genic bacteria, especially C. botulinum, which is and soup with reduced salt and sodium have

TABLE 6.7 Comparison of Methods of Food Preservation

Method of
food
preservation Quality changes Nutritional changes Energy consumption
Canning Flavors decreased Vitamin C reduced by heat High energy requirement for
heating but no energy for
Texture softened Fat-soluble vitamins stable
storage of canned food
Minerals unchanged
Freezing Minimal flavor and texture Slight vitamin C reduction by Low energy requirement for
changes during processing; blanching processing but high energy
depends on packaging and use during storage
Nutrient content most similar to raw
storage temperature
Food most similar to fresh
Dehydration Flavor and texture dramatically Vitamin C greatly reduced Energy required for heating
affected by removal of water and removal of moisture but
Some reduction of niacin and
during processing no energy required during
riboflavin due to prolonged heating storage
and exposure to oxygen
Irradiation Very little change in flavor at low Slight nutritional change, similar to Refrigeration required to slow
doses; slight softening of fruits thermal processing enzyme activity
Protein, lipid, carbohydrate unaffected
Amino acids cysteine and tryptophan
reduced; B vitamins increased due to
release of bound vitamin; thiamine
and vitamin C reduced at high doses
found limited success in the marketplace due to (NSRI) has been coordinated by the New York
technical difficulties as well as consumer resis- City Health Department. Several large compa-
tance. Food scientists will need to utilize new nies have joined the initiative including Kraft-
approaches to formulate foods that taste, look, Heinz, Mars Food US, Starbucks, Subway,
and feel the same without these forms of sodium. Unilever, McCain Foods, Hain Celestial, Boar’s
The goal of reducing sodium intake has Head, FreshDirect, Goya, Au Bon Pain,
been politicized. Recently, the New York City LiDestri, Red Gold, Uno Chicago Grill, and
Department of Health and Mental Hygiene White Rose. The initiative seeks to reduce salt
implemented a Sodium Warning Label Rule in packaged and restaurant food by 25% over
that would require food service operations in 5 years, which could reduce Americans’ salt
New York City with more than 15 locations to consumption by 20%.
provide a warning label on menu items that
contain more than 2300 mg of sodium. The
National Restaurant Association has filed suit 6.7.2 Sugar
against the labeling requirement stating that Sugar exists naturally in food, usually in the
the City of New York does not have the form of sucrose, but also as glucose, fructose,
authority to define food labeling. lactose, or maltose, and is added as an ingredi-
Taking a more balanced approach, the vol- ent from cane and beet sugar, maple syrup, corn
untary National Salt Reduction Initiative syrup, or honey. Refined sugar is added to

6.7 NEGATIVE ISSUES IN PROCESSED FOODS 213
breads and baked products, soft drinks, candies, contains 12% 16% sucrose. Processing of the
canned fruit, frozen desserts, and some milk syrup to crystalline sucrose is similar to beet
products. The amount of added sugar can be processing, but juice is extracted from the cane
considerable and contributes to excess calories by pressing and rolling.
and dental caries. Sugar is an important compo- High fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is pro-
nent of food processing for both the flavor and duced by hydrolyzing corn starch to glucose
functional characteristics it provides. Sugar syrup (corn syrup), which is treated with a
enhances the aeration of batters and provides naturally occurring isomerase enzyme that
nutrients for the growth and fermentation of changes about half of the glucose to fructose.
yeasts in breads and lactic fermentation of dairy The name “high fructose” corn syrup is an
products, modifies the structural characteristics accurate term based on the fact that corn syrup
of gluten in baked products, and stabilizes egg is mainly glucose and during the process a
white foams. The type of sugar in a cookie influ- higher amount of fructose is produced. HFCS
ences the texture of the product. Cookies made is made to have the about the same ratio of
with table sugar (sucrose) are crispy while cook- fructose and glucose as table sugar. Fructose is
ies made with brown sugar are soft and chewy. a sweeter monosaccharide than glucose, which
Sugar acts as a preservative by binding water is why sugar is sweeter than starch. Honey
and limiting microbial growth, for example in (48% fructose and 52% glucose) and agave nec-
jams, jellies, candies, cakes, cookies, and frozen tar (75% fructose and 20% glucose) are other
desserts. Removal of sugar affects more than types of sugar syrups that are used in foods.
sweetness and calorie content of a food product As HFCS became available, food manufac-
and reformulation for a successful no-sugar item turers have replaced sucrose with HFCS in soft
requires knowledge of the functions of sugar. drinks and many other foods because it is
There are several types of sugar used in food lower in cost; available in liquid form, making
processing. White table sugar is comprised of it easier to measure and transport; and pro-
the disaccharide sucrose, which contains two vides desirable functional benefits to foods.
monosaccharides (glucose and fructose) in equal HFCS browns more readily, prevents crystalli-
proportion. Sugar beets contain about 20% zation in candies more effectively, and absorbs
sucrose and are grown in northern temperate more moisture in baked products than sucrose.
climates. At harvest, the roots are washed, Since 1966, sucrose consumption has decreased
sliced, and mixed with water to extract the while consumption of HFCS has increased
sugar juice. The juice is mixed with calcium (Fig. 6.8). The total sweetener consumption by
hydroxide and carbon dioxide to separate the Americans has increased 20% over that time-
nonsugar components, filtered, and boiled frame to 130 pounds per capita per year.
under vacuum to evaporate most of the water. HFCS, beet sugar and cane sugar are similar
The resulting syrup is filtered and boiled in a in chemical composition, provide the same calo-
vacuum pan until sugar crystals begin to form. ric value (4 kcal/g), and are metabolized in the
Molasses syrup and crystals are separated by body similarly. During the past few years, the
centrifugation, and the sugar crystals are higher use of HFCS in foods raised concerns
washed, dried, and passed through screens to that HFCS was specifically associated with
separate the sizes of crystals to make granulated increased rates of diabetes, obesity, and other
and powdered sugar. The product, beet sugar, chronic illnesses. Consumers began to demand
is about 99% sucrose. Brown sugar is a mini- that food processors remove HFCS from their
mum of 88% sucrose with 4.5% 6.5% retained products. There is no evidence that HFCS is any
molasses syrup. Sugar cane is a grass that grows different from sugar when consumed as part of
in tropical and warm temperate climates and the diet. Both HFCS and sugar contribute

FIGURE 6.8 In the United States, consumption of caloric sweeteners was 130 pounds per person per year in 2012,
which is about 50 pounds more than in 1966. The use of high fructose corn syrup (corn sweetener or HFCS) increased
after 1970 while the use of refined sugar decreased. Nutritionists recommend reducing the consumption of added sugars
from all sources to prevent weight gain and risk of diabetes. Source: USDA Economic Research Service, www.usda.ers.gov.
calories to food and therefore should be con- contain a high amount of fat. Fat provides a
sumed in moderation. Replacing HFCS in food wide range of features to food. One of the most
products with sugar, honey, or agave nectar important functions of fat is to tenderize baked
does not make the food more healthful or products and limit the amount of structure
nutritious. developed by gluten in pastry, cookies, cakes,
In May 2016 the FDA announced that the and bread. Fat aids aeration of batters and
Nutrition Facts panel on food packages will doughs; contributes to the emulsion structure of
need to include the amount of added sugars mayonnaise, salad dressings, and baked pro-
by July 2018 (Chapter 7: Nutrition and Food ducts; limits crystallization of candies and fro-
Access). This change reflects the Dietary zen desserts; and contributes the foam structure
Guidelines for Americans recommendations to to whipped cream. Fat provides its own flavor
reduce the amount of added sugars consumed. (butter, bacon, olive oil) and also absorbs and
With this information available on food delivers other flavors in foods. Fat-soluble vita-
packages consumers will be more aware of the mins bind to fats and are absorbed more effi-
amounts and types of sugars in foods and ciently from foods when consumed with a
manufacturers will likely develop new formu- source of fat. For this reason, the nutrients in
lations that reduce the amounts of added salads are better absorbed when consumed
sugars in their products. with a fat-containing dressing compared to a
fat-free dressing. Fats and oils are excellent
media for frying and provide the brown color,
6.7.3 Fat crispy texture, and desirable flavors that make
Fat occurs naturally in meats, milk, and French-fried potatoes so popular.
cheese and is added to foods as vegetable oils, Fat is the most calorie-dense of the macronu-
lard, butter, margarine, or shortening. Salad trients, providing 9 kcal/g, so that foods that
dressings, mayonnaise, ice cream, cheese, choc- contain more fat are naturally higher in calories.
olate, and sour cream are food products that As discussed in more detail in Chapter 7,

6.8 GOVERNMENT OVERSIGHT OF PROCESSED FOODS 215
Nutrition and Food Access, fats exist in satu- foods; and provides guidance manuals and
rated or unsaturated forms. Saturated fats are regulatory information for facilities, CGMPs,
solid at room temperature and unsaturated fats and HAACP protocols for food processors, as
are liquid at room temperature. Fats from ani- well as for all retail food and food service
mal sources tend to be higher in saturated fats industries. FDA officials are responsible for
while fats from vegetable sources tend to be recalls and alerts when a food product is mis-
higher in unsaturated fats. Consuming a diet labeled, contaminated, adulterated, or has
containing a high amount of saturated fat has caused an outbreak of a food-borne illness.
been associated with greater risk of cardiovas- FDA scientists conduct studies to assess
cular disease. The Dietary Guidelines have potential exposure and risk of pathogens and
recommended Americans reduce their total contaminants and laboratory research to
intake of fat as a means of reducing calories, determine standards, methods of analysis,
but specifically reduce intake of saturated fats. and good manufacturing safety. Public educa-
Replacing fat in processed foods can and has tion for safe storage, use, and disposal of food
been done fairly effectively. A wide range of during public emergencies and other food
low-fat or fat-free foods are readily available in safety information is provided by the FDA in
stores. Consumers tend to view low-fat foods collaboration with the USDA (Table 6.9).
as less desirable than full-fat products because The Food Safety and Inspection Service
it is a challenge to exactly replicate the mouth- (FSIS) of the USDA ensures that the US supply
feel and creamy taste of fats. of meat, poultry, and egg products is safe,
wholesome, and correctly labeled and pack-
aged, as required by the Federal Meat
6.8 GOVERNMENT OVERSIGHT OF Inspection Act, the Poultry Products Inspection
PROCESSED FOODS Act, and the Egg Products Inspection Act (also
discussed in Chapter 4: Animals in the Food
Since passage of the Pure Food and Drug System). The USDA, in collaboration with the
Act in 1906, ensuring food safety and sanita- FDA, collects information about food consump-
tion have been important roles of the govern- tion patterns and the availability and distribu-
ment. A history of regulations for additives tion of foods. The CDC tracks the occurrence of
and labeling of food products, and for the pre- food-borne illness and provides educational
vention of contamination by pathogens and material to improve food safety within their
toxins, is summarized in Table 6.8. Food safety role as a public health agency. CDC scientists
is a major concern of several government collaborate with state and local health depart-
agencies, specifically the FDA, CDC, and ments, and federal and international agencies,
USDA. These agencies work together to pre- to investigate food-related illnesses, provide
vent and reduce the number of illnesses and testing and detection of the source, and provide
deaths from food-borne causes. The FDA is guidance for mitigation and control.
the primary food safety agency in the United The Food Safety Modernization Act
States and oversees the safety of both foods (FSMA) of 2011 was a significant legislative
produced in the United States and imported policy intended to improve the security and
from other countries by monitoring patho- safety of the US food supply by focusing on
gens, toxins, pesticides, and other contami- prevention of food-borne pathogens through-
nants. The FDA regulates ingredients, out the food system, including agricultural
additives, packaging, allergens, dietary ingre- producers, food and animal transporters, and
dients, dietary supplements, and labeling of food importers.

TABLE 6.8 Impact of Processing on Selected Nutrients in Foods

Nutritional
Chemical name impact of
Nutrient and features Food sources Processing conditions heat
Carbohydrate Sugars, starches, Cereals, beans, fruits, vegetables Starch gelatinized, softens Little change
fibers
Lipid (fat) Fatty acids Meat, dairy, nuts, seeds, fish Oxidation Little impact
Protein Amino acids Meat, dairy, fish, beans, cereals, Denatured by heat; some amino Little change
nuts acids affected by heat, acid,
alkali
Vitamin Aa Carotene, retinol Milkfat, liver, orange fruits, green Unstable in heat, acid, oxygen, Moderate
leafy vegetables UV light loss
Fat soluble
a
Vitamin D 7-Dehydro- Milk, egg yolk Stable in acid; destroyed in heat, Moderate
cholesterol light, oxygen, alkali loss
Fat soluble
Vitamin E Tocopherols Vegetable oils, nuts Stable to acid; light-sensitive Moderate
loss
Fat soluble
a
Vitamin K Fat soluble Green leafy vegetables, eggs Stable to heat and oxygen; labile Minimal loss
to acid, alkali, light
Thiamin Vitamin B-1 Whole and enriched cereals, beans Stable to light and acid; Significant
degraded by heat, alkali, and loss
Water soluble oxygen
Riboflavin Vitamin B-2 Whole and enriched cereals, milk, Stable to acid, oxygen; degraded Significant
eggs, meat, green leafy vegetables by light, alkali, heat loss
Water soluble
Riboflavin Vitamin B-2 Whole and enriched cereals, milk, Stable to acid, oxygen; degraded Significant
eggs, meat, green leafy vegetables by light, alkali, heat loss
Water soluble
Niacin Water soluble Meat, fish, eggs, whole grains Stable Little loss
Vitamin B-6 Pyridoxine Meat, fish, eggs Stable to alkali, acid; degraded Little loss
by light and heat
Water soluble
a
Folacin Folic acid Green leafy vegetables, nuts, beans Sensitive to acid, alkali with Susceptible to
light, oxygen, heat high loss
Water soluble
Vitamin B-12 Cobalamin Meat, fish, dairy Stable to heat, acid, and alkali; Little loss
unstable in light and oxygen
Water soluble
Vitamin C Ascorbic acid Citrus fruits, some fruits and Stable in acid; readily destroyed Susceptible to
vegetables by light, heat, alkali, oxygen high loss
Water soluble
Minerals Calcium,a sodium, Dairy, cereals, meat, fish Stable Little loss
iron,a zinc, iodinea
a
Nutrient likely to be limited to US diets.

TABLE 6.9 Government Regulation of Processed Foods
Legislation Significance
1906 Pure Food and Drug Act Prohibited food adulteration and misbranding
1906 Meat Inspection Act Required federal inspection of slaughterhouses
1907 First Certified Color Regulations Approved seven colors for use in food
1930 McNary-Mapes Amendment Authorized FDA to establish standards of quality and fill-of-
container for canned foods
1938 Food Drug and Cosmetic Act Established standards of quality and procedures for
inspections
1939 Food Standards First food standards for canned tomatoes, pureed and paste
tomatoes
1949 Procedures for the Appraisal of the Toxicity of Provided handbook for guidance of food industry
Chemicals in Food
1954 Miller Pesticide Amendment Required safety limits for pesticides on raw agricultural
commodities
1958 Food Additives Amendment with Delaney proviso Established safety regulations for new food additives
Banned food additives shown to induce cancer in laboratory
animals or humans
1960 Color Additive Amendment Required manufacturers to establish safety of color
additives
1969 White House Conference on Food, Nutrition, and Review of all generally recognized as safe (GRAS)
Health substances
1990 Nutrition Labeling and Education Act (NLEA) Required all packaged foods to bear nutrition labeling
(Nutrition Facts panel) and allowed some health claims
1992 Nutrition Facts panel Ruling to list most important nutrients on Nutrition Facts
panel
1994 Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act Dietary supplements and dietary ingredients regulated as
food
1995 USDA Pathogen Reduction: Hazard Analysis and First major revision of USDA food safety regulations since
Critical Control Point (HAACP) System regulations revision 1906
1996 Food Quality Protection Act Amendment to eliminate Delaney proviso for pesticides
1997 Food and Drug Modernization Act Regulations for health claims established
2000 Rule on dietary supplements Structure/function claims described
2003 Trans fat included on labels First change in Nutrition Facts panel since 1993
2004 Food Allergy and Consumer Protection Act (FACP) Labeling for protein (milk, eggs, fish, crustacean shellfish,
tree nuts, peanuts, wheat, soybeans) allergy required
2011 Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) Established food safety system and authority for
enforcement
(Continued)

TABLE 6.9 (Continued)

Legislation Significance
2014 Proposed updates to Nutrition Facts label Eliminated requirement for calories from fat; changed the
list of vitamins and minerals; increased the prominence of
calorie information; required manufacturers to state the
amount of added sugars; adjusted serving size requirements
according to package size
2015 Proposed updates to Nutrition Facts label Include %DV for added sugars
EXPANSION BOX 6.3
F O O D S A F E T Y M O D E R N I Z AT I O N A C T
FSMA was signed into law by President food processors must have additional preven-
Obama on January 4, 2011. The primary intent of tive controls especially for fruits, vegetables,
the legislation is to ensure that the US food sup- and animal foods. FDA conducts inspections
ply is safe by shifting the focus of federal regula- and food companies are accountable for preven-
tors from responding to cases of microbial tion of contamination, and the FDA has manda-
contamination to prevention. FDA published the tory recall authority for all food products. Food
final rules for Preventive Controls for Human companies usually comply with FDA’s requests
and Animal Food in 2015 with the implementa- for voluntary recalls so FDA expects it will need
tion of these rules in subsequent years. Farms to invoke recalls infrequently, but this new
and businesses have between 1 and 6 years to authority is a critical improvement in the ability
comply, depending on the size of operation and of FDA to protect public health. FDA has addi-
type of food produced. tional authority for inspection of imported foods
FSMA has two main components. Part 1 and can block admission if a foreign country
applies to farms that grow, harvest, pack, or refuses FDA inspection.
hold raw produce (not including produce such FSMA directs FDA to improve training of
as sweet corn and pumpkins, which are not state, local, territorial, and tribal food safety
eaten raw). Safety guidelines for agricultural officials and authorizes grants for training of
water, biological soil amendments, health and personnel and other food safety activities.
hygiene of workers, domesticated and wild ani- Training of food industry personnel via
mals, and equipment, tools, and buildings are approved courses that meet regulations under
defined. The FDA will create standards for safe the Food Safety Preventive Control Alliance
production and harvesting of fruits and vegeta- (Title 21 Code of Federal Regulations Part
bles, once they leave the farm, to further mini- 117.155) are being implemented. FSMA also
mize the risk of food-borne illness. directed the CDC to enhance surveillance and
Part 2 of FSMA describes preventive controls improve identification of the causes of food-
for facilities that manufacture, process, pack, or borne illness and the foods involved. Public
hold human food. Managers of food processing health officials, FDA, and CDC must work
plants are required to evaluate the hazards in together to develop new methods for detection
their operation, implement and monitor effec- and policies for prevention of future outbreaks.
tive measures to prevent contamination, and
define a plan for corrective actions. In addition Suggested reading: U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2016).
to HACCP and critical control points (CCPs),
6.8.1 Regulations Concerning when new methods of analysis became avail-

Foodborne Toxins able and, in 2016, the FDA proposed a limit of
100 ppb for inorganic arsenic in infant rice
Many plants produce natural chemicals that cereal. FDA evaluated a large body of scientific
protect them from insects and diseases. Some information and determined that this level
of these chemicals are also toxic to humans, would reduce the risk of harm from arsenic
such as solanine in potatoes and tomatoes. consumption by infants. They also provided
Solanine can cause gastrointestinal illness, but guidance for rice consumption by pregnant
is rarely fatal. Mushrooms are among the most women and infant caregivers.
toxic foods and fatalities occur fairly regularly
from accidental consumption of poisonous
mushrooms. Overall, the health risk from natu-
rally occurring toxins in foods is very small,
6.8.2 Regulations for Food Labeling
even though some of these compounds are The FDA is responsible for ensuring that
known carcinogens. During processing, toxins foods sold in the United States are properly
can be produced in foods. Examples that have labeled. Labels for meat and meat products are
come to the public attention in recent years authorized by the USDA-FSIS, and the FDA
include nitrosamines in bacon, heterocyclic and FSIS collaborate on egg product labeling.
amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Labels for alcoholic beverages are under the
in grilled beef steaks, and acrylamide in authority of the US Alcohol and Tobacco Tax
French fries. Environmental toxins can also and Trade Bureau. The purpose of labeling on
contaminate foods, including mercury in fish, food packages is to reduce consumer confu-
PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), pesticide sion, help consumers make better food choices,
residues, arsenic and lead, and fungal contami- and encourage food manufacturers to improve
nation such as fumonisin in corn and patulin the nutritional profiles of foods.
on apples. Growth of the mold Aspergillus on A food label must contain specifically
peanuts and grains during wet periods pro- defined information. The Principal Display
duces aflatoxin, a very potent carcinogen. Panel, which is typically the front of the pack-
Aflatoxin can be found in milk when cows are age, must provide the standard of identity or
fed contaminated feed. Fumonisins are carci- common name of the product and the net con-
nogenic mycotoxins produced in corn in nor- tents of the package. The Information Panel,
mal growing environments. Fortunately, these which may be on the back or side, must pro-
contaminants are routinely monitored and vide the ingredient list (in decreasing order by
rarely appear at high enough levels in the US weight), the Nutrition Facts Panel, and the
food system to affect human health. name and address of the manufacturer.
The FDA monitors the levels of natural tox- Including “best if used by” or “sell by” dates
ins in domestic and imported foods, assesses is voluntary. Marketing and advertising
the potential exposure and risk, and issues images and terms are allowed to be included
recalls, market withdrawals, and safety alerts on the label. However, specific terms such as
when necessary. For example, the FDA has low fat, reduced, less, fewer, free, good source (of a
been monitoring arsenic levels in foods for nutrient), and light or lite are defined by the
years, and noted that rice has higher levels of FDA and products must meet certain stan-
inorganic arsenic than other foods due to effi- dards if these terms are used.
cient absorption of arsenic from the soil during Consumer demand for more information
growth. Arsenic testing was expanded in 2011 about how food is processed is driving

manufacturers to use more terms and descrip- Organic seal cannot be used anywhere on the
tors on their packages. package. Processed products that contain less
than 70% organic ingredients cannot use the
. . .Active and vocal consumers are establishing a term organic other than to identify the specific
trend that involves increasing the availability of ingredients that are organically produced in
healthy, all-natural food options with clean labels.
the ingredients list.
Their advocacy and purchasing power influence
how foods are labeled. As a consequence, besides Organic animal production means that the
ensuring that labels for packaged foods contain animals received 100% organic feed, the feed
mandatory nutrition information, food manufac- contained no GMOs and was grown without
turers are adding to food labels supplementary mes- synthetic fertilizers or pesticides, animals had
saging that appeals to consumers.
access to the outdoors and were never confined,
Tarver (2015)
and received no hormones or antibiotics. The
Simple, pure, safe, non-GMO, allergen-free, term “hormone-free” is not allowed in labeling
cage-free, cruelty-free, and made with whole grains because no animals or animal foods are without
are unregulated terms by the FDA but are hormones. The phrase “raised without supple-
marketing terms aimed to attract consumers mental hormones” or “no hormones adminis-
who believe foods with such labels are safer, tered during finishing” can be used and, if
healthier, or minimally processed. these hormone claims are made with poultry
Manufacturers have also responded to con- and pork, the label must include the sentence
sumer demand for additive-free products and “Federal regulations prohibit the use of hor-
there are many new offerings without artificial mones,” because all poultry and pork are pro-
colors, flavors, and preservatives. duced without hormone treatment.
Congress passed the National Organic
Program in 1990, which gave the USDA
authority to set national standards for organi-
cally raised crops and livestock. Farmers must
apply for and meet these standards in order to
be able to use the Organic label on their pro-
ducts. Products labeled “100% organic” must
contain only organically produced ingredients,
and products labeled “organic” must consist of
at least 95% organically produced ingredients.
Products meeting these standards may display
the USDA Organic seal (Fig. 6.9) on their label.
Processed products that contain at least 70%
organic ingredients may use the phrase “made
with organic ingredients” and list up to three
of the organic ingredients or food groups on
the principal display panel. For example, soup
made with at least 70% organic ingredients FIGURE 6.9 The Organic Food Production Act autho-
rized the USDA to create the Organic Standards and certi-
and only organic vegetables may be labeled fication program. The Organic seal is only allowed to be
either “made with organic peas, potatoes, and used on products that contain at least 95% organically pro-
carrots” or “made with organic vegetables.” duced ingredients. Source: USDA Agricultural Marketing
However, for these products, the USDA Service, www.ams.usda.gov.

An “antibiotic-free” claim is not allowed, but “natural flavorings.” Currently, the USDA
labels can include “no antibiotics used,” “raised allows the use of the term “natural” to be used
without antibiotics,” or “livestock have never in meat and poultry labeling on products that
received antibiotics from birth to harvest.” contain no artificial ingredients or added color.
“Free-range” means that poultry raised for meat The product also must be only minimally pro-
was allowed some access to the outdoors but cessed. The label must explain the use of the
the length of time and amount space are not term “natural,” for example, “no added color-
defined. The free-range label cannot be used for ing; minimally processed” and not be mislead-
laying hens. “Pasture-raised” means that ani- ing. Natural does not refer to production
mals received at least 30% dry-fed feed from methods.
pasture over the course of the grazing season. It The term “local” has many definitions, but
is important to note that inspection of facilities no government-regulated standard. Walmart
that use these labeling terms is not mandatory, defines local as “produced within a state” and
so consumers should be aware of the standards Whole Foods defines local as “products that
and practices of companies before assuming travel less than 1 day (#7 hours by car or
products meet these definitions. truck) from farm to store.” The US Congress
Some consumers relate organic with health- defined local as less than 400 miles from origin
ier or safer foods, although there is no scien- or within the state in which it was produced.
tific evidence to support that organic foods are There is increasing interest from consumers in
healthier or safer than conventionally grown knowing where foods are being raised or pro-
foods. With the high consumer interest, the duced and such information is being added to
organic food industry has become a multibil- food packages and store shelves using smart-
lion dollar business and some manufacturers phone technologies and other innovations.
use labeling and buzzwords to entice consu- “Sell by,” “use by,” and “best by” dates are
mers to buy their products. Words such as “all often seen on food labels but, except for infant
natural,” “free-range,” “sustainably har- formula, are not required by federal regula-
vested,” “sustainably raised” or “no drugs or tion. When manufacturers started voluntarily
growth hormones used” may be truthful state- using these dates, consumers become accus-
ments, but there is no government oversight tomed to them and thereby made their use
on the products labeled with terms. This pro- expected. A fact that is often not understood
duces confusion for consumers and makes by consumers is that these date labels are indi-
comparisons with conventional foods very cators of quality, not safety. Manufacturers
challenging. decide what dates are most appropriate for
The term “natural” began being used on their product to remain on the store shelves or
food packages around the time the organic suitable for home consumption. In most cases,
standard was approved. For many years the these dates are shorter than when spoilage
FDA refused to define the term and would would occur, but consumers interpret the
allow manufacturers to use it as long as it was dates as defining when they have become
truthful and not misleading to consumers. unsafe to eat. Current interest in changing this
Recently under increased pressure from manu- system has arisen out of concern that the vol-
facturers and consumers, the FDA has begun a ume of discarded, but still safe to eat, food is
process to consider setting a definition for becoming a major problem. Food marketers
“natural” to be used on food packages. Use of discard a large amount of food that is at or
the term “natural” is not permitted in the near its use by date to avoid consumer com-
ingredient list, with the exception of the phrase plaints, even though the food is safe to

consume. Food waste contributes to green- Americans have increased the proportion of
house gases in landfills, is wasteful of energy food they consume away from home from 18%
used to produce and process the food, and is in 1978 to 33% in 2010. From 2002 through
an overall economic loss. 2012, the share of household food expenditures
spent on “food away from home” increased
from 39% to 43% (Fig. 6.10). December 2014
6.9 CONSUMER ATTITUDES marked the first time that restaurant sales
ABOUT PROCESSED FOODS were higher than sales at grocery stores, which
coincided with low gas prices. Food prepared
Food technology evolved along with indus- away from home tends to be lower in nutrient
trialization of all other aspects of American quality, more expensive, and served in larger
life. New ways to process and preserve food, portions.
and conveniences in packaging and prepara- Every sector of the US economy has been
tion, have allowed people to spend less time industrialized and the food industry is no
preparing meals. During the past 50 years, exception. Processed foods are developed by
family structure, the role of women in the creative and innovative entrepreneurs and
home and workplace, and attitudes about food food scientists, and marketed because they are
have changed and will continue to change. profitable for manufacturers and readily
FIGURE 6.10 US consumers spent 43% of their total household expenditures on food purchased and consumed away
from home in 2012. The trend between 2000 and 2007 was for consumers to spend more money on food away from home.
That trend decreased during the recession years, but rebounded since 2009, indicating that people are doing less food
preparation at home. Source: USDA Economic Research Service, www.usda.ers.gov.

FURTHER READING 223
accepted by consumers. Food processors fol- chemical additives in foods and the very low
low government regulations and use approved risk of food-borne pathogens in processed
ingredients that have been tested for safety. foods. Many respondents were trying to
Yet, negative images of processed foods have replace processed foods with fresh foods
arisen in the popular press and the food sys- because they wanted to avoid foods with
tem is often characterized as broken in large sugars (52%), saturated fats (44%), artificial fla-
part because of the increased reliance on pro- vors (45%), artificial colors (43%), preservatives
cessed foods. Consumers are told to only shop (50%), and HFCS (53%). A shift away from
the perimeter of grocery stores (where the processed foods may come with higher food
fresh food items typically are located) and to prices, more food waste, greater impact on the
avoid the center aisles, which contain pack- environment, and less efficient food produc-
aged foods. There is a lack of clear scientific tion systems. Applying scientific thinking to
thinking with these types of recommendations, define the best approach to food production
which overlook the many positive aspects of that takes advantage of technology to enhance
food processing. the safety, quality, and convenience of foods,
Some argue that safety testing of additives while optimizing healthfulness for consumers,
and food processing technologies by the gov- will be necessary.
ernment has been insufficient. In some part
that is true. There has not been adequate fund-
ing for food science and nutrition research by References
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Braden, C. R., Angulo, F. J., & Griffin, P. M. (2013).

C H A P T E R
7
Nutrition and Food Access
7.1 DISCOVERY OF NUTRIENTS rise in obesity rates in the United States is

IN FOOD indicative of the difficulties consumers have
when making food choices. In contrast, food
At the most fundamental level, food must insecurity continues to be prevalent through-
be consumed to provide the basic nutritional out the United States. These interrelationships
and energy needs for life. Without proper amongst consumers, the food industry, nutri-
nutritional intake, growth and development tion experts, and government regulatory agen-
are inhibited and illness occurs. The explora- cies comprise an important component of the
tion of nutrient requirements established the food system.
discipline of nutritional science, and led to the Humans have been curious about how the
elimination of some common nutrient defi- body uses energy and food elements for
ciency diseases in the United States. Ensuring growth and physical activity since the time of
adequate nutritional intake for military person- Aristotle (384 322 BC). The concept of fire, air,
nel and civilians became an important use of water, and earth as basic components of life
these defined nutrient requirements. But food led to the belief that four humors (substances)
provides much more than nutrients to the explained a person’s health (yellow bile (dry
human experience. The tastes, textures, and heat), blood (wet heat), black bile (dry cold),
aromas of foods entice our senses and provide and phlegm (wet cold)). The Greek physician
pleasurable experiences. The food industry Hippocrates of Cos (460 370 BC) is often cred-
plays a major role in the health of the popula- ited with saying “let food be thy medicine
tion by providing foods that will meet the and medicine be thy food.” As the father of
nutritional needs of consumers and provide Western medicine, Hippocrates recognized the
the enjoyable experiences they demand. important connection between food consump-
Finding ways to help consumers make wise tion and the occurrence or progress of disease.
food choices is a goal for the USDA, FDA, and An understanding of the specific components
CDC. These government agencies mediate of food and their role in human metabolism
between protecting the health of society, and evolved over many centuries and led to
the production, marketing, and accessibility of the establishment of the scientific discipline
foods. Balancing the intake of foods that are of nutrition. Today we know that food con-
pleasurable with those that provide the right tains macronutrients (proteins, carbohydrates,
amounts of nutrients is a daily challenge. The and fats) that provide energy and functional

228 7. NUTRITION AND FOOD ACCESS
components for hormones and enzymes, and recommended for the average healthy adult
micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) that today is 0.8 g/kg body weight, or about 56 g
are essential for metabolic functions. for a man and 46 for a woman, so the lower
The advent of the “chemical revolution” in protein level was proven to be correct.
France during the 1800s opened a new era in
discovery of the nature of human physiology.
Antoine Lavoisier, a French chemist, was
among those first credited with exploration of
7.1.1 Nutrient Composition of Foods
human respiration and combustion of foods. The study of nutrient composition of foods
Lavoisier found that the amount of carbon in the United States began in the mid-1800s
dioxide in the breath of humans correlated with S.W. Johnson who had studied under
with physical activity and he created the first Liebig and became the first professor of bio-
calorimeter, a device to measure the amount of chemistry at Yale University. Johnson’s stu-
heat produced by an animal. Unfortunately, dent, Wilbur O. Atwater, received the first
Lavoisier was arrested as an enemy of the appropriation from Congress to conduct
Republic and guillotined during the Reign of research in human nutrition. Atwater eventu-
Terror in 1794 before he could complete his ally led the Agricultural Experiment Stations
research. Jean Baptiste Boussingault continued within the USDA and was intrigued with the
Lavoisier’s line of research and conducted the concept of the energy value of foods. One of
first balance (intake and output) studies. He Atwater’s accomplishments was the construc-
tracked the amount of carbon (an element in tion of a respiration calorimeter similar to that
carbohydrates and organic compounds) in cow developed in Germany. His work led to the
feed (intake) and urine, feces, and milk (out- understanding that dietary fats and carbohy-
put). The results showed that carbon intake drates, not only proteins, could be used for
balanced carbon output in healthy animals, mechanical work by the body. The Atwater
but input was greater than output in growing factors of 4 kcal/g of protein or carbohydrate,
animals (because carbon was retained to build 7 kcal/g of alcohol, and 9 kcal/g of fat are still
tissues). This led French chemists to determine used today to estimate the amount of energy
the function of carbon and nitrogen in the generated from foods. In 1896, Atwater created
human body. German scientists, including the first proximate analysis database (nitrogen,
Justus von Liebig, Carl Vogt, and Max Rubner fiber, ash, ether extract, moisture, and carbohy-
developed analytic methods for measuring drates) of foods to teach poor people how to
organic materials and constructed a calorime- obtain their protein requirements at the lowest
ter large enough to hold a person. With these cost. The USDA publication from his work
tools, they established the concepts of meta- was the first to define food within five catego-
bolic conversion of foods to produce body ries of macronutrients: protein, carbohydrate,
tissues and the understanding that macronutri- fat, energy, and water.
ents in food generated specific amounts of By 1950, the USDA had compiled a substan-
body heat. A focus of work during this period tial database on the composition of foods and
was placed on defining the amount of protein produced Agricultural Handbook No. 8,
needed to maintain growth and physical Composition of Foods—Raw, Processed, Prepared.
strength, as protein foods were considered to This document listed the proximate analysis
be of greatest importance. There was much (protein, carbohydrate, fat, and water), five
debate about the amount of protein needed vitamins (vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, nia-
for health and productive work, with ranges cin, and vitamin C), and three minerals (cal-
of 40 125 g/day. The amount of protein cium, phosphorus, iron) of 750 foods. In 1963,

7.1 DISCOVERY OF NUTRIENTS IN FOOD 229
a revision of Handbook No. 8 with added data synthesized (nonessential). Protein foods that
for cholesterol, fatty acids, sodium, potassium, have a balance of essential amino acids in
and magnesium, was published. Analytical amounts that meet human requirements are
methods to measure nutrients in foods contin- called “high-quality” proteins and come from
ued to be developed during this time, and the meats, eggs, milk, and soybeans. Low-quality
demand for information about food composi- protein foods lack one or more essential amino
tion was high as the role of food in health and acids. Most plants, including wheat, rice, nuts,
disease was being recognized. An electronic and beans, are considered low-quality protein
version of Handbook No. 8, now called the foods when consumed alone, but do meet the
National Nutrient Database for Standard human amino acid requirements when con-
Reference (NNDSR), was released by the sumed together in “complementary pairs.”
USDA in 1980. The need for more data, espe- Examples of foods with complementary proteins
cially for quantification of the wide range of are beans and rice or peanut butter on wheat
bioactive compounds of foods, continued to bread. When the diet is lacking in even one
grow through the 1990s. Bioactive compounds essential amino acid over time, growth is
are naturally occurring chemicals in foods that impaired. Proteins from skeletal muscle and
may have health benefits, but are not consid- heart are broken down to provide the missing
ered essential nutrients. These bioactive com- amino acid. For this reason, vegetarians should
pounds include antioxidants found in plants be well versed in the amino acid composition of
such as the flavonoid family of anthocyani- foods to ensure their requirements are met.
dins, isoflavones, and catechins. In 1997, the To understand how the human body uses
USDA created the National Nutrient and Food energy from food it was necessary to measure
Analysis Program to address the complexity of heat production. The respiration calorimeter,
food composition and to coordinate and such as the one constructed by Atwater, was
ensure the accuracy of data being collected used in early nutritional research in Europe
from government labs, the food industry, and and by Atwater in the United States to under-
academic research. The USDA Nutrient Data stand caloric needs. From studies of the energy
Laboratory is responsible for overseeing the production during activity it was learned that
publicly available food composition database humans produce energy from carbohydrates,
for the United States, which is freely accessible fats, and proteins in the same amounts as
through their website: www.ndb.nal.usda.gov. when these components were combusted out-
side of the body. Physical activity, or work,
could be quantitatively matched with energy
production. Because foods contain mixtures of
7.1.2 Discovery of Essential Nutrients fats, proteins, and carbohydrates, and all of
By the early 1900s, it was recognized that pro- these may be used for energy, defining specific
teins were comprised of amino acids, and needs or requirements for these nutrients was
groundbreaking work by the team of Thomas B. complicated. Hamish Munro, a Scottish nutri-
Osborne and Lafayette B. Mendel led to the rec- tion scientist, found in the 1940s that replacing
ognition that dietary sources of proteins differed carbohydrates with fat in the diet resulted in
in their ability to support growth. W.C. Rose adequate energy, but net nitrogen loss from
and others established the concept of essential the body. This eventually led to the under-
amino acids and defined the exact requirements standing that humans require a small amount
for amino acids in 1937. Today, we know that of dietary carbohydrate (about 130 g/day)
humans require certain amino acids to be sup- to maintain blood glucose levels. Glucose is
plied in the diet (essential), while others can be essential for the functions of the brain and

central nervous system and blood glucose support to the theory that the human organism
levels must be maintained within a very nar- is unable to synthesize the unsaturated fatty
row range to ensure these needs are met. If acids which have been found to be essential for
there is no dietary source of carbohydrate, pro- some animals” (Hansen & Burr, 1932). It wasn’t
teins can be utilized to make glucose (the car- until the 1960s when infant formulas became
bon structure of amino acids is used to make popular and large groups of infants were fed
glucose and the nitrogen is removed and formulas with different amounts and sources
excreted). The proteins come from body tis- of fat that the important role of linoleic acid
sues, mainly muscle. This explains why Munro became evident for humans. Additional work
found negative nitrogen balance in his subjects was required to understand that humans can
fed a diet without carbohydrates. When carbo- synthesize most fatty acids, but must have a
hydrates are restricted for a prolonged period dietary source of either linoleic acid (C18:2 w6)
of time, the body will utilize breakdown pro- or arachidonic acid (C20:4 w6) and that linoleic
ducts of fatty acids (ketones) as an energy acid (C18:2 w3) and eicosapentaenoic acid
source for the central nervous system, but will (C20:4 w3) are also essential for humans.
continue to utilize protein to generate the min- The role of the different types of dietary
imum glucose requirement. Humans are not lipids (saturated, unsaturated, and cholesterol)
able to convert fatty acids to glucose. Dietary and classes (omega-6 and omega-3) in human
forms of carbohydrates are either simple health has been a major focus of nutrition
(monosaccharides such as glucose, or disac- research for the past 60 years. The relationship
charides such as sucrose (glucose 1 fructose)) of dietary fat to disease began in earnest in the
or complex (polysaccharides such as starch 1950s and was brought to the public’s atten-
(chain of glucose)). Humans cannot store car- tion by the National Diet-Heart Study that
bohydrates, other than for a short while in the was published in 1963 (Baker et al., 1963).
form of liver and muscle glycogen, so a daily Ancel Keys was one of the scientists that
intake of carbohydrate is needed to prevent worked on the study, and he had been report-
muscle tissue breakdown. Consumed carbohy- ing that heart disease rates in different coun-
drates that are not needed for immediate use tries correlated with the amount and type of
or to replenish glycogen stores are converted fat that was consumed by that population.
to fat and stored in the body. From data collected from seven countries,
The most challenging macronutrient require- Keys et al. (1986) found populations that con-
ments to be defined were the essential fatty sumed more saturated fat and cholesterol had
acids. George and Mildred Burr, working in higher rates of cardiovascular death compared
the 1930s at the University of Minnesota, found to populations that consumed lower fat diets.
that rats fed diets without fat failed to grow Based on these connections between dietary
and developed scaly tails. The scientists could fat and cholesterol, and risk of cardiovascular
reverse these symptoms by adding only one disease nutritionists encouraged people to
polyunsaturated fatty acid, linoleic acid, to the limit fat and cholesterol intake. This eventu-
animals’ diet. But it was not clear at that time if ally led to the fat-free craze of the 1970s,
humans also required this fatty acid. Infants which may have initiated the obesity epidemic
fed very low-fat diets did develop skin pro- in the United States. Consumers avoided fat
blems, but a clear deficiency disease did not but failed to recognize that calories from car-
develop. George Burr and his collaborator, bohydrates would be converted to body fat
Arild Hansen, concluded in a paper published when consumed in excess of energy needs.
1932 that “[t]his finding, however, together Debate continues today as to the ideal
with various serum lipid studies, gives strong amount, type, and balance of lipids in the diet.

7.1.3 Nutrient Deficiency Diseases deficiency of a vital amine (derived from pro-
teins). This hypothesis turned out to be incor-
Diseases that are now known to be due to rect but the term vitamin was retained. In 1916,
nutrient deficiencies were common throughout research by Elmer V. McCollum and Marguerite
history. Table 7.1 lists diseases that were Davis at the University of Wisconsin led to
widely present from the 1800s to the 1930s, the finding of fat-soluble (Factor A) and water-
usually developing as outbreaks in popula- soluble (Factor B) compounds required for
tions experiencing some type of dietary restric- proper growth and development. To save
tion. Early nutrition scientists used a wide research time and costs, McCollum and Davis
range of experimental approaches to under- developed protocols using rats as experimental
stand dietary factors, including careful docu- models for dietary research, which opened a
mentation of food consumption and disease new era in nutrient discovery. Selected factors
incidence. With limited technology and crude could be removed from the diet of rats until
experimental protocols, researchers struggled symptoms developed and then systematically
to discern if the illnesses were caused by infec- returned to the diet to identify the active com-
tious agents or by toxins present in foods. As pound. By the end of the 1940s, the fat-soluble
the macronutrients became better understood vitamins (A, E, D, and K) and water-soluble
and purified diets could be used in animal vitamins (niacin, riboflavin, thiamine, pantothe-
models, it became clear that factors other than nic acid, folic acid, vitamin B6, vitamin B12, and
protein, carbohydrate, and fat were necessary vitamin C) had been isolated and their functions
to maintain health. The classification and in human biochemistry began to be understood.
characterization of these accessory factors in Simultaneously, researchers were discovering
foods began in 1912 with Casimir Funk, who that selected minerals, such as iron, copper,
investigated the cause of beriberi and coined zinc, iodine and calcium, sodium, phosphorus,
the term “vitamines.” Funk believed beriberi, and magnesium were also necessary for animal
pellagra, scurvy, and rickets were caused by a and human health.
TABLE 7.1 Diet-Related Diseases Common in the 1800s
Dietary component
Disease Symptoms Afflicted population (nutrient)
Scurvy Bleeding from mucous membranes, Sailors, prisoners, potato Citrus juice (vitamin C)
weakness, death famine
Beriberi Weakness, loss of feeling in legs, heart Japanese navy and soldiers, Brown rice polishings
failure prisoners (thiamine)
Night Loss of vision in low light, corneal ulcers, Sailors, children in orphanages Cod-liver oil (vitamin A)
blindness blindness
Goiter Enlarged thyroid gland People from the upper Seaweed ash (iodine)
midwest US
Rickets Weak bones Children in industrialized Sunlight, cod-liver oil
cities (vitamin D)
Pellagra Diarrhea, dermatitis, and dementia Poor people in southern US Meat or dairy foods (niacin)
From Carpenter, K. J. (2003). A short history of nutritional science: Part 1 (1912 1944). Journal of Nutrition, 133, 3023 3032 (Carpenter, 2003).

EXPANSION BOX 7.1
ANIMALS IN NUTRITION RESEARCH

A significant amount of the research that has reproductive systems. These similarities allow a
been done to understand the role of nutrients general correlation and suggest what occurs in
in humans has actually been conducted using the rodent is likely to also occur in humans.
rodents. It may be curious to think that we can There are some striking differences between
learn anything about human health by studying rodents and humans, however. Rodents have
rats and mice. There are several reasons why much shorter lifespans than humans, which is a
rodents have been so widely used in nutrition positive feature for experimental research, but
research. Humans are, of course, the ideal is a major difference in length of exposure to
model in which to study nutrition, but there nutrients and or environmental factors. Rats are
are many reasons why human research is either capable of synthesizing vitamin C, whereas
impossible or impractical. In nutrition research humans are not. Guinea pigs are used in vita-
human subjects are used when the outcome can min C research because they are unable to
be assessed using a biomarker (an indicator of make the vitamin. Rats metabolize lipids some-
change that can be measured such as hemoglo- what differently than humans and do not
bin to detect anemia) obtained from blood, develop lipid-related diseases in the same man-
sweat, urine, saliva, or feces. Nutrition studies ner. By using rodent models, hypotheses can be
can be conducted when growth, development, tested and mechanisms of action identified,
or bodily functions such as blood pressure, which then can be verified in human studies.
brain responses, muscle activity, digestion, or Such exploratory work could not be done in
respiration are the outcome. Studies that humans. A major area of research in human
require tissue samples or cells can be conducted nutrition currently is to understand the role of
in humans by obtaining biopsies, or collecting microorganisms in the intestinal tract. Rodent
samples during surgery that is being done for a models are useful in these studies, for example,
medically approved reason. Conducting nutri- by treating the animals with antibiotics to kill
tion research on humans has many limitations, all their gut microbes and then selectively add-
some of which are ethical but mostly are due to ing them back, or by feeding very specific diets
the constraints of controlling and manipulating over the lifespan of the rodents to examine
diets and lives of people over long periods of changes in the microorganism population. Such
time. experiments would not be possible in humans.
Rats and mice are the most commonly used The ability to manipulate the genome of
models to test and explore the ways nutrients rodents to develop specific genetic models has
function at the organ, cellular, and molecular been an important component of nutrition
level. There are many similarities between research for the past three decades. By insert-
rodents and humans. Both species are mam- ing, silencing, or overexpressing specific genes,
mals, which means they incubate their young these animal models are useful as models of
in utero and provide milk from mammary human diseases including cancer, cardiovascu-
glands. The internal organs and physiology of lar disease (CVD), autoimmune conditions, and
rats and mice are very similar to those of genetic illnesses. By replicating the cellular
humans, including the circulatory, respiratory, events that are associated with human diseases,
digestive, endocrine, skeletal muscular, and the role of nutrients to prevent or mitigate these

diseases is possible. Conducting such studies approval all protocols before they are implemen-
using humans would be limited by the wide ted, inspect all research areas where animals are
range of disease expression in people, and the being used, and report any violations. IACUC
inability to measure responses or collect tissues. standards are strictly enforced and violations are
Since 1966 when the Animal Welfare Act was not tolerated. Treating research animals with
passed, all animals used in research must be care and respect is expected of all scientists. The
handled and treated humanely. The law requires use of animals in research has been essential for
that an Institutional Animal Care and Use providing the understanding of how nutrients
Committee (IACUC) be in place at any location function in humans.
where animals are being used. The IACUC must
include researchers, veterinarians, and members Suggested reading: USDA Animal Welfare Act: https://www.
nal.usda.gov/awic/animal-welfare-act
of the public. IACUC members review and
7.1.4 Promoting Food for Health Other popular leaders of health foods of the
time were Will Keith Kellogg and his brother
As scientists were discovering the biochemi- Dr. John Harvey Kellogg, who ran a sanitarium
cal role of nutrients in foods in the United in Battle Creek, Michigan in the 1800s. The
States, public interest in food and health was Kellogg brothers held the theory that the ill-
also evolving. Just as Hippocrates had con- nesses they observed among patients in the san-
nected food with health, Americans were also itarium were largely caused by bad intestinal
searching for ways to improve their health flora. They experimented with putting patients
through food. In the early 1830s, Reverend on strict diets containing vegetables and nuts,
Sylvester Graham, a Presbyterian minister and developed a process to make flakes from
from New Jersey, advocated for vegetarianism wheat and corn, resulting in a light breakfast
as a means to achieve purity of life. He recom- cereal. With the concurrent introduction of pas-
mended a diet of fruit, vegetables, and whole teurized milk, the American breakfast cereal
wheat, with no meat or spices and only market took off. “Corn Flakes” launched the
sparing use of milk, egg, cheese, and butter. Kellogg Company in 1906, followed by “Bran
To encourage his followers, he created Dr. Flakes” and “All Bran” cereals in 1915 and 1916.
Graham’s Honey Biskets, made with a special The Kellogg brothers were ahead of their time
type of whole wheat flour (now called graham as scientists are just now starting to understand
flour). These graham crackers were a market the connections between the gut microflora and
success and, by 1900, the several bakeries that health.
were producing them joined together to form Candle maker William Procter and soap
the National Biscuit Company, which eventu- maker James Gamble in Cincinnati, Ohio,
ally became Nabisco. “Honey Grahams” along combined their trades to forge the Procter
with the popular “Teddy Grahams” continue and Gamble Company (now P&G) in 1837.
to be sold by Nabisco (part of Mondelez Both candles and soap were derived from the
International) today, although the recipe has animal processing industry, so adding cook-
been modified over the years. ing lard (beef or pork fat) to their product

line was a natural extension. In 1911, P&G Slight variations of these guides, including
introduced a new product called Crisco, food purchasing plans, were widely used by
which was the first all-vegetable solid fat the public. When the United States entered the
product made using the newly developed Great Depression in 1930, the USDA food
process of hydrogenation. By adding hydro- guides focused on economic food plans and
gen atoms to liquid vegetable oils, the fats recommended ways to meet nutritional needs at
became more solid at room temperature. different cost levels. The USDA has continually
P&G promoted Crisco as more digestible provided such recommendations (today called
and economical than lard and touted the the Thrifty Food Plan) to provide consumers with
cleanliness and purity of the product (it was guidance for meeting their nutritional needs
pure white) to homemakers. The company within their budget allowances.
hired home economists to lead Crisco cook- As nutrition research was uncovering that
ing schools across the country and eventually foods contained specific components neces-
on television to demonstrate how to use sary for growth, physical activity, and mainte-
the product. This new model of marketing nance of health, quantification of the amounts
food by demonstration (“home demonstration of these nutrients became possible. The first
agents” in the Cooperative Extension Service attempt to define nutrient requirements
were also effective educators for new innova- occurred in 1941 following the National
tions) was highly successful. The hydrogena- Nutrition Conference for Defense called by
tion process used to make Crisco shortening President Franklin Roosevelt. The demands of
and other solid vegetable fats, as will be providing food for the military during WWII,
discussed later, creates the unnatural trans combined with a loss of imports, strained the
form of unsaturated fatty acids, which have food supply. Rationing of some foods was
been linked to an increased risk of heart necessary and concerns about maintaining the
disease. health of the population became an issue of
national security. Three major goals were out-
lined by Vice President Henry Wallace during
7.2 DEFINING NUTRIENT the Conference: (1) eliminate deaths caused
REQUIREMENTS by dietary deficiencies; (2) reduce diseases
FOR THE POPULATION due to insufficient food; and (3) make sure
everyone in the United States had an ade-
One of the earliest roles assumed by the quate diet. The first Recommended Dietary
USDA was to provide dietary guidance to the Allowances (RDA) (developed over the previ-
American people. Based on the work of ous year by the Food and Nutrition Board of
Atwater, a Farmers’ Bulletin was published in the National Academy of Sciences) was
1894 that suggested the amounts of protein, released at the Conference. This first publica-
carbohydrate, fat, and mineral ash (vitamins tion of the RDA included recommendations
and minerals had not yet been discovered) for for calories and nine nutrients: protein, iron,
healthy men. In 1916, the first USDA food calcium, vitamins A and D, thiamine, ribofla-
guide, Food for Young Children, was developed vin, niacin, and vitamin C. Recommendations
by Caroline Hunt. By this time, foods were cat- were provided for different age groups,
egorized into five groups: milk and meat, cer- both genders, and pregnant and lactating
eals, vegetables and fruits, fats and fatty foods, women. The RDA was revised periodically
and sugars and sugary foods. The following and the number of nutrients included in the
year, Hunt and Atwater developed How to recommendations increased to 25 by 1989
Select Foods, a guide for the general public. when the 10th edition was completed.

7.2 DEFINING NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS FOR THE POPULATION 235
TABLE 7.2 Components of the Dietary Reference Intakes
Abbreviation Category Definition
EAR Estimated Average Average daily nutrient intake level estimated to meet the requirements of
Requirement 50% of healthy individuals within an age and gender group.
RDA Recommended Dietary Average daily dietary nutrient intake level sufficient to meet the nutrient
Allowance requirements of nearly all (97.5%) healthy individuals within an age and
gender group; set at 2 SD above the mean requirement (EAR).
AI Adequate Intake Average daily intake level by a group of apparently healthy people that is
assumed to be adequate; provided when an EAR and RDA cannot be
determined.
UL Upper Limit Highest average daily nutrient intake level likely to pose no risk of adverse
health effects to almost all individuals in the general population.
EER Estimated Energy Average energy intake predicted to maintain energy balance in a healthy
Requirement individual at a specific level of energy expenditure.
AMDR Adequate Macronutrient Range of intake of protein, fat, and carbohydrate that is associated with a
Distribution Range reduced risk of chronic disease, yet can provide adequate amounts of
essential nutrients.
From Murphy, S. P., Yates, A. A., Atkinson, S. A., Barr, S. I., & Dwyer, J. (2016). History of nutrition: The long road leading to the dietary reference
intakes for the United States and Canada. Advances in Nutrition, 7, 157 168 (Murphy, Yates, Atkinson, Barr, & Dwyer, 2016).
Defining nutrient requirements for the gen- Around the time that the 10th RDA was
eral population is a significant undertaking. completed, nutrition researchers were recog-
Responsibility for the RDA was assumed by nizing that the concept of the RDA, which was
the Food and Nutrition Board within the a single value of the defined amount of each
Institute of Medicine of the National nutrient required by a specific age, gender, or
Academies of Science. The process involves pregnancy/lactation, was not sufficient for the
convening a panel of experts, including scien- wide range of uses for nutrient requirement
tists and healthcare professionals, who review information. A new concept was proposed by
the body of evidence related to each nutrient. the Food and Nutrition Board, the Dietary
The panel must determine the quality and Reference Intakes (DRI). The development of
accuracy of each study, and interpret the the DRIs began in 1994 and was a joint collabo-
results. They take into consideration all of the ration between the United States and Canada.
variables within the studies, and draw a con- It took about 10 years for all of the nutrients
sensus from the evidence available at that time to be sufficiently reviewed and documented
for the appropriate requirement for each nutri- in the DRI framework. The RDA was replaced
ent for each age and gender category. This is a with the DRI, which is a group of values
challenge for the panel members, who volun- designed for specific uses, as shown in
teer their time for the work. Having a clear Table 7.2.
standard of nutrient intakes is of great value The DRIs have been effective in providing a
for many reasons including guidance for framework for dietary guidelines and recom-
school, military, or other congregate feeding mendations, monitoring the quality of dietary
programs; food fortification or enrichment; and intake in the population, advising standards
clinical assessment of adequate nutrient intake. for school feeding programs and the military,

FIGURE 7.1 Nutrient requirements are

defined for the population using the
Estimated Adequate Requirement (EAR),
Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA),
and Upper Limit (UL) values, which indi-
cate amounts needed to prevent deficiency
or toxicity. The RDA is defined to meet the
nutrient needs of 98% of the population and
the EAR to meet the needs for 50% of the
population. The UL is set at a level that
would prevent any consumer from toxicity.
Source: Illustration by Reannon Overbey.
and for nutrition labeling of foods. The DRIs 70% of children were afflicted with the condi-
provide a means to describe the potential for tion. During WWI, a Michigan physician noted
inadequate or toxic levels of a nutrient for the that many local young men were being disqua-
population. A graphic illustration of three of lified from military enlistment because of goiter.
the DRI values is shown in Fig. 7.1. Links between iodine and goiter had been made
by Jean Baptiste Boussingault in France in the
1800s. In 1917 David Marine, an Ohio physician,
experimented with giving iodine to schoolgirls,
7.2.1 Nutrient Deficiency
which reduced the incidence of goiter in the
and Public Health children. Over the next few years, research con-
Hunger and malnutrition were fairly com- firmed that iodine supplementation prevented
mon conditions during the settling of the goiter. This led the Michigan State Medical
United States. From 1800 to 1900, the average Society to launch the first food fortification cam-
life expectancy of white men was less than 50 paign to address a public health problem. Salt
years of age. The main causes of death were was identified as the best vehicle to widely
influenza, pneumonia, heart disease, and diar- administer iodine to the public because every-
rhea. Poor sanitation and a lack of antibiotics one used salt. Although the salt industry balked
and vaccines were the primary reasons these at first, stating that they were not in the busi-
diseases were so common. While not recog- ness of pharmaceuticals, the public health cam-
nized until much later, poor nutritional status paign soon overcame their resistance. The first
exacerbates the risk for, and also likely contrib- iodized salt was available in grocery stores in
uted to, the high incidence of infectious dis- 1924. No federal legislation was ever passed
eases. Nutritional deficiencies including goiter, requiring salt to be iodized, and the only cur-
rickets, pellagra, and anemia were widespread rent ruling is that any salt sold in the United
public health concerns as well, although the States must be labeled as “supplying” or “not
link to dietary components was not yet known. supplying” “iodide, a necessary nutrient.”
Goiter is characterized by enlargement of the The bone deformation condition known as
thyroid gland (thyromegaly), which results in a rickets was likely rare in early civilizations that
swelling around the neck. Before 1920, regions arose in regions with abundant sunlight. When
of the United States including the Great Lakes, industrialization began, people moved from
Appalachian Mountains, and Northwest were farms to crowded cities with high levels of air
known as the “goiter belt” because as many as pollution and children went to work in factories,

and the incidence of rickets increased. Children Pellagra was eventually found to be caused by
with rickets are characterized by small size, inadequate intake of niacin (a B vitamin). From
head and chest deformations, and bowed legs the 1930s, bakers had begun voluntarily adding
associated with weakened bone structure. Cod yeast mixtures (rich in B vitamins) to bread in
liver oil was effective in preventing rickets, as response to appeals from nutrition profes-
was exposure to sunlight. It was also found that sionals to improve vitamin intake of the public.
feeding children irradiated milk (ultraviolet The American Medical Association (AMA) had
light converts sterols to vitamin D) stimulated also raised the idea of enriching wheat flour
bone health and scientists at the University of with B vitamins and iron because Americans
Wisconsin developed an industrial-size milk were increasingly consuming refined flour.
irradiator to provide this product (although it Eliminating the bran and germ fractions from
was never widely used). Eventually, the fat- wheat during the refining process removes the
soluble vitamin D was identified as a key com- majority of the vitamins and minerals.
ponent of the condition, and since 1932, milk Standardized flour enrichment did not occur
has been fortified with vitamin D to prevent until 1943 when the War Foods Administration
rickets in children. Vitamin D facilitates the issued War Food Order No. 1 making enriched
absorption of calcium from foods in the intes- bread required by law, and the Institute of
tine, so an adequate source of both calcium and Medicine (IOM) adopted a resolution encourag-
vitamin D are needed to prevent rickets, thereby ing the enrichment of flour and bread with B
making milk the ideal source for fortification. vitamins. Today the FDA sets the standards for
As with iodized salt, the movement to add vita- flour enrichment to contain defined amounts of
min D to milk came from the medical commu- niacin, thiamine, riboflavin, folic acid, and iron.
nity, not the government. The dairy industry These examples of enrichment and fortifica-
embraced the process as a means of connecting tion of foods to prevent public health problems
with mothers and physicians to promote the established the association between food and
health benefits of their product. disease mitigation in the minds of Americans.
Pellagra is characterized by diarrhea, derma- Many more foods, in addition to salt, milk, and
titis, dementia, and death (known as the 4 Ds). wheat flour, are fortified with nutrients. These
The incidence of pellagra increased rapidly include breakfast cereals (vitamins and miner-
across the United States between 1907 and 1940, als), pastas (vitamins and minerals), rice (vita-
and because it was considered an infectious dis- mins and minerals), breads (vitamins and
ease, was raising public concern. To understand minerals), and orange juice (vitamin D and cal-
and curtail the outbreak, the US Public Health cium). Food manufacturers see market benefit of
Service sent Dr. Joseph Goldberger to making their products “healthier” by adding
Mississippi to investigate the problem. From his nutrients, and consumers logically assume more
observations, Dr. Goldberger proposed that pel- nutrients make the product better. The FDA pro-
lagra was not caused by an infectious agent, vides guidance to the food industry as to which
but rather was related to poverty and a poor nutrients may be added to foods under the
diet. He conducted experiments, including FDA Fortification Policy. The policy specifies
exposing himself and his assistants to affected that essential nutrients, associated with a public
patients, and showed that the illness was not health concern, may be used for enrichment
transmitted through personal contact or body or fortification. The FDA sets guidelines for
fluids. He observed that families with diets the concentration of added nutrients per caloric
lacking protein foods, such as milk and meat, intake in attempt to ensure overall intake of
were more likely to develop the illness and it each nutrient will be within the safe and effec-
could be prevented by providing these foods. tive range for the majority of consumers.

In recent years, nutrients and other com- and Drug Administration (FDA) (for nutrition
pounds, including caffeine and botanical labeling).
extracts, have been added to energy drinks and Policy makers involved in nutrition programs
shots (such as 5-hour ENERGY), which are espe- include those in county government, city gov-
cially popular among youth. The FDA does ernment, school districts, school boards, and
not define or regulate the levels of nonessential corporate managers. The legislative process fol-
compounds added to supplemented foods and lows discussions and revisions of the policy
beverages. Some nutritionists and health profes- agenda, as well as policy formulation, adoption,
sionals have raised concern that the widespread implementation, evaluation, and termination.
addition of nutrients, even those that are FDA The process involved in federal legislative
regulated, to so many foods may potentially cre- actions starts when a bill is developed and intro-
ate intakes that exceed the DRI upper limits for duced, then referred to a committee (Senate or
safety. The risk of excessive nutrient intakes House) for hearings and modifications. The
would be exacerbated by the use of vitamin and committee will take action (vote in favor or
other dietary supplements in combination with against), refer the bill to a conference committee,
consumption of enriched, fortified, or supple- then for a floor vote. When the bill has been
mented foods. As shown in Fig. 7.1, toxicity can approved by both chambers (House and Senate)
occur at doses of nutrients above a defined it is forwarded to the president for approval
threshold. There is increasing awareness that or rejection. A bill that makes it through to
high intakes of both essential nutrients and presidential action becomes a law. The law is
supplemented compounds (e.g., caffeine) may assigned to a federal program for administra-
become a problem for some segments of the tion, where policy is defined and published in
population, particularly children. the Federal Register (www.federalregister.gov).
Within the USDA, there are seven underse-
cretaries. Three secretaries oversee nutrition
7.2.2 Public Policy and Nutrition programs: Food Nutrition and Consumer
Programs Services (FNCS); Research, Education, and
Economics (REE); and Food Safety. Under the
A policy is “a course of action or principle
Food and Nutrition Service are 15 federal
adopted or proposed by a government, party,
nutrition assistance programs:
business, or individual.” There are two compo-
nents of policies: (1) statement or goal of what is • National School Lunch Program (NSLP)
to be accomplished and; (2) set of practical rules, • Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program
guidelines, or regulations to accomplish the goal (SNAP)
or program. The tenets of US nutrition policy are • Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for
to provide adequate food at affordable cost; Women, Infants & Children (WIC)
ensure quality, safety, and wholesomeness of the • School Breakfast Program (SBP)
food supply; ensure food access to people in • Child and Adult Care Food Program
need; provide information and education to sup- (CACFP)
port informed food choices; support science/ • Commodity Supplemental Food Program
research base in food and nutrition; and integrate (CSFP)
nutrition into preventative and medical care. • Food Assistance for Disaster Relief (FADR)
The primary federal agencies involved in • Food Distribution Program on Indian
administering nutrition policy include the USDA Reservations (FDPIR)
Food and Nutrition Service, Centers for Disease • Farmers’ Market Nutrition Program (FMNP)
Control and Prevention (CDC), and the Food • Nutrition Assistance Block Grants (NABG)

• Senior Farmers’ Market Nutrition Program The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) of
(SFMNP) 1933 introduced programs that gave the USDA
• Summer Food Service Program (SFSP) the authority to purchase excess commodities
• Special Milk Program (SMP) from farmers and distribute the food to people
• The Emergency Food Assistance Program in need (Chapter 2: History of US Agriculture
(TEFAP) and Food Production). The legacy of this effort
continues in the federal food assistance pro-
Funding for three of these programs consti-
grams in effect today. A timeline of food assis-
tute the majority of money allocated for the
tance programs that have been implemented
Farm Bill: SNAP (Supplemental Nutrition
are listed in Table 7.3.
Assistance Program) to improve diets of low
income people, WIC (Supplemental Nutrition 7.2.3.1 The Food Stamp Program
Program for Women, Infants, and Children),
The Food Stamp Program, begun by
and the National School Lunch (NSLP) and
Secretary of Agriculture Henry Wallace, was
Breakfast (SBP) programs. In 2014 the USDA
designed such that people would buy orange
provided almost $74 billion for SNAP and much
stamps with money they would ordinarily
less for WIC, NSLP, and SBP (Fig. 7.2).
use for food and, as a bonus, would receive
50b worth of blue stamps for every dollar
7.2.3 Federal Food Assistance Programs spent. They could buy any food with the
In the United States, public food assistance orange stamps but the blue stamps could
programs began during the Great Depression. only be used to buy surplus commodity
FIGURE 7.2 The majority of funding provided in the 2014 Farm Bill for nutrition assistance is committed to the
Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP). The National School Lunch Program (NSLP); Special Supplemental
Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC); and School Breakfast Program (SBP) receive smaller allot-
ments of funding. Source: USDA Economic Research Service, www.usda.ers.gov.

TABLE 7.3 Timeline of Major Events and Federal Food Assistance Programs
Major events Food assistance programs
1930 39 Great Depression and Dust Bowl 1933 Agricultural Adjustment Act
1935 Commodity Food Distribution
1939 43 Food Stamp Program
1938 Food Drug and Cosmetic Act
1941 45 World War II 1941 Recommended Dietary Allowances

1942 Emergency Price Control Act (food rationing)
1943 Wheat enrichment with B vitamins
1946 National School Lunch Act
1962 Michael Harrington The Other America 1961 Food Stamp pilot program
published
1964 Food Stamp Act
1960 Presidential campaign Kennedy vs Nixon 1972 Special Supplemental Food Program for Women, Infants, and
Children
1964 Lyndon Johnson War on Poverty 1972 Congregate Meals Program and Home Delivered Meals Program
(meals on wheels)
1968 CBS documentary Hunger in America
1969 March on Washington
1969 White House Conference on Food, 1977 Dietary Goals for the United States
Nutrition, and Health
1980 Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary Guidelines for Americans
1989 DRI introduced
1990 Nutrition Labeling and Education Act 1994 Nutrition Facts panel required
2000 Healthy People 2000 1994 FDA allows health claims on packages
2000 Rates of obesity become alarming
2010 Affordable Care Act 2007 CFBAI formed
2010 Healthy Hunger Free Kids Act 2008 USDA identifies food deserts
2013 AMA defines obesity as a disease 2008 Food Stamp Program renamed SNAP
2015 NSLP requirements modified

2018 Updated Nutrition Facts panel
From USDA, www.usda.gov; FDA, www.fda.gov; CDC, www.cdc.gov.

FIGURE 7.3 The number of people that utilized food stamps or Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP)
benefits increased quickly through the 1980s. Changes in government-regulated eligibility created periods of decreased or
increased access through the 1990s. The economic downturn during the mid-2000s created high need for food support
among Americans. Source: USDA Economic Research Service, www.usda.ers.gov.
foods (that had been purchased from farmers Poverty. Growth in the use of the program
by the USDA). This first food stamp program was steady; by 1974 over 15 million people
lasted 4 years, but served 20 million people at were participating. During the 1970s, program
a cost of $262 million. The program was reforms included establishing national eligibil-
considered to be successful because it kept ity standards to replace the state-by-state regu-
farmers from bankruptcy and saved people lations. The Food Stamp Act of 1977 increased
from starvation. By 1943, the economy had access and established income eligibility based
recovered and the Food Stamp Program was on the poverty threshold and eliminated the
discontinued. requirement that participants had to purchase
President John Kennedy restarted the Food stamps to obtain free ones. These changes
Stamp Program in 1961 in response to the hun- increased participation significantly and over
ger and poverty he observed during his presi- 20 million people were accessing food stamps
dential campaign. This pilot program did not by 1980 (Fig. 7.3). Fiscal cutbacks in the 1980s,
require participants to purchase surplus com- in response to the national recession, caused
modities, but did require them to purchase reduction in funding and participation
some stamps to obtain free ones. The program remained fairly flat over the decade. There
reached over 380,000 people within 3 years. was a small surge in participation through the
Congress passed the Food Stamp Act of 1964, 1990s because Congress restored funding to
which made the program permanent, in sup- address hunger issues in the United States.
port of President Lyndon Johnson’s War on Then in 1996, President Bill Clinton promoted

the Personal Responsibility and Work Evidence from the program has found that the
Opportunities Reconciliation Act, also known majority of SNAP benefits are distributed to
as “Welfare to Work.” This program required families with children and about 4 in 10 SNAP
participants without dependents to work at recipients live in a household where at least
least 20 hours/week and implemented other one person works. Improvement in school per-
requirements that caused food stamp partici- formance and health of children are documen-
pation to decline steadily. The economic ted benefits of the program. The SNAP
downturn of 2000 created new demand for the program has an economic impact by increasing
program and generated resurgence in partici- food sales and creating jobs. Misuse of SNAP
pation. The 2008 Farm Bill changed the pro- benefits is monitored and the introduction of
gram name to SNAP and increased funding, the electronic benefit transfer (EBT) card
and the 2009 American Recovery and makes abuse more difficult and allows careful
Reinvestment Act provided an increase in the monitoring. SNAP benefits can be used to pur-
allotment per family. As shown in Fig. 7.3, the chase foods for the household to eat, such as
number of participants climbed from 20 mil- breads and cereals, fruits and vegetables,
lion in 2000 to 45 million in 2016. The 2014 meats, fish and poultry, dairy products, and
Farm Bill approved by President Barack seeds and plants that produce food. Soft
Obama cut SNAP funding by $800 million per drinks, candy, cookies, snack crackers, bakery
year for 10 years, which will likely reduce the cakes, and ice cream are food items and eligi-
number of SNAP recipients. ble purchases. Allowing SNAP benefits to be
Current eligibility requirements for SNAP used to purchase such items is controversial
benefits are less than $2250 in resources and considering the need to prevent obesity and
an income of less than $26,124 a year for a focus on healthier food choices. In some areas,
family of three. Able-bodied adults between restaurants can be authorized to accept SNAP
16 and 60 years of age, without dependent benefits from qualified homeless, elderly, or
children, can access benefits for only 3 disabled people in exchange for low-cost
months if they are not working. SNAP meals. SNAP benefits cannot be used to buy
benefits would be about $511 per month for a beer, wine, liquor, cigarettes or tobacco, or any
family of 3 or about $1.90 per person per nonfood items, such as pet foods, soaps, paper
meal. It is very difficult to meet nutrient products, household supplies, vitamins and
requirements on this amount of money and medicines, food that will be eaten in the store,
SNAP participants frequently access commu- or hot foods.
nity food pantries and other services to secure
sufficient food.
The Food Stamp/SNAP program has been
called “the cornerstone of the nation’s nutri-
7.2.4 National School Lunch Program
tion safety net.” Criticism of the SNAP pro- Massachusetts was the first state to enact a
gram includes concerns over the government compulsory education law in 1852 requiring
subsidizing food assistance and potential mis- all children to attend school. Other states soon
use of the funds by participants. Some argue followed, with the intent of ensuring all citi-
that participating in the program discourages zens had access to a basic education and to
individual work ethic and motivation. As with discourage children from being exploited to
any large government program, abuses occur, work in factories. Providing meals to school
but the great majority of people receiving children was the responsibility of parents, and
SNAP benefits use them appropriately. a disparity between rich and poor was

apparent. Recognition that hungry children are The school lunch program expanded over
not able to achieve their learning potential was the next 20 years as did the federal investment.
brought to the public’s attention in the book The growth of the program created challenges
Poverty (1904) by Robert Hunter, based on his for school and brought public scrutiny.
observation of hungry school children in New Schools objected to having to cover the costs
York City. In response, many schools and manage the overhead for the program,
attempted to meet the needs of children by and some people disagreed with this type of
partnering with private groups and organiza- federal welfare program. In 1968, a national
tions that provided meals to students. It wasn’t debate about hunger in America was reopened
until the Great Depression when child nutri- when the Citizen’s Board of Inquiry into
tion became a national crisis that the federal Hunger and Malnutrition in the United States
government began providing assistance for released its report Hunger USA (1968), and
school meals. Surplus commodities purchased CBS aired a documentary, Hunger in America
by the USDA from farmers were given to (1968), that highlighted the extent of poverty
schools starting around 1935. In addition, the among families and children. It became appar-
Works Progress Administration provided ent that many children who were eligible for
funding for school lunch workers, giving jobs free or reduced-cost school lunches were not
to needy women to help support their families. receiving them and schools were not ade-
These programs were of great benefit and quately funded to provide meals. Economic
likely prevented malnutrition and starvation of and racial discrimination was a major problem
millions of children. during this period in American history and
The advent of the United States’ entry into public schools were at the forefront of the con-
WWII changed the economic balance of the troversy. These issues were debated and dis-
country and surplus food and workers were cussed during the White House Conference on
no longer readily available. As a result, schools Food, Nutrition, and Health, and led President
were not able to provide low-cost meals to stu- Richard Nixon to call for a new agency to be
dents. To address this problem, Congress in established within the USDA, the Food and
1943 extended funding to continue school Nutrition Service, which would be responsible
lunch and milk programs and provided cash for overseeing all federal food programs,
subsidies to schools, which became a year-by- including school lunch. Additionally, Congress
year appropriation. By 1946, it was apparent enacted amendments to the National School
that a more consistent funding model was Lunch and Child Nutrition Acts to ensure
needed and the National School Lunch Act access to breakfast and lunch for needy chil-
was passed (Table 7.3). This legislation defined dren and to maintain confidentiality for recipi-
how federal funds would be distributed to ents of the program.
states, based on the number of school-aged The NSLP has been the target of criticism
children and the per capita income of the state. and controversy throughout its history. Over
States with larger populations of low-income time, efforts to make meals more acceptable to
families received more funding. Schools students and to reduce costs allowed items
received a federal allotment based on the num- such as French fries, hot dogs, pizza, and
ber of meals provided to children who were chicken nuggets to be served. In the 1980s,
not able to pay for their own meals. Specific schools were allowed to sell foods of minimal
criteria for the quality of the meals were nutritional value (including from vending
defined within the act, as were reporting and machines that dispersed candy, cookies, and
monitoring expectations. soda) that competed with school lunch menus.

Funding for nutrition education and training vegetables every day of the week, substantially
was cut during difficult financial times. In increased offerings of whole grain rich foods
some communities, fast food restaurants (Fig. 7.4), allowed only fat-free or low-fat milk
opened near schools and students opted to varieties, limited calories based on the age of
buy lunch off-campus rather than eat the children being served to ensure proper portion
school lunch offerings. At the same time, pub- size, and increased the focus on reducing the
lic health experts were raising the alarm about amounts of saturated fat, trans fats, and
increasing rates of childhood obesity. The sodium.
release of Healthy People 2000 (1990) by the Today, the NSLP is operating in over
Department of Health and Human Services 100,000 US schools and 31 million children
(DHHS) called on school meal programs to receive low-cost or free meals daily. Children
meet the Dietary Guidelines for Americans are eligible for free meals if their family has an
(DGA) by 2000. The USDA responded by income at or below 130% of the poverty line
implementing new regulations for school and children are eligible for reduced-price
meals, including reducing the amount of fat meals (students charged no more than 40b) if
and adding more fruits, vegetables, and whole their family has an income between 130% and
grains. Further changes came with the Healthy 185% of the poverty level. A family of 4 with
Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010, which was an income of $44,863 or less is eligible for
approved by President Barack Obama. This reduced-price meals and families with incomes
sweeping legislation required schools to less than $31,525 are eligible for free meals.
develop wellness policies, specifically defined Children whose families have an income above
nutrition standards for foods sold in schools 185% of the poverty level pay the full price,
(including vending machines), reinstated train- which is set by the local school food authori-
ing and education for school food service ties, but the meal service operation must run
directors, increased breakfast and after-school as a nonprofit program. The USDA provides
food service, and created the Farm-to-School schools with cash reimbursement for the free
program. New standards for meals ensured and reduced meals they serve. Free lunch
students were offered both fruits and rebates to schools equal $2.86 with a bonus of
FIGURE 7.4 The current standards for the

National School Lunch Program (NSLP) require
meals to provide whole grains, vegetables, and
lean meats. Almost 73% of school children in the
United States qualify for free or reduced price
meals. Schools are challenged to provide healthy
meals that meet these standards within the cost
structure of the NSLP. Source: Photo from the
USDA image gallery.

6b per meal if the meals are certified to be in provide supplemental foods, healthcare refer-
compliance with nutritional requirements. This rals, and nutrition education for low-income
level of reimbursement provides a challenge pregnant women, mothers, infants, and chil-
for schools to provide high-quality, nutritious dren who are at nutritional risk. Unlike the
meals. SNAP program, only selected foods are
included in the WIC food packages. Children
from 1 to 4 years of age, and pregnant, post-
partum, and breastfeeding women may receive
7.2.5 Women, Infants, and Children milk, yogurt, cheese, juice, cereal, eggs, peanut
Widespread poverty in the United States butter and/or dried beans, fish, whole wheat
during the 1960s came to the attention of bread, and fruits and vegetables. Infants receive
pediatricians working with inner city popula- iron-fortified formula, baby foods, and plain
tions, notably Dr. David Paige at Johns cereal. WIC participants receive education and
Hopkins School of Public Health. Nutrition support that encourages breastfeeding and bal-
research at the time was demonstrating that anced nutrition for the first years of life. The
diets lacking micronutrients while in utero and impact of WIC has been significant in reducing
during early life resulted in poor growth and malnutrition of mothers and children and
development, increased illness, and reduced increasing access to healthcare. In 2012, 51% of
the ability to learn. Public health workers were infants and 30% of pregnant women in the
aware that infant malnutrition among the poor United States participated in the WIC program.
was becoming a serious issue. To address this California and Texas account for over 25% of all
problem, Paige and the Maryland Board of WIC participants nationwide. Southern states,
Health developed a program to provide vou- including Mississippi, Arkansas, Kentucky,
chers for iron-fortified infant formulas to low- Louisiana, South Carolina, and Alabama have
income women. The pilot program was such a high enrollment with over 60% of all infants in
success in improving the health of the children the state receiving WIC benefits. On average,
that other programs including one at St. Jude’s women receive about $35 $50 and infants
Children’s Hospital in Memphis, Tennessee $37 $50 per month in benefits from WIC,
undertook similar programs and documented which can only be used to purchase the
their impact. Based on the scientific evidence approved food items.
that providing adequate foods to mothers and
their children resulted in better pregnancy out-
comes and healthier babies, leading to lower
healthcare costs overall, Senator Hubert
7.2.6 Nutrition Education for the Public
Humphrey became an advocate for a legisla- Conveying nutrition information to the pub-
tive program to expand food supplementation lic in a simple, clear manner is challenging.
for women and young children. The program During the 1940s, the USDA created a visual
was signed into law in 1972, to be implemen- tool, A Guide to Good Eating, which classified
ted by the USDA (Table 7.3). It took several foods into the Basic Seven food groups as a
years for the USDA to develop a mechanism to means of describing the type of diet that
deliver the program but the first Women, would ensure nutrient adequacy (Fig. 7.5). The
Infants, and Children (WIC) clinic opened in guide was presented as a circle with pictures
Pineville, Kentucky in 1974. and simple messages with the goal of helping
WIC programs are administered locally make nutrition information accessible. Over
within each state using federal grants to the years, the guides were modified as

nutrition information changed. The number of

food groups was reduced to four in the 1950s
to include milk, meat, bread and cereal, and
vegetable and fruit. A dramatic shift occurred
with the 1992 Food Guide Pyramid, which
transitioned from the circular image to a pyra-
mid. The pyramid shape was intended to visu-
ally illustrate the amounts of each food group
that should be consumed from the wide base
(cereals and grains) to the narrow top (fats,
oils, and sweets). In 2005, the MyPyramid
Food Guidance System was introduced and,
for the first time, included the message that
exercise was a core component of a healthy
lifestyle by adding steps with the image of a
person (Fig. 7.5). The MyPyramid system
included a website that provided more
detailed and individualized information. In
2011, after several years of consumer research,
the USDA introduced MyPlate to replace
MyPyramid (Fig. 7.5). The MyPlate image was
thought to be closer to how consumers view
food, i.e., sections of a plate divided into the
four food groups with dairy on the side.
MyPlate has fostered the concept of “make
half your plate fruits and vegetables” among
consumers. But the release of MyPlate was not
without controversy. The food groups
included are fruits, vegetables, grains, dairy,
and protein. Labeling a group by a nutrient,
protein, rather than by foods, had not been
done before and raised concerns. The meat
and poultry industries feared that people
might not understand the options for that cate-
gory and would assume meat and poultry
FIGURE 7.5 The USDA has provided images to convey

L
ways to meet nutritional needs through food choices since

the 1940s. The Good Eating Guide from the 1940s showed
seven food groups and encouraged consuming foods from
all groups. The Food Pyramid from the 1990s showed five
food groups with relative intake defined by the width of
the triangle, and also encouraged physical activity.
MyPlate from the 2000s includes five food groups using a
plate to show recommended relative proportions. Source:
USDA Economic Research Service, www.usda.ers.gov.

should not be consumed. The protein category 4. Eat foods with adequate starch and fiber
of MyPlate includes meat, poultry, seafood, 5. Avoid too much sugar
beans and peas, eggs, processed soy products, 6. Avoid too much sodium
and nuts and seeds. The Choose MyPlate web- 7. If you drink alcohol, do so in moderation
site has many additional tools for consumers
The Secretaries of the USDA and DHHS
to personalize their nutrition and fitness rou-
have jointly issued revisions of the Dietary
tines. For example, the SuperTracker system
Guidelines for Americans every 5 years since
can be used by individuals or groups to moni-
1980 (Table 7.4). The process for development
tor diet and physical activity, set goals, and
of the DGA is for the USDA and DHHS to con-
create challenges for diet and exercise
vene an advisory committee comprised of
improvements.
leading nutrition and health professionals and
researchers. The advisory committee reviews
the scientific literature, hears testimony from
7.2.7 Dietary Guidelines other experts and convenes public meetings,
then compiles a report. The report is opened to
In 1968, the US Senate Select Committee on
the public and other federal agencies for com-
Nutrition and Human Needs, led by Senator
ment. The Secretaries of the DHHS and USDA
George McGovern, was created to study the
review the report and the comments and issue
problems of hunger and malnutrition in
the new version of the DGA. Because each
the United States. Over the next several years,
advisory committee interprets information dif-
the scope of the committee expanded as hear-
ferently, the organization, structure, and
ings were held with health and nutrition
details of the Guidelines have changed over
experts, schools, and medical professionals. It
the years. The most recent DGA advisory com-
was becoming clear during this time that
mittee (2015) took a very different approach
chronic diseases such as heart disease, diabe-
than any of the previous committees. They
tes, and obesity were closely linked to dietary
focused on eating patterns as a means of help-
habits. In 1977, the committee released a
ing consumers choose foods, rather than
report, Dietary Goals for the United States, which
addressing nutrients as the main target of the
summarized this information and promoted
guidelines. The five main themes of the 2015
reduced intakes of fat, cholesterol, and sugar
DGA are:
and increased consumption of fruit, vegeta-
bles, and whole grains. This report, although 1. Follow a healthy eating pattern across the
highly controversial at the time, began a public lifespan
dialogue about nutrition, food, and health 2. Focus on variety, nutrient density, and
interrelationships. The USDA and the DHHS amount
were called upon to verify and document the 3. Limit calories from added sugars and
scientific evidence in the report and, in 1980, saturated fats and reduce sodium intake
released Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary 4. Shift to healthier food and beverage choices
Guidelines for Americans. This publication had 5. Support healthy eating patterns for all
seven recommendations:
The core messages of the DGA have
1. Eat a variety of foods remained fairly consistent since the 1980 ver-
2. Maintain ideal weight sion. A healthy eating pattern includes a variety
3. Avoid too much fat, saturated fat, and of vegetables, fruits, whole grains, dairy, and a
cholesterol variety of protein foods. Limiting consumption

TABLE 7.4 Historical Comparison of the United States Dietary Guidelines

1980 and 1985 1990 1995 2000
Eat a variety of foods Same Same

Maintain ideal weight Same Balance the food you eat with Aim for fitness—aim for a
physical activity—maintain or healthy weight—be physically
improve your weight active each day
Avoid too much fat, Same Choose a diet low in fat, Choose a diet that is low in
saturated fat, and saturated fat, and cholesterol saturated fat and cholesterol
cholesterol and moderate in total fat
Eat foods with adequate Choose a diet with plenty Choose a diet with plenty Choose a variety of grains
starch and fiber of vegetables, fruits, and of grain products, vegetables, daily, especially whole grains
grain products and fruit
Choose a variety of fruits and
vegetables daily
Avoid too much sugar Use sugars only in Choose a diet moderate Choose beverages that limit
moderation in sugars your intake of sugars
Avoid too much sodium Use salt and sodium only Choose a diet moderate Choose and prepare foods with
in moderation in salt and sodium less salt
If you drink alcohol, do Same Same Same

so in moderation
Keep food safe to eat
The Format of the Dietary Guidelines Changed in 2005 to Focus on Eating Patterns
2005 2010 2015
Building a healthy eating

pattern
Meet recommended Balancing calories to
intakes within energy manage weight
needs by adopting a
balanced eating pattern,
such as the USDA Food
Guide or the DASH
Eating Plan
Consume ,10% of Foods and food A healthy eating pattern
calories from saturated components to reduce: limits:
fats, ,300 mg
Sodium ,2300 mg Consume ,10% of calories
cholesterol, and keep
trans fats as low as from added sugars
possible Less than 10% of calories Consume ,10% of calories
from saturated fats from saturated fats
Total fat to 20% 35% of Less than 300 mg Consume ,2300 mg of
calories cholesterol sodium per day
Trans fats as low as
possible
(Continued)

TABLE 7.4 (Continued)
The Format of the Dietary Guidelines Changed in 2005 to Focus on Eating Patterns
2005 2010 2015
Reduce sugar and Reduce calories from solid

starch-containing foods fats and added sugars
and beverages
Limit refined grains
2 cups of fruit and 2.5 Foods and nutrients to Consume a healthy eating
cups of vegetables per increase: pattern:
day
Vegetables and fruits A variety of vegetables
Variety of fruits and Half of all grains whole Fruits, especially whole fruits
vegetables grains
Increase fat-free or low fat Grains, at least half of which
milk and dairy are whole grains
Consume 3 or more Variety of protein foods Fat-free or low-fat dairy
ounces of whole grains
Increase seafood A variety of protein foods
per day
Consume three cups per Oils to replace solid fats Oils
day of fat-free or low-fat
milk Foods with potassium,
fiber, calcium, and
vitamin D
Alcohol in moderation Alcohol in moderation Alcohol in moderation
Avoid microbial Follow food safety
foodborne illness recommendations to
reduce risk of foodborne
illness
From USDA, www.usda.gov.
of saturated fats, trans fats, added sugars and manage disease on one hand and overseeing
sodium and moderate alcohol intake continue food labeling and safety on the other. The dis-
to be recommended. An outcome of the 2015 tinction between drugs and foods was clear in
DGA has been the recommendation to list the legislation but less clear in practice. During
“added sugars” on the Nutrition Facts panel of the 1930s as vitamins and minerals were being
food labels. The FDA announced this change in discovered and linked to disease, foods con-
2016; it will become required in 2018. taining these nutrients were advertised for
their preventative and curative effects. And
when scientists began linking diets high in fat
and cholesterol with heart disease in the 1950s,
7.2.8 Nutrition Labeling new challenges to connect disease with foods
Food marketers have always been interested arose. Throughout its history, the FDA strongly
in using nutrition and health claims to sell their discouraged advertising claims about the
products. The FDA is responsible for assessing health effects of foods and threatened to reclas-
the efficacy and safety of drugs to treat and sify foods as drugs if such claims were made.

By the mid-1970s, there was convincing evi- States. The purpose of the Nutrition Facts panel
dence from nutrition research that diets rich in was to provide consumers with the serving size;
fiber were associated with lower risks of colon the amount of calories, fat, and fiber in the serv-
cancer. The National Cancer Institute (NCI) ing; and a way to determine how well the prod-
began reviewing diet and cancer relationships uct met nutritional needs (Fig. 7.6). The latter
during that time and released recommenda- was not a simple task and the FDA struggled
tions in 1979 that included, among other with finding a clear and understandable way to
things, a generous intake of dietary fiber. In post information on a package about nutrient
this scenario, consumers were receiving infor- content. The decision was made to use the new
mation about foods and health from these reli- concept of % Daily Value (DV). As described
able sources, but were unable to connect that previously, the nutrient requirement (RDA) for
information directly with food products. The each of the vitamins and minerals is defined by
Kellogg Corporation saw the potential benefit age and gender. It would not be possible to list
of linking fiber to cancer prevention for their all of these possible recommended levels on a
“All-Bran” cereal and launched a marketing food label. As a compromise, a DV was selected
campaign in 1984 promoting the cereal as a for each essential nutrient to be used on the
way to reduce the risk of cancer. The NCI Nutrition Facts panel. A DV was defined for
actually cooperated with Kellogg’s on the cam- components that did not have an RDA value but
paign by reviewing the ads for accuracy and were required to be included on the Nutrition
providing a toll-free telephone number for Facts panel including total fat, saturated fat, cho-
consumers to contact the NCI for information lesterol, sodium, total carbohydrate, and dietary
about diet and cancer. The FDA had not fiber. The DV is designed to ensure adequate
approved the campaign, however, and voiced nutrient intake when consuming a diet of
its objection. With encouragement from the 2000 kcal/day. A food item with a %DV of less
NCI, the FDA eventually allowed the cam- than 5 is defined as a low source and a %DV of
paign to continue and announced a review of 20 as a high source for that particular nutrient.
its policy about health claims on foods. This Finding a more effective way to convey
opened the door for additional foods and nutrition information on the food package con-
claims and much public and legal debate tinues to be a challenge. For the past few years,
about the process. Finding the proper balance consumers, scientists, and government experts
between consumer protection and access to have been evaluating and debating the efficacy
information was a challenge and the FDA was of the Nutrition Facts panel. An outcome of
rapidly overwhelmed with trying to regulate these discussions was that in 2016 the FDA
and manage this new environment. announced changes to the Nutrition Facts
In 1990, in response to the challenges faced by panel for implementation by 2018 (Fig. 7.6).
the FDA and increasing pressure to provide con- Eight changes have been implemented for the
sumers with information about food composi- new Nutrition Facts panel including:
tion and its role in health, Congress passed an
1. Larger type for serving size
amendment to the Federal Food, Drug, and
2. Larger type for calories
Cosmetic Act. The Nutrition Labeling and
3. Updated serving sizes to match consumer
Education Act (NLEA) required that nutrition
expectations for the packaged food
information be included on the food package
4. Updated Daily Values
and defined the regulatory process for health
5. Change in the nutrients required to be on
claims. By 1994, the Nutrition Facts panel was
the panel (vitamin D, calcium, iron, and
developed and standardized by the FDA and
potassium)
became required for all foods sold in the United

FIGURE 7.6 The Nutrition Facts panel has been required on food packages since 1994. The composition and required
information on the panel has remained the same since then and is shown on the left panel. Changes to the panel, as
shown on the right, have been approved to be implemented by 2018. The main changes are to increase the type of serving
size and calories, include added sugars, and to change the required nutrients from vitamins A and C, calcium, and iron to
vitamin D, calcium, iron, and potassium to better reflect the nutrients that consumers are not consuming adequately.
Source: USDA Economic Research Service, www.usda.ers.gov.
6. Amounts of nutrients listed with the %DV FDA when the new panel goes into effect. This
7. Added sugars listed change was made because manufacturers were
8. Footnote to explain %DV tempted to reduce the serving size of their prod-
uct to keep the calorie value low. Consumers’
The Nutrition Facts panel provides informa-
perception of a serving size may not be in agree-
tion to consumers about the nutritional value of
ment with the label. A prime example is break-
the food in a variety of ways. The caloric value
fast cereals, which typically list a serving size as
of the food for a single serving, the serving size,
/4 cup. When consumers pour a bowl of cereal
3
and servings per container are listed. The serv-
the amount is closer to 1.5 2 cups of cereal.
ing size was defined by the manufacturer but
Making the consumer expectation for a serving
will be standardized for food categories by the
more in agreement with the Nutrition Facts

panel is a goal of the new regulations. The mid- posts the petition on its website to invite public
dle section of the Nutrition Facts panel includes comment. The scientific evidence for the claim is
information about nutrients of concern, fats, then assessed by the FDA and they determine if
cholesterol, sodium, sugars, and proteins listed it will be approved or rejected.
in gram quantity and %DV. Listing added Four years after NLEA was signed into law,
sugars will be required in the new regulation. the Dietary Supplement, Health, and Education
The bottom panel lists the amount and %DV of Act (DSHEA) was approved. The dietary supple-
selected micronutrients. The micronutrients ment industry was growing rapidly at this time
required by the FDA to be listed will change and had substantial lobbying influence. The 1994
with the 2018 regulations to include vitamin D, DSHEA amendment to the Food, Drug, and
calcium, iron, and potassium. These nutrients Cosmetic Act created a separate system for the
are considered to be the ones most commonly management of dietary supplements from the
consumed in inadequate amounts by the popu- established processes for either food or drugs. A
lation. Manufacturers may list other micronutri- dietary supplement is defined as a vitamin, min-
ents on the panel if they choose. The panel eral, herb or botanical, amino acid, or any sup-
includes the %DV measure to allow consumers plement to the diet that is not a conventional
a way to quickly estimate the nutritive value of food or sole item of a meal. The law allows man-
the food, but it is important to remember that ufacturers to market any products that were
the value is based on a 2000 calorie diet. already on the market before 1994 without FDA
NLEA gave FDA clear authority to define approval. New products entering the market
health claims on food labels. A health claim is after 1994 must receive FDA approval. The law
defined by the FDA as a statement that was quite liberal in allowing products to be mar-
“describe(s) a relationship between a food sub- keting without the rigorous testing that would
stance (a food, food component, or dietary be required for drugs. Under the law, the FDA
ingredient), and reduced risk of a disease or may restrict the sale of products only if they can
health-related condition.” NLEA required the show they are unsafe or ineffective. DSHEA
food industry to demonstrate scientific evidence requires the packages of all dietary supplements
for health claims and for the FDA to approve to include a Supplement Facts panel similar to
them before they could be used on a label or the Nutrition Facts panel, a list of ingredients,
advertising campaign. The basic premises of the and information about the source and manufac-
law are that claim statements must follow FDA turer. Unlike drugs, dietary supplements are not
guidelines and may not claim to directly cure or subject to purity or quality standards. If the label
treat disease. The FDA has approved a wide makes any claim about the health benefits of the
range of health claims and numerous “quali- product, it must include a disclaimer that “this
fied” health claims that have emerging but not statement has not been evaluated by the Food
definitive scientific evidence. An example of a and Drug Administration” but the FDA does not
health claim that is approved by the FDA would have to approve the claim.
be “a diet low in total fat may reduce the risk of
some cancers.” The FDA also approves struc-
ture/function claims that describe the role of a 7.3 ASSESSING AMERICANS’
nutrient or dietary ingredient that affects the NUTRITIONAL STATUS
normal structure or function of the body. An
example of an approved structure/function In response Hunger USA (1968), the US
claim would be “calcium builds strong bones.” Congress commissioned the Ten-State Nutrition
The FDA accepts petitions for health claims and Survey to measure the incidence and locations

7.3 ASSESSING AMERICANS’ NUTRITIONAL STATUS 253
of hunger and malnutrition. A total of 86,352 from the US population. Between 1960 and
people living in Texas, Louisiana, New York, 1970, the National Center for Health Statistics
Kentucky, West Virginia, Michigan, California, and the US Public Health Service carried out
Massachusetts, Washington State, and South three national health examination surveys
Carolina were given dental and nutritional eva- (NHES). NHES I measured chronic diseases of
luations. A smaller group, 11,337 people, were adults, NHES II assessed growth and develop-
asked to provide a 24-hour recall of their food ment of children aged 6 11, and NHES III
intake as well. The amount of data collected focused on children aged 12 17. In 1970, the
was significant and so overwhelmed the capac- important role of diet and nutrition to disease
ity and available funding that it took years for risk was becoming evident, so the National
reports to be compiled. One report that was Nutrition Surveillance System was proposed
issued in 1975 found that while malnutrition and added to the NHES. The new program
and poverty were of concern, the rate was not was named the National Health and Nutrition
as high as had been depicted in Hunger, USA. Examination Surveys (NHANES) and three
The survey found that socioeconomic status main surveys were conducted as shown in
impacted overall growth and development, not- Table 7.5.
ing that higher body fatness correlated with Since 1999, NHANES has been conducted
greater height and bone structure of children. on a continual basis using mobile medical trai-
The report documented, perhaps for the first lers that are located, for a period of time, in
time, that obesity and overweight were present selected communities. People come to the trai-
among children, occurred more frequently in lers where the assessments are performed. The
low income populations, and tended to occur in process has been compared to space missions
families. The nutritional assessment of the popu- because of the complexity and logistical chal-
lation did not find any specific nutrient deficien- lenges of bringing the self-contained assess-
cies in the diet. The cause of malnutrition was ment trailers to sometimes remote locations.
determined to be insufficient access to enough Approximately 7000 randomly selected people
food to maintain health, primarily due to in the United States are surveyed annually.
poverty. The NHANES program has contributed sig-
nificantly to monitoring the health of the
nation and understanding the role of food,
7.3.1 National Health and Nutrition nutrition, and lifestyle on the incidence of
Examination Survey health and disease. NHANES data have been
In 1956, the National Health Survey Act used to develop the DRIs and growth charts of
provided for the collection of clinical data children. A major impact of NHANES was the
TABLE 7.5 National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys
Survey Years Population
NHANES I 1971 75 28,000 people; ages 1 74

NHANES II 1976 80 28,000 people; ages 1 74
NHANES III 1988 94 40,0000 people; ages 2 months and above

HHANES 1982 84 16,000 people; Mexican, Cuban, and Puerto Rican descent
From USDA, www.usda.gov; FDA, www.fda.gov.

FIGURE 7.7 An assessment of the nutritional status of the population conducted by the USDA in 1941 found that peo-
ple living on farms had better diets than those living in villages or cities. This survey was one of the first to assess the
diets of populations as a means of determining the health of Americans. Source: Illustration created by Reannon Overbey,
from Are we well fed? USDA Bureau of Home Economics Publication Number 430, 1941.
observation of high levels of lead in children, food with $298 of that food generated on their
which provided evidence to support the ban farm and $155 worth of food purchased. A
on lead-based gasoline and paints. In 1998 comparison of farm to city families in 1941
NHANES data showed a high incidence of found that more people living in cities had fair
low folate levels in women of child-bearing or poor diets compared to those living on
age. Previous research had correlated low farms (Fig. 7.7).
folate levels in pregnant women with The USDA data collected between 1942 and
increased risk of neural tube defects in their 1948 found that the consumption of iron, thia-
babies. Based on the NHANES findings, the mine, riboflavin, and niacin had improved due
FDA decided to add folate to the nutrients to the enrichment of flour with these nutrients,
added to enriched bread, cornmeal, rice and but also because of increased consumption of
other grains to improve the folate intake of the milk and dairy products. Income was then and
population. This has led to reduced incidence continues to be a significant determinant of
of neural tube defects in the US. nutritional adequacy. In 1955, 62% of families
with an annual income of $6000 had adequate
dietary intake compared to only 34% of fami-
lies with incomes less than $2000, with families
7.3.2 Food Consumption Surveys in the southern United States at higher risk
As the overseer of agriculture and farm pro- than those in northern states.
duction, the USDA assesses food production The USDA began conducted the Continuing
and markets. The Economic Research Service Survey of Food Intakes of Individuals (CSFII) in
(ERS) provides free access to this wide range 1985 to determine the food and nutrient content
of data on its website (www.ers.usda.gov). The of diets consumed by Americans. The first sur-
USDA has conducted surveys and collected veys consisted of personal interviews of women
data on food consumption since the 1930s. One to gather 1-day food and nutrient intakes for
of these early surveys reported that farm fami- themselves and their children. In 2001, the CSFII
lies in Pennsylvania and Ohio in 1940, com- was combined with dietary surveys
prised of a husband, wife, and two children, being collected in NHANES. The new platform
had on average an annual income of $1000 was renamed the What We Eat in America
$1249. On average, families had $435 worth of (WWEA) survey. WWEA is conducted annually,

7.4 FOOD INSECURITY 255
collecting dietary intake information from issues were not because of food shortages dur-
almost 10,000 people. The value of these data ing that time, but rather distribution. In the
are significant for understanding changes in spring of 1942, soon after the United States
food intake patterns, identifying nutrient defi- entered WWII, that situation changed and
ciencies and excesses, and finding correlations rationing of food, as well as many other mate-
between dietary habits and health outcomes. rials, became necessary due to increased
demand for the war efforts and reduced
imports. The Food Rationing Program issued
7.4 FOOD INSECURITY ration books to families based on the number
of family members, which specified the
Widespread hunger and limited access to amount of food that could be purchased. Red
food first occurred in US history during the Stamps covered meats, butter, fat, oils, and
Great Depression. Prior to that time, people some cheeses. Blue Stamps rationed canned,
certainly experienced hunger linked to poverty bottled, and frozen fruits and vegetables;
or social status and during crop failures. The juices; dry beans; canned soups; and baby
culminating events of the 1930s, including eco- food. Sugar Buying Cards were also issued.
nomic collapse and environmental disaster, Public service messages were used to encour-
were extreme and put millions of lives at risk. age people to conserve and limit their con-
As described in Chapter 2, History of US sumption of certain products to support the
Agriculture and Food Production, the New troops and war effort (Fig. 7.8). People were
Deal policies implemented by President encouraged to plant “victory gardens” wher-
Franklin Roosevelt were effective in getting ever land was available to supplement their
food from farmers to those in need. Hunger food needs. The Agricultural Extension Service
FIGURE 7.8 During WWII, rationing of certain foods was needed because of shortages in production and disruption
of imports. Posters were used to encourage the public to plant gardens and conserve food so that adequate food could be
provided to the military and general population. Source: Images from the National Agricultural Library.

was activated to teach home canning courses lunch, and nutrition education programs, and
and to provide nutritional guidance to consu- creation of the Supplemental Food Program for
mers. These efforts were successful and mal- Women, Infants, and Children, and Congregate
nutrition was not a major problem during the Meals and Home Delivered Meals programs to
war years in the United States. address hunger among the elderly. These pro-
When the war ended and through the 1950s, grams, along with a strong economy during the
there was general economic growth and pros- 1970s, resulted in reduction of poverty rates to
perity, the Baby Boom generation began, and 11% by 1973.
funding for food assistance programs was
largely discontinued. But hunger and poverty
had not been eliminated. The tumultuous years 7.4.1 Food Insecurity in the US
of the 1960s, with racial unrest and increased
The concept of “hunger” proved hard to
inner city populations, created a new environ-
quantify from an economic or access perspec-
ment for poverty and food insecurity. The pov-
tive. A working group from the American
erty rate in 1959 was 22% and was three times
Institute of Nutrition (now the American
higher among blacks compared to Caucasians.
Society for Nutrition) introduced the terms
There was also a significant increase in the
“food security” and “food insecurity” in 1990.
number of poor people living in families
As a means of tracking information about food
headed by women, which was as high as 50%
security, the USDA and the National Center
in poor minority populations. The Civil Rights
for Health Statistics developed the Food
Movement was active in seeking political action
Security Scale (FSS) consisting of a set of 18
to improve economic and social equality for
questions that were included in the annual
minorities and, in 1963, organized the March on
Census Bureau Current Population Survey
Washington. Over 200,000 people participated
beginning in 1995. These questions provided
in the rally that included the “I Have a Dream”
quantitative measures, collected on an annual
speech given by Dr. Martin Luther King. As
basis, of the amount of food insecurity experi-
discussed in Chapter 2, History of US
enced by Americans. The USDA uses the FSS
Agriculture and Food Production, President
data as well as other information on food
John Kennedy restarted the food stamp pro-
access to define food security as follows:
gram and his successor Lyndon Johnson
Food Security:
launched his War on Poverty. The demands of
the Vietnam War left little time or money for • High food security—Households had no
domestic food assistance programs but by the problems, or anxiety about, consistently
end of his term, Johnson had made important accessing adequate food.
progress by passing the Food Stamp Act of • Marginal food security—Households had
1964 and expanding the National School Lunch problems at times, or anxiety about,
Program (NSLP). President Richard Nixon con- accessing adequate food, but the quality,
tinued efforts to address hunger and poverty variety, and quantity of their food intake
during his term. He called for the White House were not substantially reduced.
Conference on Food, Nutrition, and Health,
Food Insecurity:
which brought together leaders in nutrition,
public health, food, and agriculture; federal, • Low food security—Households reduced
state, and local governments; and consumer the quality, variety, and desirability of their
groups for the first time to discuss food and diets, but the quantity of food intake and
nutrition issues. The outcomes of the conference normal eating patterns were not
were enhancement of the food stamp, school substantially disrupted.

• Very low food security—At times during been proportionally higher among black and
the year, eating patterns of one or more Hispanic households compared to other race/
household members were disrupted and ethnicity or white households. A significant
food intake reduced because the household increase in rates among all households
lacked money and other resources for food. occurred during the 2007 09 recession.
Among Hispanic households, food insecurity
Food insecurity rates in 1995 were about
reached 27% in 2009 and was still at 22% by
12% of the total US population and remained
2014. Among black households, the rate of
fairly steady until 2007 when the Great
food insecurity rose to 26% in 2009 and stayed
Recession began. Rates of food insecurity
above 25% through 2014. The rates for white
jumped between 2007 and 2009 to 15% and
households rose from about 8% to 11% during
have only declined slightly (Fig. 7.9). The rates
that time period.
of food insecurity in the United States have
FIGURE 7.9 Food insecurity in the United States population increased during the 2007 09 recession especially among
black and Hispanic households. The rate of food insecurity among all populations has not returned to the levels before
the recession. Source: USDA Economic Research Service, www.usda.ers.gov.

Food insecurity is strongly linked to eco- 7.4.2 Impact of Food Insecurity

nomic and social conditions. Of all food- on Children
insecure households in 2014, 35% were
headed by a single woman, 26% were black, The 2015 USDA report on food insecurity
22% were Hispanic, 22% were headed by a reported that 17% of households with children
single man, and 20% had children under 6 were food insecure at some time during the
years of age. Very low food insecurity is year. Families experiencing food insecurity
greatest among households with children reported that children were hungry, skipped
headed by a single woman, and black a meal, or did not eat for a whole day.
households. Income is a primary driver of Inadequate nutrient intake during childhood
food insecurity. Households with incomes at has severe consequences. Diets lacking ade-
or below the poverty threshold (,1.0) have quate calories, proteins, essential fatty acids,
high rates of food insecurity (Fig. 7.10). and micronutrients affect brain development,
Food insecurity continues to be high until bone structure and dental health and reduce
the household income reaches 1.85 times the the ability to resist infectious diseases. Food
poverty level. The prevalence of low or very insecurity has been found to cause poor physi-
low food security in households with chil- cal and mental health, depression, health
dren also trends with income level. Other issues in infants and toddlers, behavioral pro-
predictors of food insecurity include high blems in preschool children, low educational
housing rents, high unemployment rate, res- achievement in kindergarteners, and depres-
idential instability, and low use of SNAP sion and suicide symptoms in adolescents.
benefits. Food insecurity in kindergarten children
FIGURE 7.10 Food insecurity is strongly associated with poverty. Households with incomes that are at the poverty
level (1.00) or at 85% of the poverty level (1.85) have higher prevalence of food insecurity compared to those with incomes
above that level. Source: USDA Economic Research Service, www.usda.ers.gov.

predicted impaired academic performance in allowed people to move miles away from
reading and math for boys and girls, greater towns where stores were located and the
decline in social skills for boys, and greater development of supermarkets reduced the
weight and body mass index (BMI) gains for need for frequent food shopping. As a conse-
girls. Participation in SNAP, which potentially quence, small local grocery stores closed and
reduced food insecurity, was found to result in were replaced with regional shopping areas.
higher math and reading scores in children in The concept of a food desert was coined in
kindergarten to third grade compared to those 2008 when it became apparent that the built
that were not accessing SNAP benefits. An environment in some communities had created
association has also been made between body areas where people had limited access to a
weight and marginal and low food security variety of healthy and affordable food. Built
households due to the reduced quality of food environment refers to the infrastructure of a
consumed to avoid hunger. Households may community, such as the location and types of
rely on high energy, low nutrient-dense foods roads, sidewalks, types of buildings and stores,
when access to food and/or money is low. The and access to green areas or playgrounds. The
result may be increased rates of obesity, which USDA began quantifying food deserts as an
would seem to be paradoxical in a food inse- additional measure of food security. A “low
cure environment. access” area is defined as one where 500 peo-
Adequate nutrition during pregnancy is ple or 33% of the population resides more than
also important for the health of the mother 1 mile from a supermarket or large grocery
and the in-utero development of the infant. store in urban areas, or greater than 10 miles
Low birth-weight and preterm deliveries are in rural areas. There are over 6500 food desert
more common in women with poor diets tracts as defined by the USDA in the United
immediately prior to and during pregnancy. States. Food deserts are likely to exist in loca-
Low iron and folate intakes are of particular tions with a population of minority ethnic
concern as deficiency of these nutrients can groups; high poverty rates; the rural areas of
cause preterm births, fetal growth retardation, the West, Midwest, and South; dense urban
or neural tube defects. The ability to ade- areas of the West, Midwest, and South; and
quately breastfeed an infant due to poor areas with a high amount of vacant property.
maternal nutrition is also a major concern. The consequences of living in a food desert are
Infants gain significant benefits from being a reliance on convenience stores for food pur-
breastfed for the first several months of life, chases, which typically supply packaged foods
including better growth rates, ability to resist and beverages and do not include fruits, vege-
infection, and fewer chronic health problems. tables, dairy, meats, or eggs. Such foods have
been associated with high calorie intakes and
low nutritive value, thereby contributing to
obesity risks.
7.4.3 Food Deserts While serving as First Lady, Michelle
Having adequate money and the ability to Obama took on the issue of food deserts as
access wholesome food are both necessary to part of her Partnership for a Healthier America
prevent food insecurity. American develop- (PHA). Convenience store companies, after
ment since the 1800s has been characterized by partnering with PHA, began to offer healthier
a shift of population away from rural agricul- items. For example, KwikTrip convenience
tural locations to urban and suburban commu- stores have added fruit and vegetables options,
nities. The introduction of cars and highways whole grains, and low-fat dairy products in

their stores, and the vending machine supplier influence food purchasing behavior beyond
Sodexo has added healthier options. Walmart, simply having access to food markets. Food
which is the largest food marketer in the prices, knowledge about food preparation, eat-
United States (Walmart had 68 supercenters ing habits, and cultural preferences all play
with grocery stores in 1994 and 3288 in 2015), important roles in food buying decisions.
began opening smaller stores in urban and
rural food desert areas to provide more options
for local residents. Walgreens, which is primar-
7.4.4 Nongovernmental Food
ily a pharmacy, expanded its food offerings in
urban stores to make more foods available in
Assistance Programs
these areas. The USDA has funded grants to There is a great need for food assistance in
encourage increased farm-to-market programs the United States and this need is not fully met
that would expand food options in food desert by federal programs. Consequently, a wide
areas. Other initiatives have been introduced range of nonprofit volunteer organizations
by states and cities to address the food desert have stepped up to fill the gap. These organi-
issue including the Pennsylvania Fresh Food zations secure funding from a network of fed-
Initiative and the Stable Food Ordinance in eral, state, and local grants, seek donations
Minneapolis, which required retailers selling from individuals and corporations, and rely on
small amounts of food to offer more fruits, volunteers to carry out most of the activities.
vegetables, milk, and whole-grain products. An important legislative act that assisted the
There are also programs to support existing growth in nongovernmental food assistance
and new grocery stores in rural areas. programs was the Bill Emerson Good
When the concept of a food desert was intro- Samaritan Food Donation Act. This act was
duced, the types of foods available locally were signed into law by President Bill Clinton in
thought to be a significant factor in food pur- 1996, and protects donors from criminal liabil-
chasing decisions. This aspect of purchasing ity when donating food to a nonprofit organi-
may not be as important as was initially zation if the food should cause illness or harm.
thought. In 2016, the USDA completed a study It includes a provision that says providing
in which food purchases of consumers living in food close to the recommended date of sale is
food desert areas were tracked. When consu- not grounds for gross negligence.
mers living in low food access areas shopped John Arnold van Hengel started the first
locally, they purchased slightly less fruit, vege- food bank in Phoenix, Arizona in 1967.
tables, and milk products but more red meats Working as a volunteer in the Immaculate
and diet drinks than people not living in food Heart Church, he saw the great need of people
deserts. When the people from food desert coming to the soup kitchen for food. He also
areas traveled farther to a store, presumably to noticed the large amount of food being dis-
have better food choices, their food purchased carded by stores and restaurants and he began
changed only slightly compared to what they to collect and distribute these foods to homeless
purchased closer to home. Similarly, when a people. Van Hengel opened St. Mary’s Food
new grocery store was opened in a community, Bank with the support of St. Mary’s Catholic
only about 25% of residents changed their Church, which provided funding and a ware-
shopping habits to use the new store, and the house where he could store and distribute food.
impact on consumption of fruits and Van Hengel continued to expand his reach in
vegetables was very small. These findings illus- 1976 by launching America’s Second Harvest
trate that there may be multiple factors that (now Feeding America www.feedingamerica.

org) and garnering support and donations from Meals on Wheels America is a national,
large corporations and foundations. In 1983, public private organization that oversees a
van Hengel established Food Banking Inc. network of community programs that deliver
(now The Global Food Banking Network meals to senior citizens who are unable to leave
www.foodbanking.org), which is an interna- their homes. Federal funding provides some
tional nonprofit organization to create, sup- support for Meals on Wheels through the Older
port, and strengthen food banks. Today, every Americans Act (OAA), which is administered
state has numerous food banks and pantries by the USDA, but most programs rely on dona-
run by faith-based organizations, local volun- tions and other support to meet the local
teer groups, and communities that provide demand. Over 9% of elderly people living
food and necessities to those in need. Food alone in 2015 were food insecure. States with
drives to collect food are organized by local the highest food insecurity among senior citi-
groups, schools, athletic teams, and even the zens include Mississippi, South Carolina,
US Postal Service. A great deal of food is also Arkansas, Texas, and New Mexico. Funding
donated by the food industry. Products that from the OAA is also used to provide congre-
are safe to eat but may have a crooked label or gate meals to elderly persons who are able to
that have been overproduced for the market go to a local community center for the meals.
may be donated to a food pantry. There has These environments provide daily social inter-
been some concern that the types of foods actions and opportunities for educational pro-
available through food banks are not always grams for seniors in addition to the meals.
the most healthful options; specifically fresh Many faith-based organizations provide
fruits and vegetables, dairy, and meats tend to meals and food assistance to low-income fami-
be difficult to provide to food pantries. Some lies. These organizations may partner with
recent efforts to improve this include creating USDA nutrition assistance programs or other
“plant an acre” programs where farmers plant federal, state, and local organizations for part or
extra crops to be donated to food pantries, cre- all of the funding. They may provide food to
ating community gardens specifically for food day care facilities, food banks, pantries and
pantry donations, and encouraging hunters soup kitchens, schools, after-school programs,
and wild game processing centers to donate homeless shelters, health clinics, and summer
their products. activity programs.
EXPANSION BOX 7.2
F O O D A S S I S TA N C E P R O G R A M S O N C O L L E G E C A M P U S E S
College campuses feed thousands of stu- was first implemented by students at the
dents every day. These large food service University of Maryland College Park. The
operations are run efficiently, but often over- Sodexo Foundation provided funding to grow
produce food that is not consumed. Food recov- the program and today there are 191 chapters
ery programs unite students at colleges and on college campuses around the United States.
universities to fight food waste by recovering A similar program, Campus Kitchens Project,
surplus perishable food that would otherwise began in 2001 to connect schools with commu-
be discarded from their campuses and donating nity groups to provide food assistance.
it to people in need. The Food Recovery Network Students work with the dining staff of their

institutions to collect and distribute the edible, they may not be able to afford food. To meet
unneeded food to food pantries and congregate these needs, many schools are providing
meal sites in their local communities. On some student-run food pantries on their campuses.
campuses, the students use the campus kitchens Students majoring in dietetics at Iowa State
in the summer, when the facilities would other- University were researching food insecurity for
wise not be operating, to prepare foods for the a class project and learned about the challenges
community. Part of the mission of these student some college students face with regard to food.
groups is to raise awareness among their fellow Their research found that students who are sin-
students about hunger and food insecurity and gle parents, or paying for their college tuition
to encourage them to not waste food. on their own, were having difficulty meeting
Gleaning is another method of obtaining their nutritional needs. To address the problem,
food for distribution to food-insecure people. the dietetic students created a food pantry,
Gleaning programs link farmers who have called the SHOP (Students Helping Our Peers).
crops that are edible, but not marketable, with Members of the SHOP come from many differ-
those who distribute food to the needy. These ent majors and contribute their skills to pro-
programs rely on volunteers, often college or mote the program. Students hold food
high school students, to pick and deliver the donation drives on campus and collect food
produce. The Stanford Gleaning Project is an donations from local farmers, merchants, and
example of a student-run program to harvest restaurants; advertise the SHOP on campus;
food that is given away to those in need. and organize and distribute the food. Other col-
Food insecurity is an increasing problem for lege campuses, and K 12 schools, have similar
college students. A study of students attending programs to provide food to students in need.
colleges in Illinois found that 35% of students
were food insecure. Higher costs of education, Suggested websites: www.foodrecoverynetwork.org, www.
campuskitchens.org, www.bewell.stanford.edu, www.theshop.
and the challenges of working while going to stuorg.iastate.edu
school, have put students in a situation where
7.5 DIET AND CHRONIC DISEASE in a short time but require life-long treatment
and management and have an impact on qual-
The role of nutrients in disease began with ity of life. Many chronic diseases are strongly
the identification of essential nutrients that linked to dietary habits and nutritional status.
when deficient in the diet caused illness. By Analysis of two types of chronic conditions,
the 1950s, vitamins and minerals, essential colon cancer and heart disease, began to direct
amino acids, and essential fatty acids were iso- nutrition science and chronic disease research.
lated, chemically characterized, and purified,
and standards of intake required to prevent
disease were defined. After these scientific 7.5.1 Colon Cancer
accomplishments, nutrition researchers began An observation made by Denis Burkitt, a
to determine the role of diet in chronic disease. British physician working in Africa, led to the
Chronic diseases are those that are not cured connection between colon cancer and diet.

7.5 DIET AND CHRONIC DISEASE 263
Burkitt observed that colon cancer was very dietary fiber is likely protective of colon cancer
rare among African populations and devel- risk, but family history, the colonic microbial
oped the hypothesis that diets high in complex population, dietary components, and lifestyle
carbohydrates and fiber were a primary reason (obesity and a sedentary lifestyle are risk fac-
for the lower rates of colon cancer in Africans tors) play important roles.
compared to rates in the United Kingdom and
United States. He also postulated that high
rates of colon cancer in developed countries
could be explained by the consumption of
7.5.2 Cardiovascular Disease
refined carbohydrates that lacked fiber. In As with the connection between dietary
1971 he presented his findings at a national fiber and colon cancer, a relationship between
conference in the United States. This led to an dietary fat and CVD arose from comparisons
intense research agenda by many scientists to of populations. CVD includes conditions
explain the connection between diet and colon related to the heart and blood vessels, such
cancer risk. as hypertension, atherosclerosis, heart attack,
Cancer is a complex disease with many pos- and stroke. From the 1950s Ancel Keys from
sible causative factors, including genetic famil- the University of Minnesota, along with
ial risks, environmental components, viral and research colleagues from around the world, col-
bacterial agents, and dietary compounds, most lected data on the incidence of heart disease
of which have not been fully defined. The and dietary intakes of populations in different
nature of the colonic environment includes a countries. This came to be known as the Seven
cell population with rapid turnover and a rich Countries Study and was published a report
bacterial concentration that generates acids, entitled The diet and 15-year death rate in the
bases, and other signaling compounds. Diet seven countries study (Keys and others, 1986).
composition directly and indirectly affects the The report correlated causes of death with die-
colonic cells and interacts with the microbial tary intake within populations and included a
environment as well. These factors play a role graph that showed higher deaths from CVD in
in regulation of cell growth and possibly the populations that had higher intakes of satu-
development of cancer. The complexities make rated fats compared to the lower death rate in
understanding the causes of and influences on populations with lower saturated fat intake.
colon cancer risk challenging. These correlations, along with research find-
The number of research papers focused on ings in animal studies launched a decades-long
dietary fiber and colon cancer exploded after investigation of the role of dietary fat in CVD.
Burkitt’s hypothesis was presented. Medical It had been known since the 1950s that
groups and healthcare providers encouraged high-fat and high-cholesterol diets could
people to consume more fiber and the food induce heart disease in animal models. Plaque
industry responded with hundreds of fiber- buildup (comprised mainly of cholesterol) in
enriched products on store shelves. Colon can- arteries had been found during autopsies of
cer incidence rates and deaths have decreased young soldiers from the Korean War, which
steadily in the United States since 1985. suggested CVD started early in life. These and
Dietary fiber intake may have played a role in other lines of evidence created a credible con-
the decrease, but increased emphasis on nection between dietary saturated fat and cho-
screening colonoscopies for earlier detection, lesterol with higher risk of CVD, leading
better treatment protocols, and reduction in nutrition researchers to focus on defining this
smoking also contributed to the decline. relationship. The first DGA (1980) included
Current research suggests that a diet high in recommendations to reduce fat intake,

especially saturated fats, and to limit choles-

terol intake. Consequently, many consumers
switched from eating red meat to chicken and
consumed fewer eggs and whole milk.
Vegetable oils, hydrogenated margarine and
shortening were substituted for butter and ani-
mal fats. The food industry again responded
by developing “fat-free” and “low-fat” foods.
Consumers embraced these fat-free products
but fat-free foods were certainly not calorie-
free. To replace the mouthfeel and creaminess
that fats provide, gums, carbohydrates, and
sugar were often added to the products. There
has been some recent discussion among nutri-
tion scientists that removal of fat from foods
may not have been the best public health
approach to reducing CVD, and the consump-
tion of high-carbohydrate foods may have
been one of the factors that led to the obesity
epidemic.
The two primary dietary targets for CVD FIGURE 7.11 Fatty acids are classified as saturated
have been saturated fats and cholesterol. (without double bonds) or unsaturated (with double
bonds). Cis-fatty acids are the natural form for unsaturated
Structurally, fatty acids contain carbon, hydro-
fats, whereas trans-fatty acids are formed during the
gen, and oxygen molecules. The carbons are hydrogenation process. The location of the first double
linked by bonds that are either saturated (a bond from the omega end of a fatty acid is used as a classi-
single carbon carbon bond and two hydro- fication system for fatty acids. Source: Illustration by
gens per carbon) or unsaturated (a double Reannon Overbey.
bond is formed between the two carbons, with
one hydrogen per carbon; Fig. 7.11). Saturated than 10 carbons, and long-chain fatty acids
fats are characterized by being solid, whereas have more than 20 carbons.
unsaturated fats are liquid, at room tempera- A clever way to categorize the unsaturated
ture. Saturated fats are found mainly in animal fatty acids is the use of families based on the
products, such as meat and butter, and unsatu- location of the first double bond from the
rated fats are plant-based, such as omega end. Fatty acids have an alpha (α sym-
vegetables oils. One other group of fatty acids bol meaning the beginning) and omega (ω
found in foods is monounsaturated fatty acids. symbol meaning the end) side. The alpha side
These are characterized by having only one contains oxygen molecules bound to the car-
double bond in the hydrocarbon chain and are bon while the omega end has only hydrogens
typically present in plant oils. Within each (Fig. 7.11). Adding carbons to a fatty acid can
class of fats, there are specific types of fatty occur only from the alpha side, so the family
acids, defined by the number of carbons for remains constant. There are three families of
saturated fats and the location and number of unsaturated fatty acids of importance to
double bonds for unsaturated fatty acids. human biology; the omega 3, 6, and 9 families
There are many ways to classify and categorize (designated as n-3, n-6, or n-9; or ω3, ω6, or
fatty acids, which can be somewhat confusing. ω9). Humans are not able to synthesize the ω3
Short-chain fatty acids are those with fewer or ω6 families of fatty acids, so these must be

consumed from food (and are called “essen- concerns about the role of trans fats in human
tial” fatty acids) while the ω9 family can be health.
synthesized (nonessential fatty acids). The ω6 The process for determining which types of
fats are present in vegetable oils and plants fatty acids are most involved in CVD risk has
and the ω3 fats are in high concentration in not been straightforward. The Keys study
fatty fish such as salmon. Both these fatty acid (1986) targeted saturated fats as being strongly
families provide precursors for important reg- linked to deaths from CVD. Research over
ulatory compounds called prostaglandins the past two decades has found that not all sat-
(PGs), but the structures of the PG made from urated fatty acids may be bad for health.
the two sources have different biological Initially, recommendations were made to
effects. PGs from the ω3 fatty acids tend to be avoid all sources of saturated fats, including
more effective in reducing inflammatory pro- those from dairy foods and meats. More recent
cesses while PGs from the ω6 promote inflam- evidence suggests that some saturated fats,
mation. The ω3 fatty acids are also very especially those from dairy foods, may be ben-
important for development of tissues in the eficial to health. There is also evidence that
brain and nervous system and therefore have recommending a low-fat diet may not have
been added to infant formulas in recent years. been the best for overall health. As noted, die-
There is increasing recognition that Americans tary fats are important for providing essential
have been consuming too much ω6 fatty acids fatty acids, but fats provide satiety because
and not enough ω3 fatty acids, especially in they are digested more slowly than proteins
populations that do not regularly consume and carbohydrates. Fats carry flavors and
fish. With this knowledge, fish oil supplements improve the absorption of fat-soluble nutri-
became popular and dietary recommendations ents. The 2015 DGA makes the recommen-
to increase fish consumption have been made dation to consume diets with a balance of
to reduce CVD risk. healthy fats.
An additional feature to the structure of The role of cholesterol in CVD is compli-
unsaturated fatty acids is the orientation of cated because humans require cholesterol as a
the carbon chains around the double bond. In component of cellular membranes and as a
the human body, all of the double bonds precursor of many important regulatory com-
within fatty acids are in the cis orientation, or pounds in the body. Humans synthesize cho-
in the same plane (Fig. 7.11). The process of lesterol from acetyl-CoA, which is a molecule
hydrogenation, in which plant oils are normally generated during fatty acid metabo-
exposed to hydrogen gas to add hydrogen lism. In healthy people, cholesterol synthesis is
molecules to some of the double bonds, can tightly regulated and the absorption of dietary
create trans fatty acids, which have the carbon cholesterol from food sources is balanced with
chains oriented in opposite planes. Trans fatty production. Dietary cholesterol circulates in
acids are taken up by the body normally, but the blood as part of lipid droplets, called chy-
once inside the cell, they cannot be broken lomicrons, which deliver fats and cholesterol
down because the enzyme systems in humans from the intestine to the liver. In the liver, cho-
cannot access the bonds in this orientation. lesterol and fats from the diet and those syn-
Trans fats have been the target of recent thesized endogenously are repackaged into
research that has discovered a strong correla- lipoproteins that leave the liver and circulate
tion between consumption of these types of in the blood. As the lipoproteins pass through
fats and CVD risk. The FDA has taken the the body, fats and cholesterol from the lipopro-
decisive move to remove partially hydroge- teins are released and taken up by cells within
nated oils from the GRAS list because of the organs and tissues. The fats and cholesterol are

used by the cells to make membranes and to digestive enzymes to convert the fats into their
synthesize many important compounds. Some basic components (glycerol and fatty acids)
of the cholesterol and fats may also be depos- that are absorbed from the intestine.
ited in arteries, forming plaque which can Emulsification is the process of forming a coat
eventually cause CVD. Eventually, most of the of nonpolar molecules around polar molecules.
fat and cholesterol is released from the lipo- In the intestine, bile acids are the nonpolar
protein leaving a smaller particle called a low- compounds that form a coat around the polar
density lipoprotein (LDL). These LDL particles lipids. This is the same principle used to make
are cleared from the blood by being taken up homogenized milk (proteins coat the lipids) or
the liver. Another type of particle, a high- salad dressings (proteins or carbohydrates coat
density lipoprotein or HDL, is made by and the vegetable oils). After the fat is digested,
released from the liver. HDLs begin as empty most of the bile acids are reabsorbed from the
vesicles and collect and transport excess cho- intestine and returned to the gallbladder. But a
lesterol and fats from tissues back to the liver. small amount of them are lost into the feces.
In this system, LDLs deliver cholesterol and This is the only route through which choles-
fats to tissues and HDLs take them away, so terol can be excreted from the body. Diets con-
having high LDL in the blood increases risk of taining more fiber are thought to increase the
CVD while having high HDL is protective. In amount of bile acids that are not reabsorbed
some people, cholesterol synthesis, production, and therefore reduce cholesterol levels in the
and/or clearance of LDL or production of body. Adding certain sterols to the diet and
HDL are not well regulated causing what is some medications also target this pathway to
known as dyslipidemia and increased risk of reduce serum cholesterol levels.
CVD. In these individuals, reducing dietary
cholesterol intake has no effect and medica-
tions are needed to correct blood lipid levels.
More recent research has found that dietary
7.5.3 Obesity
cholesterol intake in most people does not Colon cancer and CVD are illustrative of the
cause high cholesterol levels in the blood, complicated role that dietary factors play in
which is in stark contrast to the belief that die- chronic disease and the challenges of recom-
tary cholesterol was a primary cause of CVD mending dietary guidelines for the general
risk. With this newer understanding of choles- population. In recent years, the attention of
terol regulation, the 2015 DGA removed the the nutrition research community has turned
recommendation to limit the consumption of to the issue of obesity. Obesity is a chronic
eggs, which had been a recommendation in condition, although it has not typically been
previous DGAs to reduce cholesterol intake. classified as a disease.
Some people will need to reduce their dietary Early attempts to define healthy body com-
cholesterol intake, especially those taking med- position used height and weight charts as a
ications to control their blood lipids or if they standard comparison. The life insurance indus-
have CVD. try developed charts of ideal body weights
A major function of cholesterol in the body based on death rates of their clients. These
is as a precursor of bile acids. Cholesterol is charts, for males and females, were used for
converted to bile acids in the liver and stored years as guides for recommending a healthy
in the gallbladder. When dietary fats are con- body weight. They were limited in applicabil-
sumed, the gallbladder is signaled to release ity because they were based a small number
the bile acids into the small intestine. The bile of people, mainly Caucasians between 25
acids serve to emulsify dietary fat, allowing and 59 years of age (typical policy holders).

The concept of using the ratio of body weight TABLE 7.6 Classification of Obesity Based on Body
to height squared was introduced in the 1800s Mass Index (BMI)
by a mathematician. This ratio was first BMI Weight status
applied to human nutrition in 1972 by Ancel
Keys, who called the ratio the BMI. BMI is cal- Below 18.5 Underweight
culated as (weight (kg)/height (m)2). 18.5 24.9 Normal or healthy weight
BMI replaced the height and weight tables as 25.0 29.9 Overweight
a standard reference tool and is used to define
stages of obesity. The CDC is careful to note 30.0 34.9 Class I obesity
that BMI is useful as a screening tool but should 35.0 39.9 Class II obesity
not be diagnostic of body fatness or health. BMI 40.0 49.9 Class III obesity
does not take into consideration muscle mass or
bone density. For example, BMI measurements From CDC, www.cdc.gov.
on athletes can be misleading because they tend
to have high muscle mass and bone density.
For the general population of adults, BMI pro- body composition. Typically, these are taken
vides a useful indicator of obesity. BMI defines at the triceps (upper back of arm), biceps
stages of obesity, as shown in Table 7.6. (above elbow), subscapular (upper back), and
Other tools used to define nutritional suprailiac (hip) using a caliper.
status and body composition include anthro- More direct measures of body fatness
pometric measurements. Weight circumfer- include underwater weighing (water displace-
ence is a useful tool to define amount of fat ment), air displacement (Bod Pod), bioelectrical
within the abdomen. A waist circumference impedance, or dual-energy X-ray absorptiome-
of greater than 40 in. in men and 35 in. in try (DEXA). Each of these measurements pro-
women would be considered in the obese cat- vides a reliable value for total body fat. DEXA
egory. Skinfold measurements taken at three has the advantage of also showing where body
or four sites are also useful to define overall fat is located on the body.
EXPANSION BOX 7.3
OBESITY BECOMING AN EPIDEMIC

Life expectancy has improved greatly in the 25 pounds between 1900 and 2000 (Fig. 7.13).
United States. In 1900, the average life expectancy Women were 10 pounds heavier in 1900 com-
for men was 46 and for women 48 years of age pared to 1955, but were 30 pounds heavier in
(Fig. 7.12). Today, a man is expected to live to 76 2010 compared to 1955.
and a woman to 81 years of age. Improved nutri- Between 1960 and 2010 body weights of 20- to
tion and reduced incidence of childhood diseases 29-year-old men increased 20 pounds; women
have been credited with improving growth rates increased 34 pounds. Average heights for this age
of children over the last century. Recent trends in group increased only a half of an inch during that
body composition have changed the outlook for time (Fig. 7.14). The gain in body weight has
the health of the nation. The average body weight largely been from a gain in body fat.
of a 20- to 29-year-old American male increased

FIGURE 7.12 Life expectancy for men and women in the 1900s was less than 50 years. Due to improved
nutrition and healthcare, life expectancy has increased to around 76 years for men and 81 for women. Source:
CDC FastStats, www.cdc.gov.
FIGURE 7.13 The average body weight of men and women in 2010 was 24 pounds greater than in 1900.
Women weighed less between 1900 and 1950 possibly because they were more likely to be living in cities and
not on farms doing manual labor. Source: CDC, www.cdc.gov.
The incidence of obesity within the US pop- An increase in the percent of people with
ulation increased from 10% 15% in 1960 to extreme obesity, a BMI greater than 40, has
35% 40% in 2013 (Fig. 7.15). The fastest rate of increased steadily during this time as well.
increase occurred between 1976 and 1990.

an
FIGURE 7.14 The average body weight of men and women (top panel) has increased since 1960, whereas
the average height (bottom panel) has remained constant. The greater body weight is suggestive of a gain in
body fatness that is not beneficial to overall health. Source: CDC, www.cdc.gov.
The prevalence of obesity within states has obesity rate less than 10% and 23 states had
been tracked by the CDC since 1985 via rates of 20% 24%. By 2010 there were no states
NHANES data. In 1990, only 10 states had obe- reporting obesity prevalence less than 10%
sity rates as high as 10%. By 2000, no state had and 12 states with prevalence above 30%.

FIGURE 7.15 The incidence of obesity among men and women increased rapidly between 1976 and 2000
with over 35% of the adult population classified as obese. The incidence of extreme obesity (BMI . 40) has
increased, especially among women. Source: CDC, www.cdc.gov.
The causes for this rapid development of obe- prevalence is similar across all income levels,
sity are complex. It has been proposed that we but low income women are more likely to be
have created an obesogenic environment in obese than higher income women. The preva-
the United States that has facilitated the rapid lence of obesity has increased in adults across
expansion in the prevalence of obesity. all income and education levels.
According to CDC statistics, socioeconomic
Suggested video: The Weight of the Nation,
status plays a role but is not the primary
http://theweightofthenation.hbo.com/
determinant of obesity risk. For men, obesity
Suggested website: www.cdc.org/obesity
primarily the type and amount of food con-

7.5.4 Causes of Obesity
sumed. More energy-dense foods, larger portion
The biochemical explanation for increased sizes, sugar-sweetened beverages, convenience
body fatness is an excessive intake of calories and access to snacking and eating meals away
beyond those needed for body functions and from home have all been associated with obesity
physical activity. The human body is highly effi- risk. Portion sizes on all types of foods from res-
cient at storing excess energy from dietary fat, taurants to packaged foods to sodas have
carbohydrate, and protein by converting it to fat. increased leading to higher calorie intakes
Humans have an essentially unlimited capacity (Fig. 7.16). A trend for larger portions began in
to build body fat stores. Factors that increase the 1970s. Consequently, the average calorie
energy intake and/or reduce energy expenditure intake has correspondingly also increased. From
will contribute to obesity risk. The types of fac- CSFII data, the average calorie intake of children
tors associated with increased energy intake are increased between 1977 and 2003 by about

FIGURE 7.16 Portion sizes of common foods have increased over the past 20 years leading to higher caloric intake.
These larger portion sizes may be contributing to the higher rates of obesity. Source: Illustration by Reannon Overbey.
180 cal/day, primarily from larger portion sizes home and demonstrated mostly calisthenic
and higher intakes of snack foods. Assuming types of exercises. Jane Fonda used the newer
that the amount of energy expenditure of chil- medium of video in the 1980s to provide work-
dren did not increase over this time period, this out routines that women could do in their
higher calorie intake would be expected to cause homes. Richard Simmons, having undergone a
increased body fat. significant personal weight loss, became a pop-
On the energy expenditure side, less physi- ular fitness and motivational celebrity during
cal activity in daily life, built environments the 1990s. Fitness became electronic and per-
that inhibit walking and playing outside, more sonal with the introduction of smart phones.
sedentary work and increased screen time Geospatial sensors that detect movement and
(computer, television, smart phones), less lei- global positioning systems (GPS) that track
sure time, air-conditioned homes and work- location created the opportunity to monitor
places, and more time spent in cars have all individual physical activity. The FitBit, a wear-
been linked to increased obesity risk. The able fitness tracker, launched in 2009 and was
move to suburbs during the 1950s meant that instantly popular. The Android Wear and
children rode buses to school and adults drove Apple Watch are similar systems that record
to work and shopping. The time students were heart rate, steps taken, distance traveled, sleep
allowed for recess in school decreased and patterns, and calories burned. These devices
children increasingly participated in scheduled can even send reminders to help achieve goals.
sports rather than free-play. These factors have The concept of a fitness center for the aver-
been proposed as having an impact on the rise age person may have evolved from the activi-
in obesity. ties of The Young Men’s Christian Association
Over the past decades, Americans changed (YMCA). The first YMCA building with a
their views of, and participation in, exercise. It gymnasium opened in 1869 and began offering
was fairly uncommon for adults to participate group fitness classes, swimming lessons, and
in daily exercise in the 1950s and going to a team sports. The game of basketball was
gym to exercise was rare. An early leader in invented by James Naismith at a YMCA in
popularizing fitness was Jack LaLanne, who Massachusetts. During the 1970s, people
hosted a popular television show from 1953 to became more interested in fitness and leisure
1985. LaLanne promoted exercising in the sports and venues were developed to offer

these opportunities. In 1977, there were 2700 TABLE 7.7 Definition of BMI-for-Age for Children
fitness clubs in the United States and by 2015,
Weight status Percentile of the CDC growth
there were over 34,000. The fitness industry category charts
has grown to be a major part of the US econ-
omy, generating over $24 billion in 2014. High- Underweight Less than the 5th percentile
tech equipment in sleek fitness centers are Normal or healthy 5th percentile to less than the 85th
commonly found in hotels, on college cam- weight percentile
puses, in nursing homes and retirement cen- Overweight 85th to less than the 95th percentile
ters, and in the workplace. The types of clubs
Obese 95th percentile or greater
and workout programs available are almost
unlimited including yoga, cycling, aerobics, From CDC, www.cdc.gov.
kickboxing, swimming, running, and weight
training. Group events such as marathons and specific percentile, is used as the guide. The
triathlons, bike treks, kayaking, and rock BMI-for-age growth charts allow comparison
climbing are widely available. This fitness to define children who might be at risk of
craze has occurred simultaneously with the overweight or obesity (Table 7.7).
rise in obesity rates, which suggests different Rates of obesity have increased steadily in
segments of the population are accessing these children over 6 years of age since 1963, but the
programs. rate slowed for children aged 2 5 since 2003
(Fig. 7.17). This may be reflective of a greater
awareness about childhood obesity among
7.5.5 Childhood Obesity mothers and pediatricians. Despite this posi-
tive trend, the overall prevalence of childhood
The large number of obese adults in the obesity is nearly 20%.
United States is a serious concern, but the high
prevalence of obesity in children is a greater
risk to the nation’s health. Obese children are
7.5.6 Consequences and Costs
more likely to continue to be obese into adult-
of Obesity
hood and obesity during development affects
physical, mental, and social well-being. Obese There has been significant debate as to
children have higher rates of school absences, whether obesity should be classified as a dis-
which affects their learning, and have a more ease, a lifestyle condition, or a risk factor for
difficult time fitting in socially leading to more other diseases. This distinction is of impor-
depression and social isolation than normal tance because medical care, treatments, and
weight children. Defining obesity in children is cost reimbursements are defined by the spe-
more complicated than in adults because chil- cific terminology of diagnosis. When obesity is
dren are growing. In addition, there may be not classified as a disease, treatment is focused
risk of stigmatization by labeling children as on the other diseases that occur in obese
obese or overweight at a certain period of patients rather than the root cause of those dis-
growth, as they may transition out of that eases. A significant change occurred in 2013
phase into a normal range. There is the need when the AMA adopted the policy that
for a clinical assessment tool to determine defined obesity as a disease. By defining obe-
when children may be at an unhealthy weight. sity as a disease and not a condition, medical
For children, a “BMI-for-age” measurement, treatments will be developed and covered by
which takes into account age- and gender- insurance. The AMA policy uses BMI to

FIGURE 7.17 The prevalence of obesity among children of all ages has increased since 1960. Increased awareness of
the problem and implementation of programs to address childhood obesity may be helping to keep the incidence from
continuing to increase in recent years. Source: CDC, www.cdc.gov.
diagnose obesity and provides guidelines Obese people have a higher rate of disability
for physicians and healthcare providers to and premature death than nonobese people.
treat and manage the disease. The guidelines The costs of obesity are both direct and indi-
include three main concepts: rect. Direct costs include those associated with
medical care such as office visits, laboratory
1. Healthcare providers should screen patients
tests, physical therapy, drug therapy, and hos-
annually and determine their BMI to
pitalizations. By some estimations, obesity-
identify those who would benefit from
related medical care may represent as much as
weight loss.
20% of total medical spending in the United
2. Patients should be enrolled in medically
States with increases every year. Hidden costs
supervised weight loss programs for at least
such as having to replace hospital beds, wheel-
6 months in order to learn how to manage
chairs, and toilets with larger versions and
their weight.
more sturdy construction, or reconfiguring
3. Weight loss surgery should be considered
ambulances to hold larger people must also be
for extremely obese patients who have one
considered. More gasoline and airplane fuel is
or more obesity-related health conditions.
used to transport heavier people than for
It has long been recognized that obesity transportation of lighter people.
increases the risk for many severe conditions, The indirect costs of obesity include the
called comorbidities, including hypertension, impact on the productivity of the individual.
dyslipidemia, type 2 diabetes, coronary heart Obese workers are more likely to miss work,
disease, stroke, gallbladder disease, osteoarthri- experience periods of short-term or long-term
tis, sleep apnea, respiratory problems, repro- disability, and may not work at full capacity.
ductive problems, and some types of cancer. Lower worker productivity is an indirect cost

to employers and society. Obesity creates soci- amino acids) are sensed by the hypothalamus,
etal costs that are hard to quantify monetarily. which produces orexigenic (food intake
For example, as many as one in four young stimulating) signals such as neuropeptide Y
adults are ineligible for military service (NPY) and agouti-related protein, or anorexi-
because of obesity. These costs are absorbed genic (food intake inhibiting) signals such as
into the economy in a variety of ways, but proopiomelanocortin (POMC). The gastrointes-
overall have a negative impact on society. tinal tract also monitors food intake using
stretch-sensing receptors and hormones that
are released in response to meal size and con-
7.6 REGULATION tents. Early researchers thought that defects in
OF FOOD INTAKE these pathways or signaling systems might be
the source of obesity, and they are in some
First and foremost, eating food is essential cases. Genetic mutations in NPY, leptin, and
for life. Eating also provides pleasure and other systems have been identified and dem-
enjoyment. Being hungry is a sensation that onstrated to cause obesity, and specific thera-
everyone has experienced, but how we man- pies targeting these defects have been
age and balance our food intake with actual effective. However, the hope of finding the
physiological needs is complicated. Definitions “obesity gene” has not materialized. The
of hunger include a feeling of discomfort with causes of dysfunctional eating and under-
a desire to eat. The English language includes standing the reasons some people are able to
a wide range of words to describe a desire to balance their food intake to maintain normal
eat including craving, famished, starving, raven- body weight over the lifespan while others
ous, yen, munchies, and appetite. What and cannot, has not yet been achieved.
when people eat depends on many factors. We The decision about when and what to eat
eat when we are happy and sad, bored and involves the cognitive, emotional, attention,
excited, and celebrating and mourning. The and reward systems within the brain as well as
tastes and texture of foods influence the sensory signals, such as the sight, smell, and
amount we consume, and these preferences taste of food. Current research using brain
vary widely between people and among cul- imaging technologies is just beginning to
tures. Defining how the body regulates food uncover how the brain reacts to these multiple
intake and energy stores (body fat) has been stimuli. Some early experiments using these
somewhat explained through research, but not tools generated public attention when it was
to the level where it can be manipulated on a reported that eating or even just looking at pic-
long-term basis. tures of sugary foods created a similar brain
It has been known from studies of patients response as occurs when using highly addic-
with head injuries that areas of the brain par- tive drugs. This led to the idea that some types
ticipate in food intake regulation. Damage to of foods are addictive and accusations that
some areas of the hypothalamus cause uncon- food companies made foods addictive in order
trolled eating (hyperphagia) whereas damage to to increase sales. There is little evidence that
other areas causes extreme anorexia (refusal to people become addicted to foods, although
eat). The hypothalamus serves as a central cravings and overconsumption of highly
receiving center for signals in the blood that palatable foods can be a problem for some peo-
monitor food intake and energy stores. ple. Preliminary evidence suggests that there
Circulating hormones (insulin, leptin, and may be complex changes that develop in the
ghrelin) and nutrients (glucose, fatty acids, brain of obese individuals that make them less

7.6 REGULATION OF FOOD INTAKE 275
responsive to regulatory signals that inhibit One test that is used to define the presence of
eating. hyperglycemia is the amount of hemoglobin
A primary factor in energy management of A1C (or glycosylated hemoglobin) present in
the body is glucose. Glucose levels in the the blood. If left untreated, hyperglycemia
blood must be constrained within a fairly nar- increases the risk of atherosclerosis (precursor
row range in order for the brain and central of heart disease, kidney disease, stroke, and
nervous system to function properly. blindness) and may lead to ketoacidosis (high
Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) or hyperglyce- level of blood ketones and lowered blood pH),
mia (high blood sugar) are both dangerous and which may be a life-threatening condition.
potentially life-threatening. Two hormones Type 2 diabetics may experience infections
work together to ensure blood glucose levels that don’t heal, especially on the feet, which
are maintained within this narrow range. may progress to require amputations.
When blood glucose levels drop, the hormone Treatment of type 2 diabetes includes lifestyle
glucagon is released from the pancreas and changes such as management of diet and
acts to stimulate glucose production by the increased exercise, weight loss, and medica-
liver. When glucose levels increase, the pan- tions. There has been a steady increase in the
creas releases insulin, which acts to move glu- number of people with type 2 diabetes in the
cose from the blood into tissues where it is United States, from about 5.5 million people in
used for energy, stored as glycogen, or con- 1980 to over 22 million in 2014. A person with
verted to fat. At the cellular level, there is a type 2 diabetes accrues 2.3 times more medical
complex system stimulated by insulin for glu- care than someone without diabetes, which
cose uptake involving hormone receptors and puts additional burden on the healthcare costs
carrier proteins. For many reasons, there may of the nation.
be a breakdown in the communication Type 2 diabetes was considered a condition
between insulin and these regulatory systems that affected adults, in fact, it was first termed
that leads to insulin resistance. Type 1 diabetes adult-onset diabetes (type 1 diabetes was
occurs when the body cannot make sufficient termed juvenile diabetes because it occurred
insulin. The only treatment for type 1 diabetes most frequently before the age of 20). Type 2
is to provide insulin via regular injection or diabetes in children is still uncommon, but the
implanted pump. Type 2 diabetes is character- incidence increased over 30.5% between 2001
ized by insulin resistance, that is, insulin is and 2009, and it is projected that as much as a
produced but not able to properly maintain fourfold increase in incidence is possible into
blood glucose levels. the future. Because of the severe long-term
Obesity and sedentary lifestyles have been effects of type 2 diabetes, developing the con-
found to increase the risk of type 2 diabetes. dition during childhood is of great concern.
When insulin resistance occurs, blood glu- The role of carbohydrates in obesity and
cose levels may not be maintained in a normal type 2 diabetes risk has received increased
range and a state of hyperglycemia occurs, attention. Refined carbohydrates are sugars
causing glucose to be excreted into the urine (from sugar cane or sugar beets), caloric sweet-
(not a normal event). Hyperglycemia can cause eners (honey, molasses, agave nectar, high
symptoms of excessive thirst, headache, fructose corn syrup (HFCS)) and starches,
blurred vision, and fatigue. Prolonged hyper- which are rapidly digested and enter the blood
glycemia leads to a process called glycation in as glucose. Many foods contain natural sugars,
which cellular proteins and lipids become including fruits and vegetables and whole
bound to glucose, leading to tissue damage. grains. Added sugars are commonly found in

processed foods. The 2015 DGA has recom- carbohydrates for example. Other programs
mended limiting added sugars to no more provide meal substitutes or prescribe detailed
than 10% of energy intake. So that consumers menus for periods of time. Newer approaches
can monitor their intake, the FDA will require include fasting for 2 or 3 days/week. Such pro-
added sugars to be listed on the Nutrition grams that take away all choice from the dieter
Facts panel in 2018. One type of added sugar make them easier to follow. Unfortunately,
that has received a great deal of attention is once the dieter returns to their normal eating
HFCS. As described in Chapter 6, Food habits, the weight usually returns because they
Processing, HFCS is made from corn and is have not learned how to manage their intake
structurally similar to table sugar. The scien- over the long term. More effective programs
tific consensus is that HFCS is digested and engage in teaching the dieter how to assess
metabolized similarly to sugar and does not their calorie intake (keep a food diary), read
pose a unique risk to health. Currently, there and understand food labels, change the way
is substantial debate as to the direct effect of they prepare foods and develop strategies for
added sugar on risk of chronic disease. This is eating out. Weight Watchers (WW) started in
complicated by the fact that foods containing 1975 and has been effective in using these
added sugars tend to be high in calories and types of approaches. In addition, WW pro-
low in nutrients, so they create a calorie-to- vides personal support and encouragement
nutrient imbalance. There is no evidence that through group meetings or online advice,
added sugars directly affect chronic disease which are also key components of an effective
risk, but a diet pattern with high intakes of weight loss program. Mindful eating and train-
added sugars would likely provide excessive ing people to understand their motivations
calories and insufficient nutrients. with food are important strategies. Evidence
suggests that changing eating habits and regu-
lar exercise are the key elements required for
effective long-term weight loss.
7.6.1 Fad Diets and Weight Loss The search for medications that will induce
Obesity does not develop overnight and weight loss has been ongoing; however, no
cannot be corrected overnight, but Americans drug has yet been developed that effectively
tend to want quick solutions to losing weight. treats obesity. In the 1940s, amphetamines
We have a long history of fad diets that have were prescribed for weight loss, but the side
been interesting, but ineffective, and probably effects included sleeplessness, anxiety, and
have added to health risks. Dieting is a depression, and these drugs generated only
national pastime and, on any given day, more modest weight loss. During the 1990s, drugs
than half of Americans are trying to lose that targeted the appetite-regulating hormones
weight. Bookstore shelves are full of programs serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine were
and weight loss gimmicks that promise rapid approved for weight loss by the FDA. In 1996,
success, and consumers spend billions of dol- Redux, a combination of the drugs fenflur-
lars on them. The most effective short-term amine and phentermine (fen-phen), was
diet plans are those that take away all approved and given to millions of people.
decision-making by providing fixed meals or Unfortunately, pulmonary vascular damage
strict schedules. Some versions of these diets developed in many of the patients, causing the
make whole categories of foods off limits, such FDA to withdraw fen-phen from the market
as carbohydrates or fats. The Atkins Diet and the next year. A similar type of drug, sibutra-
South Beach Diets promote strict limitations on mine (Meridia), was approved soon after

7.6 REGULATION OF FOOD INTAKE 277
Redux, but following reports of high blood supplements that contain ephedra because of
pressure and increased heart rate, it was with- these serious risks.
drawn by the FDA in 2010. Currently, there Surgical treatments to reverse obesity have
are five appetite-suppressing drugs approved been developed and can be effective in some
by the FDA, Belviq (lorcaserin), Contrave cases. The earliest surgical approach was the
(combination of bupropion and naltrexone), Roux-en-Y gastric bypass procedure in which
phentermine, and Qsymia (phentermine and a small pouch of the stomach is created and
topiramate), and one drug that affects blood connected to the lower part of the small intes-
glucose regulation, Saxenda (liraglutide). The tine. This reduces the amount of food that can
effectiveness of these drugs is generally mod- be consumed and, by bypassing the majority
est and management of diet and exercise are of the small intestine, reduces the amount of
required in order for weight loss to occur. nutrients that are absorbed from the food. This
A different drug approach to weight loss procedure has been associated with nutrient
was to reduce the body’s ability to absorb die- deficiencies and other complications including
tary fat. Orlistat (also called Xenical and Alli) vomiting and diarrhea. Two other approaches
acts by inhibiting the enzymes called lipases use restriction of the stomach to reduce the
that cleave fatty acids from dietary triglycer- amount of food that can be consumed. Gastric
ides in the small intestine. This step is neces- sleeve surgery involves removing about 75%
sary in order for the fats to be absorbed by the of the stomach and stapling the remaining sec-
body. The undigested fats stay in the intestine tion to form a tube. Patients are limited in the
and are excreted in the feces, which reduces size of meals they can consume, which facili-
calorie intake. Orlistat continues to be available tates weight loss. A less invasive procedure,
as both a prescription and over-the-counter gastric banding, has been used in which a sili-
medication, but it has some negative side cone band is placed around the upper part of
effects that limit its acceptability. If a very low- the stomach and inflated to create a smaller
fat diet is not adhered to, the unabsorbed fat pouch to reduce capacity. The size of the
can cause diarrhea, oily stools, and urgent pouch can be adjusted as needed and there are
bowel movements, which are unpleasant. no complications with nutrient absorption.
A large number of dietary supplements Candidates for weight loss surgery typically
have been promoted to facilitate weight loss. must have a BMI greater than 40 or have a
Among these are green tea extract, guar gum, serious health problem related to obesity.
bitter orange, and green coffee extract. Dietary Surgery has been found to be effective in miti-
supplements are not regulated or studied for gating some of the comorbidities associated
efficacy, unlike prescription drugs, which with severe obesity, but management of
have to be shown to be effective. There is lim- weight loss remains a life-long struggle.
ited scientific evidence that any dietary sup- Prevention of obesity is a far better strategy
plement can affect weight loss. Some products than trying to lose weight. Obesity-related
may contain dangerous compounds. Ma treatments are not covered by Medicare and
huang is a naturally occurring plant that has policies vary greatly among private insurance
been marketed for its ability to help lose companies for nutrition counseling or other
weight. Ma huang contains ephedra, which is obesity-related therapies. In addition to limita-
similar to the hormone epinephrine (adrena- tions on financial access, there is a significant
line). Several cases of death from heart social barrier to seeking obesity treatment. The
attack and stroke were reported in people belief that obesity is caused by a character flaw
taking ma huang, leading the FDA to ban or personal weakness may cause people to not

seek medical help or for medical professionals based, comprehensive plan for promoting the
to offer words of advice rather than effective nutritional health of children. It involves
treatment. Given the enormity of this problem schools, parents, and the community in efforts
in the United States, more focus on medical to continuously improve school meals and to
and societal support is needed. promote the health and education of 50 million
school children in more than 96,000 schools
nationwide.
A major effort launched in 2010 by First
7.6.2 Obesity Prevention Programs Lady Michelle Obama was the Partnership for
The USDA, CDC, and most major medical a Healthier America (PHA). PHA brings
organizations have developed programs and together the private and public sectors to
messages to promote healthy dietary habits develop strategies to solve the childhood obe-
and encourage more physical activity. One sity problem. PHA corporate partners pledge
attempt to use a mass-marketing approach to to make a commitment to change some aspect
change eating behavior was the Five a Day of their business to reduce obesity risk.
Campaign for Better Health promoted by the Walmart was one of the first corporations to
NCI and the Produce for Better Health join PHA and, in 2011, made commitments to
Foundation, and then later, the CDC. The pro- modify product formulations, open stores in
gram, which ran from 1991 to 2006, was cre- food deserts, and market healthier food
ated by researchers based on behavior theory. options. With the wide reach that Walmart has
The simple message was to eat five fruits and in food sales, these changes should make an
vegetables a day. Signage in stores and impact.
schools, printed materials, and public adver- According to requirements of the 2010
tisements to deliver the message were used. In Affordable Care Act, large restaurant chains
2007, the message was changed to “Fruits & must provide nutrition information on their
Veggies—More Matters.” Promotion of fruits menus and vending machine suppliers must
and vegetables is also the goal of the FNV (an make calorie content visible before purchase.
acronym for fruits ’n vegetables) campaign, -Ready-to-eat foods in grocery and conve-
which is part of the Partnership for a Healthier nience stores are required to have nutrition
America. FNV has recruited top celebrities and information posted on the package or in the
sports figures to donate their names and image display case. The intent is to make it easy for
to promote the healthfulness of fruits and consumers to make healthy choices. It is not
vegetables. These programs logically contend fully clear yet if having more nutrition infor-
that healthful foods, such as fruits and vegeta- mation will have an impact on consumer
bles, do not benefit from the major advertising choices. A positive impact may be that restau-
campaigns that other foods such as breakfast rants and chefs will reduce portion sizes or
cereals, potato chips, and cookies receive from provide healthier options in response to the
the food industry. Marketing of foods is big required labeling.
business and it is nearly impossible for gov-
ernment agencies to compete with food indus-
try advertisements. 7.7 FOOD MARKETING
Many other programs aimed at prevention
of obesity have been implemented through the Marketing, which is a targeted, research-
public schools, especially through the NSLP. based strategy to promote a product, is
Team Nutrition is an integrated, behavior- effective in creating demand for products.

7.7 FOOD MARKETING 279
Advertising forms the visible component of million in advertisements. That amount was
marketing that develops the brand image and 2.7 times more than all the fruit, vegetable, bot-
perceived value to the consumer. Consumers tled water, and milk advertisers combined
are influenced by marketing programs that use ($367 million). Over $1 billion was spent in
celebrities and sports icons, but also by the 2014 to advertise products through online
behaviors that friends and neighbors are video games alone. The great majority of mar-
adopting. During childhood, skills in consum- keting to children occurs through television,
erism develop from interactions within the but online marketing is rapidly outpacing tele-
family and social groups, but the broad access vision. Television and online commercials
to media has a significant impact. From the attract children by using characters, bright col-
earliest days of food marketing, the methods ors, play, fun, and happy scenes. Children lack
used to market products to children have been the critical facility to distinguish commercials
controversial. In the 1970s, the Federal Trade from program content. By the age of 8, this
Commission attempted to restrict advertise- skill is usually developed but can be sup-
ment to children, based on evidence that chil- pressed when messages are cloaked as enter-
dren are unable to distinguish between tainment, information, or public service
persuasion and information, but Congress announcements. The use of cartoon characters
refused to pass any regulations. Children are and celebrities to target both children and par-
an important target market for companies ents has been shown to increase preference for
because they represent lifelong customers. advertised foods, consumption of advertised
Children also directly and indirectly influence foods, overall calorie consumption, and
purchases of their parents. Some have argued requests for parents to buy advertised foods.
that bans on magazine, radio, and television The types of foods most commonly advertised
advertising, similar to those implemented for to children are high in calories, fat, sugar, and
the tobacco industry, should be imposed for sodium(breakfast cereals, cookies and snacks,
unhealthy foods targeted to children. Such a soda, and fast-food restaurant meals). In addi-
regulatory system would be complicated and tion to television advertising, food companies
hard to regulate and some believe it impinges include brand logos on toys, games, collecti-
on the First Amendment right to free speech. bles, company-sponsored magazines and clubs,
Efforts have been focused on a voluntary celebrity endorsements, product placement in
approach to encourage companies to refocus movies, counting books using foods (Cheerios,
their marketing strategies for children. These Froot Loops, M&Ms), and clothing with logos
strategies have had some success. Since 2007, found in specialty stores.
Mars Inc., the makers of M&Ms and other can- The IOM convened two special reviews of
dies, has curtailed its advertising to children marketing to children in 2006 and 2013.
younger than 12 years of age. Other confec- Following the release of the 2006 report, Food
tionery companies have joined the Children’s Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or
Confection Advertising Initiative to be more Opportunity, in which they recommended that
responsible in their promotion practices; these the food and beverage, and media and enter-
include The Hershey Company, Mondelez tainment industries apply their marketing
International, and Nestle. skills to promote more healthful foods to chil-
The amount of money spent on advertising dren, the Children’s Food and Beverage
by the food industry is substantial. According Advertising Initiative (CFBAI) was established.
to the Yale Rudd Center for Food Policy and CFBAI includes the Council of Better Business
Obesity, in 2012, McDonald’s spent $972 Bureaus and leading food companies that

represent 80% of child-directed TV food adver- The scope and breadth of our Pledge to the
tising and food products that are consumed by CFBAI demonstrates General Mills’ continuing com-
mitment to high standards and to providing clear
children. CFBAI members developed uniform leadership on this important issue.
nutrition standards for child-targeted foods
and pledged to modify their advertisements Additional goals of the CFBAI are to modify
toward children in alignment with a set of core the formulations of foods within set calorie
principles. limits, reduce targeted nutrients (saturated fat,
General Mills made the following pledge to trans fat, sodium, sugars), and enhance health-
join CFBAI in 2007: ier food options. Some of these changes are
shown in Table 7.8.
General Mills is pleased to submit its Pledge to
According to the 2013 IOM report summary
The Children’s Food and Beverage Advertising
Initiative (the CFBAI). The CFBAI is a voluntary of the impact of CFBAI, over 100 food product
self-regulation program currently comprised of formulations to meet nutrition standards had
eleven of the largest food and beverage companies been made by the participating companies,
in the United States. By advancing and hastening a advertising of healthier options had occurred
shift in the mix of messaging to encourage healthier
and some products were no longer being
dietary choices and healthy lifestyles in advertising
to children under 12, the CFBAI represents a signifi- advertised to children. But marketing of
cant step forward. snacks, cookies, candies, and sodas continues
General Mills is proud to be a charter member of to reach children and youth. New venues in
the CFBAI and is fully supportive of its goals. As an social media such as Facebook, YouTube, and
industry leader, General Mills is committed to main-
Snapchat offer ways to market products that
taining the highest standards for responsible advertis-
ing to children. We have a long history of advocating have far-reaching impacts. For example, dur-
increased levels of physical activity and support of fit- ing the 100th anniversary of Oreo cookies, the
ness programs, particularly for children, in public Kraft Company launched a social media cam-
policy arenas and through various private sector paign to encourage people to share their
initiatives. Company initiatives, such as the General
experiences with Oreos and provided daily
Mills Foundation’s Champions for Healthy Kids pro-
gram, reflect our decades of continuing support for ads on their Facebook page. The number of
youth nutrition and fitness initiatives of many kinds, likes increased over 110% in two months and
further underscoring that commitment. likely increased sales. Most food companies
TABLE 7.8 Changes to Food Products as Part of the Children’s Food and Beverage Advertising Initiative
Company Product Change
Dannon Danimals Smoothie 25% reduction in sugar

ConAgra Foods Chef Boyardee canned Reductions of 8% in sodium
pastas
ConAgra Foods Kid Cuisine frozen Reductions of 28% and 52% in the sugar content in two and the addition of a
meals new meal with 40% less sugar than a prior comparable meal
Campbell Soup Pepperidge Farm Increases in the whole grain content
Company Goldfish Grahams
Mondelēz Graham crackers 8 g of whole grains per serving
From Children’s Food and Beverage Advertising Initiative, www.bbb.org/council/the-national-partner-program/national-advertising-review-services/

childrens-food-and-beverage-advertising-initiative.

7.7 FOOD MARKETING 281
have websites and use social media that machines was increased from 12-ounce cans to
include games and offers associated with their 20-ounce bottles, resulting in an increase of 250
products. Some have referred to this as stealth calories per serving. During this time period,
marketing that induces brand loyalty and childhood obesity rates were increasing and the
stimulates purchases. Increasingly, advertise- food choices available in schools became a target
ments are individually tailored and reach of concern. Banning vending machines was
youth through social media. These specific and resisted by school administrators who had
personal messages create new challenges for become dependent on the funding stream and
parents, policy makers, and others concerned by companies that argued schools and students
about controlling messages about food and should have the freedom to choose what they
health. In contrast, for teens and young adults, consumed. Eventually, under pressure from
social media has been used as a means to pro- government and health advocacy groups, bever-
mote health and wellness. There are a plethora age manufacturers agreed to only offer low-
of smart phone apps that track activities and sugar or sugar-free drinks and juices, and water
food intake, provide reminders and encourage- in school vending machines. Stricter regulations
ment to eat right or exercise, and offer recipes (the “Smart Snacks in School” rule) were imple-
and food preparation ideas. mented on all foods and beverages sold in vend-
ing machines in schools as part of the Healthy
Hunger Free Kids Act in 2010 (Table 7.9). All
food items sold in schools, including vending
7.7.1 Marketing in Schools machines, must meet these standards.
It is unclear exactly when vending machines It is yet to be determined if these programs
first appeared in public schools, but likely they and regulations will have an impact on the
were present in teachers’ lunchrooms soon after rates of obesity in children, but there is little
they were developed in 1888. During the 1960s, doubt that many approaches are needed. More
vending machines dispensing lunch items focus on physical activity during and after the
became popular on college campuses and com- school day has also been implemented. Several
panies made the push to enter public schools as organizations have launched public campaigns
well. Because of the legal aspects of the NSLP,
schools were not allowed to offer meals via
vending machines, only snacks and drinks. In TABLE 7.9 Smart Snacks in School Criteria
1970, the USDA made modifications to the Be a whole-grain product OR
NSLP that allowed alternative and competitive
Have as the first ingredient a fruit, vegetable, dairy, or
foods to be sold in schools, which opened the
protein food OR
door for vending machines to be accessible to
students. Over the next four decades, vending Contain 10% of the Daily Value of calcium, potassium,
vitamin D, or dietary fiber
machine contracts with schools provided extra
funds for school activities. Beverage companies Must meet nutrient requirements:
contracted exclusive pouring rights for specific Calories: ,200 for a snack or ,350 for an entrée
soft drinks with public schools and snack offer-
Fat: ,230 mg for a snack or ,480 for an entrée and no
ings increased. The substantial financial return
trans fat
to schools became integrated into the school
budget to fund programs and, in turn, overt Sugar: ,35% sugar by weight
marketing pressure for increased sales occurred. From Healthy Hunger Free Kids Act, www.fns.usda.gov/school-meals/
In 2001, the size of sodas sold in vending healthy-hunger-free-kids-act.

to encourage children to be more active. These Bishai, D., & Nalubola, R. (2002). The history of food forti-
include the Let’s Move campaign promoted by fication in the United States: Its relevance for current
fortification efforts in developing countries. Economic
First Lady Michelle Obama, the Fuel up to Development and Cultural Change, 51(1), 37 53.
Play 60 program sponsored by the National Branum, A. M., Rossen, L. M., & Schoendort, K. C. (2014).
Dairy Council, and the NFL Play 60 program Trends in caffeine intake among U.S. children and ado-
offered by the National Football League. lescents. Pediatrics, 133, 386 393.
Reducing obesity rates in children should be a Bray, G. A. (2004). Medical consequences of obesity.
Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 89(6),
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C H A P T E R
8
Sustainability of the Food System
8.1 DEFINING SUSTAINABLE that is too overwhelmed with the concerns of

FOOD SYSTEMS today to worry about tomorrow.
The USDA hosts the Sustainable Agriculture
Sustainable agriculture, sustainable farming, Research and Education (SARE) program,
sustainable harvesting, and sustainable food sys- which defines sustainable agriculture as follows:
tems are terms that have become part of every-
day conversations. When asked to define Every day, farmers and ranchers around the
sustainability within food and agriculture, peo- world develop new, innovative strategies to pro-
duce and distribute food, fuel and fiber sustainably.
ple will respond with many different interpre-
While these strategies vary greatly they all embrace
tations, depending on their frame of reference. three broad goals, or what SARE calls the 3 Pillars
For farmers, sustainable may mean they can of Sustainability:
make enough money each year to protect their
• Profit over the long term
investment over the long term. For environ-
mentalists, sustainable may mean farming • Stewardship of our nation’s land, air and water
should be done using methods that protect • Quality of life for farmers, ranchers and their
natural resources. For consumers, sustainable communities
may mean less packaging or fewer chemicals There are almost as many ways to reach these
are used in foods. For rural communities, sus- goals as there are farms and ranches in America.
tainable may mean returning to a pre-WWI www.sare.org
version of agriculture with many farmers
working and raising their families on small The 3 Pillars of Sustainability can be inter-
farms. For humanitarians, sustainable may preted as relating to economic, environmental,
mean the right balance of nutrients and and human impact of agriculture, and these
healthy food is available to everyone regard- topics will be covered in this chapter. As noted
less of geographic, economic, political, or by SARE, there are many ways to address, and
social status. The term sustainability implies the many factors that influence, these pillars, and
ability to endure and do something forever. no single approach will ensure sustainability.
Sustainability reflects a society (local or global) SARE is focused on the agronomic aspect of
that understands history, human behavior, and sustainability, but the food system encompasses
environmental change in contrast to a society the humanitarian aspect as well. Missing from

288 8. SUSTAINABILITY OF THE FOOD SYSTEM
TABLE 8.1 Components of a Sustainable Food System

Agronomic Humanitarian
Economic Diverse types of farming are profitable Healthy food is affordable

Environment Soil, air, and water quality; biodiversity; and natural Nutrients are in balance for proper growth,
resources are protected and enhanced for future development, and life-long health of the global
generations; types and amounts of energy used are population
well managed
Political Regulations ensure farmers and the environment are Access to food is equitable, fair, and
in balance; optimize access to food globally compassionate; regulations are used to protect and
advance human health
Social Agriculture is valued and understood; food Food and nutrition are understood and culturally
production and processing are safe and marketing is acceptable; healthy lifestyles are encouraged
just
Ethical Rights of farmers and land owners are in balance with Safe, nutritionally appropriate, and healthy food to
environmental and consumer rights sustain well-being is ensured for all
Science Technology and science are thoughtfully applied to Role of nutrition and food in human health are
enhance both agricultural production and protect the understood and form the basis of food policies
environment
these pillars is the concept of producing enough With all these factors, defining a sustainable
food to feed all the people on Earth, producing food system is complicated. Table 8.1 lists a few
the right types of food to ensure the health of all of the concepts that might be considered neces-
people, and equitable distribution and access to sary elements for a sustainable food system.
food. Human health and the viability of life are Agriculture in the United States has evolved
necessary components of the food system and over the years of its existence as a nation. The
must be addressed within the realm of sustain- great majority of citizens do not grow their
ability. Hunger and starvation on the one hand, own food or rely on their farming neighbors to
and overconsumption leading to chronic dis- provide food for them. Today less than 2% of
eases on the other hand, suggest the amount the population produces foods for domestic
and types of foods being produced and con- and export markets. Technology and ingenuity
sumed are not sustaining human health. As dis- have led to higher production and lower costs
cussed in Chapter 7, Nutrition and Food Access, allowing Americans to spend less money
obesity and related chronic diseases have multi- on food (Fig. 8.1). Systems have been created
faceted etiologies that include sedentary life- to process, distribute, and market foods.
styles, lack of knowledge about food and Americans have come to expect grocery stores
nutrition, personal choices, poverty, and limited to be packed with thousands of food items
access to healthy foods. Some argue that enough that are consistently available year-round. The
food is being produced to feed the world’s pop- food industry has brought innovation, conve-
ulation, and that the causes of hunger and star- nience, and enjoyment to consumers. More
vation are due to social, political, and economic options are available about how and where
forces. Social justice is a core element of a sus- food is produced. Farmers’ markets are open
tainable food system, and solutions are needed in all parts of the country or consumers may
to address fair and equitable access to food. choose to buy food directly from farmers.

8.2 CLIMATE CHANGE AND THREATS TO THE FOOD SYSTEM 289
FIGURE 8.1 The percent of income Americans spend on food has decreased from about 25% in the 1920s to less than
10% today. The amount of money Americans spend on food is among the lowest in the world. Source: USDA Economic
Organic and locally grown food options are events are occurring. These changes have
abundant and available, even from major retai- both long- and short-term impacts on food
lers such as Walmart. Choices and options are production. In 2012, the USDA Agricultural
plentiful in our food system, but there are con- Research Service compiled a summary report
sequences for these conveniences. The food on the impact of climate change on agricul-
system both depends on the environment and ture (Walthall et al., 2012) and provided these
affects the environment and these aspects will key messages:
be discussed in this chapter.
• Increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide
(CO2), rising temperatures, and altered
precipitation patterns will affect agriculture
8.2 CLIMATE CHANGE AND productivity
THREATS TO THE FOOD SYSTEM • Livestock production systems are
vulnerable to temperature stresses
The EPA defines climate change as “any • Projections for crops and livestock
substantial change in measures of climate production systems reveal that climate
(such as temperature or precipitation) lasting change effects over the next 25 years will be
for an extended period (decades or longer)” mixed
(EPA, 2016). There is clear evidence that sig- • Climate change will exacerbate current
nificant changes in land and ocean tempera- biotic stresses on agricultural plants and
tures, rainfall patterns, and extreme weather animals

• Agriculture is dependent on a wide range of and cause temperatures to increase by reemit-

ecosystem processes that support ting and retaining infrared radiation. Humans
productivity including maintenance of soil generate GHG from industrialization, trans-
quality and regulation of water quality and portation, and energy production. Emissions of
quantity GHG from natural sources such as from forest
• The predicted higher incidence of extreme fires, volcanic eruptions, soil decomposition,
weather events will have an increasing and plant respiration are much less than from
influence on agricultural productivity human-generated sources. By comparison,
• The vulnerability of agriculture to climate fluorinated gases have the greatest warming
change is strongly dependent on the potential, followed by N2O and CH4. CO2 is
responses taken by humans to moderate the the most abundant greenhouse gas produced
effects of climate change globally, accounting for about 75% of total
GHG emissions. Relative amounts of GHG
Food production requires suitable environ-
emissions in the United States are shown by
mental conditions, including the appropriate
the source in Fig. 8.2. Generation of electricity,
temperature ranges for plants and animals; ade-
transportation, and industrial activity are the
quate, timely, and balanced precipitation; wind
major sources of GHGs. Agriculture contri-
and air currents that maintain suitable humidity;
butes to GHG production at about the same
and the availability of necessary nutrients from
rate as commercial and residential sources.
the water and soil. Due to human intervention,
The amount of CO2 in Earth’s atmosphere
the environmental conditions of the United
from 800,000 years ago until the modern era
States today are not the same as they were 250
fluctuated between about 200 and 300 ppm.
years ago. Intentional physical changes have
From 1950 to 2015 the amount of CO2 has
been made to the land and water distribution
climbed to over 400 ppm, which are levels that
systems across the United States to facilitate the
have never been recorded on Earth. Global
current food production system. Each of these
warming is a consequence of the rise in GHGs,
changes has consequences, both good and bad,
with direct effects on land and water tempera-
for the environment. Many unintentional
tures. The EPA estimates that the Earth’s aver-
changes to the environment, including those
age surface temperature has increased 0.15 F
leading to climate change, have occurred from
per decade since 1901. During that time the
human intervention and activity, and these have
average temperature in the United States has
significant impact on the food system.
increased at a higher rate of between 0.29 and
0.46 F per decade. More extremely hot tempera-
tures during summer days have occurred, as
8.2.1 Greenhouse Gases
well as hotter temperatures at night. This is a
and Temperature concern for farmers because air and soil tem-
Primary factors that affect climate change peratures directly influence plant growth and
relate to emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) development, and the types of pests and dis-
that are produced from human activities and, eases that affect crops. All plants have an ideal
to a much lesser extent, from natural sources. temperature range needed for their lifecycle.
The main GHGs include carbon dioxide (CO2), These ranges differ for specific plant species,
methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and fluo- and vary within the growth phases of the
rinated gases (hydrofluorocarbons, perfluoro- plants. When temperatures fall either below or
carbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and nitrogen above these defined ranges, plant growth will
trifluoride), which remain in the atmosphere be inhibited. In general, higher temperatures

8.2 CLIMATE CHANGE AND THREATS TO THE FOOD SYSTEM 291
FIGURE 8.2 Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, expressed as CO2 equivalents, come primarily from electricity genera-
tion, transportation, and industrial production. Agriculture, commercial, and residential activities produce lesser amounts
of GHGs. Source: EPA, www.epa.gov.
tend to speed up the growth rate of plants, until that trap nearly 90% of the Earth’s heat.
the maximum is achieved and thereafter Consequently, ocean temperatures have been
growth becomes inhibited. The effect of climate steadily increasing since 1955, causing levels to
change on the global yield of crops over the rise (water expands in volume when heated),
time period of 1998 2002 was found to be posi- and providing energy for storms. Melting of
tive for rice (12.9%) and soybean (11.3%) but the glaciers and polar ice caps is well docu-
negative for maize (23.8%) and wheat (22.5%), mented within the past decade, adding to the
which demonstrates the complexity of predict- higher ocean levels. The EPA estimates that the
ing the impact of climate change on food pro- average sea level has increased at a rate of
duction. Invasive weed species are affected by 0.11 0.14 in./year between 1880 and 2013. The
climate change, so different approaches to combination of more powerful storms, warmer
weed management will be needed. air and water temperatures, and higher ocean
Reproduction and growth rates of livestock will levels has resulted in unprecedented damage
be reduced when temperatures exceed opti- to the US coastal areas such as New Orleans
mum ranges, as will milk and egg production. (Hurricane Katrina in 2005), North and South
It has been proposed that, based on the Carolina (Hurricane Irene in 2011), and New
increased amount of GHG, land temperatures York and New Jersey (Hurricane Sandy in
should have increased even more, but the ris- 2012). Severe winter storms have also occurred,
ing temperatures were buffered by the oceans including the two blizzards referred to as

“Snowmageddon,” which hit Washington DC water supplies, and fisheries. Over 400 insect
in 2010, and the most snowfall on record for pests and more than 70 fungal pathogens have
Boston during the winter of 2014 15. become resistant to one or more pesticides. Use
Noncoastal areas of the United States have of land for agriculture has removed wetlands
experienced extreme weather events as well and wildlife habitats and there is reduced
including severe flooding of the Mississippi genetic diversity due to reliance on uniform
and Missouri Rivers in 1993; an EF5 tornado crops and livestock breeds.
that hit Joplin, Missouri in 2011; and the Agriculture was necessary for, and perhaps
2012 13 drought across the southern and west- supportive of, population growth and the civi-
ern United States. The impact of storms on lizations that resulted. In the distant past, nat-
agriculture can be significant including short- ural resources were thought to be unlimited
term losses and damage to crops and livestock, and the impacts of agricultural practices on the
as well as long-term effects on the land and environment were considered inconsequential.
soil including erosion and contamination. Technology stayed one step ahead of the lim-
itations of nature to allow food production to
continually increase. But it is clearly evident
8.3 SUSTAINING NATURAL now that natural resources are limited and the
RESOURCES environmental impacts of agriculture are real.
In order to continue to provide sufficient, high
Agriculture is dependent upon access to quality, abundant, and affordable food, agri-
suitable and sufficient land, soil, and water. culture must adapt. Returning to a subsistence
Planting and harvesting crops and raising approach to agriculture is not possible, so
animals for food consumes these natural methods to advance food production sustain-
resources. Some types of agriculture may cre- ably are needed: “Today, any strategy to elimi-
ate damage to the environment through over- nate crop farming and domesticated livestock
use or contamination. Producing food while would have to include the means of eliminat-
protecting natural resources, biodiversity, and ing most humans now on earth, for only a
wildlife is the goal of sustainable agriculture. small remnant could live by hunting and gath-
Human activities, and specifically agricul- ering” (Conkin, 2008, p. 169).
ture, have changed the natural environment. The USDA Climate Change Program Office
The cultivation of crops has reduced wilder- tracks the impact of climate change on agricul-
ness, shifted the balance of plant and animal ture, forests, grazing lands, and rural commu-
species, and altered the hydrological cycle. A nities. A report that summarizes research on
decline in soil productivity and a loss of topsoil these was published in 2015 (U.S. Department
due to wind and water erosion occurs when of Agriculture, 2015a) and the main findings of
soil is not protected by plant cover. Overuse of the report are listed in Table 8.2.
surface and ground water for irrigation has
caused water scarcity and salinization of soils
in irrigated farming areas. Agricultural prac-
tices contribute to water pollutants such as
8.3.1 Land Use in Agriculture
sediments, salts, fertilizers (nitrates and phos- Only one-quarter of the total surface of
phorus), pesticides, and manures. Pesticides Earth is dry land; the other three-quarters are
are commonly found in groundwater beneath covered with water. Only 1/32 is arable land,
agricultural areas and reduced water quality meaning that all of the world’s food produc-
impacts agricultural production, drinking tion occurs on this very small percent of

8.3 SUSTAINING NATURAL RESOURCES 293
TABLE 8.2 Key Findings from the USDA Climate Change Report
Key finding Impacts
Climate change is very likely to affect global, regional, and Increased food prices, variability in food production, higher
local food security by disrupting food availability, risk of food insecurity in low-resource populations.
decreasing access to food, and making utilization more
difficult.
The potential of climate change to affect global food Changes in types and costs of imported foods to the United
security is important for food producers and consumers in States, increased demand for food assistance to other
the United States. countries, dissemination of US agricultural technology.
Climate change risks extend beyond agricultural production Greater risk of food-borne pathogens and food spoilage,
to other elements of global food systems that are critical for disruption in transportation routes, higher food costs.
food security, including the processing, storage,
transportation, and consumption of food.
Climate risks to food security increase as the magnitude Models that predict the effects of GHG on global food
and rate of climate change increase. Higher emissions and insecurity range from minimum change to significant
concentrations of greenhouse gases are much more likely to increases that depend on how high GHG emissions rise.
have damaging effects than lower emissions and
concentrations.
Effective adaptation can reduce food system vulnerability to Technological solutions will address some of the impacts of
climate change and reduce detrimental climate change climate change, but the capacity to implement these
effects on food security, but socioeconomic conditions can solutions will vary; continued research to develop solutions
impede the adoption of technically feasible adaptation is needed.
options.
The complexity of the food system within the context of Applying current knowledge about climate change impacts
climate change allows for the identification of multiple food is needed to provide food security; continued investment in
security intervention points, which are relevant to decision research in advanced technologies for food storage and
makers at every level. packaging is needed.
Accurately projecting climate change risks to food security Ecosystems and land degradation, technological
requires consideration of other large-scale changes. development, population growth, and economic growth
must all be considered.
From U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2015). Climate change, global food security, and the U.S. food system. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Agriculture. ,www.usda.gov/oce/climate_change/FoodSecurity.htm..
Earth’s surface. The total land mass of the • 408 million acres in cropland
United States is nearly 2.3 billion acres and • 127 million acres in grazed forestland
agricultural production occurs on about 51% • 60 million acres in urban use
of the land. The amount of land used for agri- • 12 million acres in farmsteads and farm
culture has declined nearly 13% since 1949. roads
Gradual declines have occurred in crop, pas-
Cropland acreage increased by about 4 mil-
ture and range land, while grazed forestland
lion acres between 2007 and 2012 after a steady
has decreased more rapidly. The distribution
decline over the previous 25 years. Most of
of land use in the United States in 2007 was:
this gain came from cultivating land that had
• 671 million acres in forest been in the Conservation Reserve Program
• 614 million acres in pasture and range (USDA program that pays farmers to not use

certain areas of their land). The higher prices 45.7 acres every hour over those 10 years. An addi-
for commodity crops during this time period tional 266,000 acres (3 acres every hour) of unique
farmland (soil and climatic conditions suitable for
was a motivating factor to farm more land production of specific high-value food and fiber
because more money could be earned from the crops) was also lost to development. As prime farm-
crops than from the government funding. land is being developed, less stable non-prime farm-
The consequences of this loss of conservation land in arid regions is being added to the base,
land will likely include more soil erosion and leading to increased erosion rates and irrigation
demands.
reduced water quality and loss of wildlife Heller and Keolian (2000)
habitat.
Nearly half of all US cropland is concen- As the population of the United States grows,
trated in the Midwest and the Northern Plains. cities and towns expand creating a demand for
Almost all cropland is privately owned, while more land to build houses, roads, malls, air-
62% of grassland pasture and range is privately ports, hospitals, power and water treatment
owned and 24% is owned and managed by plants, and other infrastructures. A survey con-
federal grazing programs. With a value of ducted by the USDA in the early 1980s found
$2.38 trillion, farm real estate (land and struc- that millions of acres of farmland were being
tures) accounted for 80% of the total value of converted to urban use. To counter this, the
US farm sector assets in 2014. Only 1.7% of pri- Farmland Protection Policy Act was passed and
vately owned land in farms or forest (22.8 mil- implemented in 1994. This legislation mainly
lion acres) was owned by foreigners in 2009. requires that the impact of irreversibly convert-
As the global demand for farmland and food ing agricultural land to nonagricultural uses is
production increases impacts are likely to affect considered and documented, but does not pro-
the future dynamics of farm ownership, land hibit such conversion. Individual cities and
prices, and agriculture in the United States. counties determine how land will be used. The
Land use is influenced by history, quality encroachment of urban and suburban areas into
and capacity, location, access to infrastructure, agricultural land prompted the passing of Right
price, planning and zoning regulations, and to Farm acts by all 50 states. These laws are
market demands for crops or development. meant to protect farmers and ranchers from
How land is used has important economic and lawsuits filed by people who move into agricul-
environmental implications for commodity tural areas and want to stop the existing farm-
production and trade, access to open space, ing operations. Concentrated animal feeding
soil and water conservation, air quality, and operations (CAFOs) are often the target of these
atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations. lawsuits because of air quality and aesthetic
Population pressures are increasingly changing issues, but all types of farming operations have
agricultural land access and use. been impacted. The statutes of these laws differ
by state and many disputes end up being set-
The increasing mix of rural and urban land uses
tled in court.
creates added social conflict and environmental
impact. Farmers are faced with complaints about
odor, dust, or noise, and perhaps experience more
trespassing. Impermeable surfaces increase, direct- 8.3.2 Soil Erosion
ing rainwater to sewer drains rather than to the soil.
The USDA defines soil as “. . .a natural body
New chemicals—from road salt to lawn care pesti-
cides—are introduced into the environment. The comprised of solids (minerals and organic mat-
total U.S. conversion of prime farmland to urban or ter), liquid, and gases that occurs on the land
builtup land between 1982 and 1992 translates into surface” (USDA Natural Resources Conservation

Service). Soil composition that provides the right by rainfall and runoff. To put that into per-
amounts of nutrients, retains the right amounts spective, 4.6 tons would fill a dump truck.
of water, and has sufficient depth to support Soil erosion is localized due to soil character-
plant root development is a key aspect of agri- istics, topography, climate, landscape, and
culture productivity. The breakdown of sedi- farming practices. As much as 50% of total
mentary rock and leaching of minerals into water erosion of soil occurs in the Midwest and
water defines the natural mineral composition of Northern Plains where there is high production
soils, which will vary depending on the geo- of field crops. The majority, 90%, of wind ero-
graphic location. For example, the red soils that sion of soil occurs in the Northern Plains,
are characteristic of the southern United States Southern Plains, Mountain, and Great Lakes
are rich in iron oxides. Organic matter provides states. Water and wind erosion was lowest in
soil with nutrients and gases required for plant the Northeast (2.7 tons per acre per year) and
growth, and the ability to hold and filter water. highest in the Southern Plains (8.8 tons per acre
Organic matter refers to living and decomposed per year). The USDA encourages farmers to
leaves and roots, as well as animal and biotic protect soils from erosion, which has resulted
material, including earthworms, insects, fungi, in a decrease in the total amount of soil erosion
bacteria, protozoa, arthropods, and algae. caused by water and wind from 3.06 billion
Humus is the final stage of decomposed organic tons in 1982 to 1.73 billion in 2007 (Fig. 8.3).
matter. Chemically, organic matter contains cel- The consequences of soil erosion on agricul-
lulose, hemicelluloses, starch, pectin, lignins, and tural production are significant. When soil is
protein from the plant residue. The amount of lost from croplands, plant nutrients including
organic matter in soil fluctuates from season to nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and calcium
season, depending on the continual process of are reduced and have to be replaced. Adding
decaying plant material and new growing plants back these nutrients costs farmers billions of
or the application of manure. dollars annually. Wind and water selectively
Regions of the United States have different remove the top layer of soil where the major-
types of soil that directly influence the types of ity of organic matter is found. Loss of organic
crops that can be grown, and these soils have matter is correlated with lower crop yields.
evolved over millions of years. Human interac- Irrigation may be needed in areas where there
tion with the land directly impacts soils. Soil is insufficient organic matter to retain mois-
loss through erosion and damage from over- ture in the soil. Fields with inadequate soil
use, as well as chemical or physical contamina- depth have fewer bacteria and biota that
tion, are significant concerns for sustaining enhance soil quality. Earthworms, ants, and
agricultural production. snails engage in soil cycling that aerates and
Soil erosion is the breakdown, transport, mixes soil and improves water filtration.
and redistribution of soil particles by forces of Beyond the farmer’s land, soil erosion affects
water, wind, or gravity. The Dust Bowl the environment by adding sediment and
(Chapter 2: History of US Agriculture and excessive nutrients (eutrophication) to streams
Food Production) was a prime example of sig- and rivers, which negatively affect fish and
nificant soil erosion caused by human and wildlife. Algae blooms caused by nutrient run-
environmental factors, but less dramatic loss of off into waterways consume the oxygen (hyp-
soil occurs constantly. The average rate of US oxia) needed by fish leading to massive fish
soil erosion on total cropland in 2012 was 4.60 kills. High levels of soil-derived minerals,
tons per acre. Of that total, 1.94 tons per acre such as nitrogen, must be removed from pub-
were eroded by wind and 2.66 tons per acre lic drinking water sources.

FIGURE 8.3 Soil erosion caused by both wind and water has decreased in the United States since 1982 when farmers
were encouraged to implement conservation measures. Soil erosion continues to be a significant problem for agriculture.
Source: Natural Resources and Conservation Services, www.nrcs.gov.
Once soil is lost from the land it cannot be and rivers, and increased biodiversity by pro-
easily replaced. Depending on the climate and viding habitat for birds and animals. Newer
organisms in the soil, organic matter can be approaches to reduce soil erosion and enhance
regenerated within a few years. Replacement of organic matter include planting cover crops,
sand, silt, and clay takes much longer— such as alfalfa and clover, that can be planted
decades or more—because these are derived after the crop is harvested and then tilled into
from decomposition of rock. Since the Soil the soil before the next planting season.
Conservation Act was passed in 1935, the Dividing fields into alternating bands of row
USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service crops and hay or small grains, planting perma-
(NRCS) has promoted ways to reduce soil ero- nent strips of grass, or building embankments
sion. Practices that were implemented included or structures across drainage areas are manage-
planting trees and shrubs as windbreaks, no- ment tools that prevent soil erosion. Limiting
till, contour and terrace plowing, planting grass agriculture, construction, and development on
buffer strips between fields and streams, highly erodible land, fragile lands, riverbanks,
mulching, and planting of perennial crops. As and coastal lands also prevents loss of soil.
a consequence of the farm crisis, the Food
Security Act passed in 1985 created the
Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), which
8.3.3 Water Use in Agriculture
paid farmers to convert some of their cropland Water plays an essential and complex role in
to conservation areas. These areas provided agriculture. Rain supplies water for use directly
natural filtration systems to protect streams by crops, but water obtained from lakes, rivers,

oceans, and groundwater is required for crop retain and conserve water, and irrigation sys-
and livestock production. Having the right tems that optimize water administration. Water
amount of water during key points of crop conservation, management, and protection are
development directly influences yield, and ani- core aspects of agricultural production.
mals require substantial amounts of water In the United States about 355,000 million
throughout their lives. Waterways are used to gallons of water are used per day. The top
transport agricultural products. Agriculture con- two uses for water are to generate thermo-
tributes to water contamination from chemical electric power (45% of total water use), and
and nutrient runoff. This has negative effects on irrigation (33%; Fig. 8.4). Over 98% of water
fish and plant life and drinking water supplies used for power is recycled so losses are not
for cities and towns. Wetlands in the United of as great concern as is water used for irriga-
States have been drained to make the land tion. Irrigation, which includes agricultural
suitable for agriculture, leading to reduced as well as nonagricultural uses, consumes
environments for wildlife. Groundwater reserves about 115 billion gallons of water per day in
are becoming depleted in some regions, creating the United States. In 2010, about 62,400 acres
problems for both agriculture and people living were irrigated, and almost all of that
in those areas. In contrast, farmers have devel- occurred in western states. The main regions
oped ways to mitigate water runoff from their of irrigation are the Columbia and Snake
lands using buffer zones, and returned parts of River basins, the Central Valley of California,
their land to the wild to restore natural areas. the Great Plains, and the Mississippi Delta.
Technology has been applied to develop crops California, Nebraska, Texas, Arkansas, and
that need less water, planting systems that Idaho which account for 52% of total
FIGURE 8.4 Thermoelectric power uses the most water of any sector, although this water is not consumed in the pro-
cess. Surface and ground water used for irrigation of agricultural crops, golf courses, gardens, and lawns make up the
largest consumption of water among all of the sectors. Water used in raising livestock is a relatively small use compared
to public and industrial uses. Source: From Maupin, M., Kenny, J. F., Hutson, S. S., Lovelace, J. K., Barber, N. L., & Linsey, K. S.
(2014). Estimated use of water in the United States in 2010. In U.S. Geologic Survey Circular 1405 (p. 56). Available from
,http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1405/pdf/circ1405. (Maupin et al., 2014).

irrigated acreage. The states with the highest Initiative to provide new approaches to reduce
total amount of water used for irrigation (in water use, improve conservation, and manage
thousand acre-feet per year) include: this valuable water resource. As the water in the
Ogallala aquifer becomes less available, farmers
• California—25,800 (surface water .
who depend on that water source will need to
groundwater)
reconsider the types of crops and methods of
• Idaho—15,700 (surface water .
production they are using, perhaps moving
groundwater)
away from water-intensive crops and livestock.
• Colorado—10,900 (surface water . ground
The intensity of water used in agriculture
water)
can be compared by estimating how much
• Arkansas—9770 (groundwater . surface
water is used to generate profit from the prod-
water)
uct. As shown in Fig. 8.5, grain farming utilizes
• Montana—8030 (surface water .
more water per dollar of product generated
groundwater)
than any other agricultural sector. Sugar pro-
• Texas—7660 (groundwater . surface water)
duction is also water-intensive, as is tree nut
• Nebraska—6340 (groundwater . surface
and fruit production. In this comparison, ani-
water)
mal food production (poultry and egg produc-
Surface water (rivers and lakes) contributes tion, cattle ranching, and milk production) is
more than groundwater to irrigation in the least water intensive, when expressed rela-
California, Idaho, Colorado, and Montana. tive to the economic return for these products.
These sources are dependent on rainfall and Water scarcity may be the greatest threat to
snow melt, and are usually regularly renewed. US agriculture in the future. Methods to
In the Central Plains, surface water is largely reduce water use include improved irrigation
unavailable, and water deep underground is systems (such as sprinkler, drip, or microirri-
used for irrigation. The Ogallala aquifer, an gation instead of surface irrigation), conserva-
underground reservoir that spans from western tion agriculture (less tillage and use of cover
Texas to South Dakota, contains about 30% of crops), and more efficient water allocation
the total groundwater used for irrigation and systems. Improved management is needed to
supports about 20% of the US wheat, cotton, retain soil moisture, increase soil organic mat-
corn, and cattle production. The aquifer was cre- ter, and prevent erosion. The use of cover
ated millions of years ago and is a finite crops and appropriate crop rotation methods
resource. The water in the aquifer cannot be with nitrogen-fixing legumes, limiting fallow
quickly or easily replaced because of its geo- periods, and reducing cultivation can help
physical structure. Growing crops or raising cat- protect soil moisture. Remote sensing, local
tle on the dry, high plains that overlay the weather forecasting, drought-tolerant crops,
aquifer requires water, which is mainly obtained early warning information systems, and
from wells that tap into the aquifer. Between improved irrigation technologies (based on
1937 and 1971, more than 65,000 wells were plant needs through evapotranspiration) are
drilled in western Texas alone. The US potential techniques to reduce water use.
Geological Survey found that the amount of
water being removed from the aquifer was as
much as 6 ft/year while only one-half inch was
being replaced. Concerns over depletion of the
8.3.4 Precipitation and Climate Change
aquifer were recognized in the past decade and Measurable changes in the distribution of
the USDA established the Ogallala Aquifer precipitation across the United States have

FIGURE 8.5 When water use is expressed relative to the amount of money generated from a product, grain produc-
tion uses the most water per dollar of any agricultural system. Animal food production is at the low end of this scale
because of the higher dollar value of these products relative to the amount of water used. Source: From Maupin, M., Kenny,
J. F., Hutson, S. S., Lovelace, J. K., Barber, N. L., & Linsey, K. S. (2014). Estimated use of water in the United States in 2010. In
U.S. Geologic Survey Circular 1405 (p. 56). Available from ,http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1405/pdf/circ1405..
occurred over the past 100 years. The northwest, Removal of these contaminants required sub-
central, and southern regions have received stantial cost and time, and the quality of the soil
increased precipitation whereas the Eastern will take years to recover.
Seaboard, Rocky Mountains, and Southwest Drought is a major concern to agriculture
have had decreased precipitation. All regions as are periods of high temperature. Between
have seen the intensity of precipitation events 2012 and 2014 the United States experienced
increase, associated with climate change. Larger the worst drought since the Dust Bowl. The
amounts of water in a short period, as would be lack of precipitation was exacerbated by pro-
experienced in high-intensity events, are not longed high temperatures causing 71% of the
conducive to agriculture. More erosion, runoff, country to be classified as exceptionally dry in
and crop damage occur during such events, and July 2012. California was significantly affected
the sediment and ground contamination that by this drought event, which lasted into 2016.
results can have long-term negative conse- California produces a large percentage of the
quences on farmland. For example, flooding in fruits, vegetables, and tree nuts consumed in
the Midwest that occurred in the 1990s left sig- the United States and therefore has a high
nificant amounts of silt and sand, as well as demand for water. Some 5.7 million acres of
metal, rubber, wood, and other debris in the land are irrigated in the state, including
fields. Additionally, top soil was washed away. nearly 100% of the orchard, berry, and

vegetable production. In addition, California eastern United States may see increases of 5%
is one of the most populous states with over to 15%. The impact of these changes in precipi-
30 million people who need water. tation will have effects on agriculture produc-
The history of water use and rights in tion, but these effects are hard to predict
California is complex and controversial. From because they depend on many variables. For
the 1940s, the California State Water Project example, if precipitation is low and tempera-
and the Central Valley Project have been man- tures are high, soil moisture is lost at a rapid
aging dams, pumping stations, canals, and rate and crops will be damaged, but if tem-
pipelines to distribute water. These systems peratures are more moderate soil moisture
direct water from a variety of rivers and may be retained adequately to support plant
streams to farmland and cities. California growth.
obtains about 30% of its water from snowfalls
in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and relies
heavily on the Colorado River, which obtains
most of its water from snowfalls in the Rocky
8.3.5 Water Footprint in Agriculture
Mountains. The Colorado River provides The concept of a water footprint for food
water to six other states and major cities production was introduced in 2007 by
including Las Vegas, Denver, Salt Lake City, researchers at the University of Twente in the
and Albuquerque. Arguments between states Netherlands (Hoekstra and Chapagain, 2007).
over access to the Colorado River have In this mathematical model, the amount of
occurred throughout history. California has water used in producing a crop (water foot-
tended to consume more than its share of the print) is estimated by the total volume of crop
water and, during times of shortage, this has produced and the water content of the crop.
led to significant conflicts. For animals, the model also includes the water
Lack of precipitation and low snowfalls content of feed and volume of water con-
over the past decade have exacerbated the sumed during the animals’ lifetime. From
drought in California with negative effects on these calculations, a country’s internal (water
agriculture. The state suffered a 22% decrease used for products generated by that country)
in agricultural revenue between 2014 and 2015, and external (water used for products
which represents a loss of about $9 billon. The imported into that country) water consump-
precarious dependency of the US food system tion can be determined. The water footprint
on California to produce the majority of fruits, for US agricultural goods was estimated to be
vegetables, and nuts, which is in turn depen- 1192 m3/capita per year for internal produc-
dent on availability of water, raises concerns tion and 267 for external production, and the
about sustainability. Climate change has global averages were internal 907 and external
increased the severity of weather events, and 160 m3/capita per year. Developed countries
made weather forecasting more challenging, tend to have higher water footprints than
putting additional stress on farmers who must developing countries. Some European coun-
determine the types and quantities of food tries, such as the United Kingdom and Italy,
products they will produce. have high external water footprints because
The USDA ARS predicts that over the next they rely heavily on imported foods.
30 40 years, regions of the northwest and To further define the ways water is used,
southern United States may see reductions of the Dutch researchers classified water use as
between 5% and 25% in summertime precipita- green, blue, or gray. Green water refers to rain-
tion while regions in the north central and water use, blue water to ground or surface

water use, and gray water estimates pollu- which is running low. The majority of the fruits
tants released into the water. In this model, and vegetables consumed by Americans are
animal products demand high water input, grown in drought-prone California. These
with pork and beef at the highest green water regional food production systems have evolved
footprint of all animal products (Fig. 8.6). For over time in the United States based on eco-
plant foods, rice is the most water-intensive nomic and logistical factors. As climate change
crop, consuming about 21% of the total vol- alters weather patterns and water resources
ume of water used for all field crops. Wheat become more vulnerable, it is likely food pro-
is the second highest crop for water use. In duction patterns will also need to change. If
Fig. 8.7 a comparison of the global water foot- these changes occur, the entire food system
print for some common foods is shown. infrastructure will also need to adapt.
Coffee, chocolate, and olive oil are among the
most water-intensive crops, while fruits and
vegetables have lower water footprints.
8.3.6 Water Contamination
While a comparison of water footprint is In 1948 the Federal Water Pollution Control
helpful to determine water use, there are many Act (FWPCA) authorized the Surgeon General
factors that impact the total amount of water of the Public Health Service to oversee reduc-
needed to produce foods. Air temperature, ing pollution of US waterways. Several amend-
wind, and soil quality will dramatically alter ments to the legislation were made through
the amount of water needed to raise a crop. 1966, with authority for water quality under
Where food is grown becomes a very important the Secretary of Health, Education, and
consideration as water resources become more Welfare. The Clean Water Restoration Act of
limited. Growing wheat in the Central Plains 1966 authorized a comprehensive study of the
requires irrigation from the Ogallala aquifer, effects of pollution on US waterways. The
FIGURE 8.6 Beef and pork production have the highest green water footprint among animal food sources. Green
water refers to rainwater used to produce the grains consumed by the animals, blue water is surface and ground water
used in the animal’s care, and gray water is the amount of water pollution as a result of animal production. Source: From
Mekonnen and Hoekstra (2011).

FIGURE 8.7 Coffee and chocolate have the highest water footprint among plant foods. These might be considered lux-
ury foods that contribute little nutritional value, whereas dry beans, soybeans, and wheat, which have lower water foot-
prints, are a valuable source of nutrients. Source: From Mekonnen M.M. and Hoekstra A.Y., The green, blue and grey water
footprint of crops and derived crop products, Hydrologic Earth System Science 15, 2011, 1577 0600.
report, published in 1969, found that half of bacteria, and suspended sediment to ground
the public drinking supply systems in the and surface water. Nitrogen and phosphorus
United States did not meet safety standards. are considered nutrient pollutants when they
Also in June 1969, the Cuyahoga River in enter waterways in excessive amounts.
Cleveland, Ohio became notorious because of Consequences of these contaminants include
a story published in TIME magazine that eutrophication causing algal blooms that
showed fires burning on the river. Fires had reduce oxygen levels (hypoxia) in bodies of
occurred on the Cuyahoga and other US rivers water and rivers resulting in the death of fish
for several years previously, when oils and and aquatic animals. Some algae blooms pro-
industrial wastes on the surfaces of the water duce toxins that can cause human illness if
ignited. The TIME story brought public and people come in contact with the water or
political attention to major environmental consume tainted fish.
issues including water pollution. It became The streams and waterways of thirteen
evident that there was a lack of comprehensive states in the agriculturally intense Midwest
oversight of water quality legislation, which drain into the Mississippi River basin, which
led to the 1972 amendment to the FWPCA that empties into the Gulf of Mexico. Nutrients
consolidated authority for water pollution con- from farmland accumulate in the river and are
trol under the newly formed Environmental dispersed into the Gulf of Mexico. Fig. 8.8
Protection Agency (EPA). illustrates how nutrients, specifically nitrates,
Agriculture operations can contribute to accumulate in the Mississippi River from riv-
water contamination. The fertilizers and ani- ers and streams that drain the Midwest farm-
mal manure that are spread on farmland land. The EPA has identified 166 dead zones
leach phosphorus, nitrate, fecal coliform in US waterways, as a result of hypoxia, where

FIGURE 8.8 Rivers and streams throughout the Midwest drain into the Mississippi River and contribute nitrates from
agricultural lands. These nitrates from the Mississippi River empty into the Gulf of Mexico, creating hypoxia and a large
dead zone. Source: Illustration by Robertson D.M., Saad D.A., and Schwarz G.E., Spatial variability in nutrient transport by
HUC8, state and subbasin based on Mississippi/Atchafalaya river basin sparrow models, Journal of the American Water
Resources Association 50(4), 2014, 1 22.
no fish or aquatic life survive. The Gulf of amount of soil erosion has decreased in the
Mexico has the largest dead zone, at the mouth region by 15.1 million tons per year; nitrogen
of the Mississippi River, which was estimated levels have been reduced by 38% and phospho-
to be over 5800 square miles in 2013. About rus by 45%. The effort to clean up Chesapeake
40% of the US seafood supply ($82 million a Bay is projected to cost nearly $19 billion.
year) comes from the Gulf of Mexico, and is Pesticides and herbicides that enter the water
threatened by these polluted waters. system are a concern for wildlife and humans.
The Chesapeake Bay on the East Coast has The EPA regulates all pesticides that are used in
also experienced significant eutrophication and agriculture and has defined their proper use.
dead zones. The Chesapeake watershed covers But the Clean Water Act does not regulate agri-
six states (Delaware, Maryland, New York, cultural pollution directly. Pesticide users must
Pennsylvania, Virginia, and West Virginia) with follow Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
over 84,000 small farms. Because of the topogra- Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) regulations and secure
phy of the land in this region and the types of the proper permits. Inspection and oversight of
farming, runoff into the water systems is a sig- most pesticide use is conducted by regional or
nificant problem. Eutrophication of these water- local NRCS staff. A wide range of agricultural
ways has negative effects on the ecosystem and chemicals, primarily herbicides and insecticides,
food production, and reduces the recreational are approved for use in the United States. Each
quality of these areas. The USDA Natural of these chemicals has a defined mode of action,
Resources Conservation Service has been optimum effective concentration, toxicity thresh-
focused on restoring and protecting the old, and degradation rate. The USGS National
Chesapeake Bay watershed for several years Water Quality Assessment Program (www.usgs.
with positive results. Between 2006 and 2011 the gov) tracks the amounts of each of these

chemicals in water and the environment and potentially removed from cultivation, causing
posts these data on their website. Monitoring profit loss for farmers. Additionally, the rule
the effects of these chemicals on aquatic animals, would enforce Clean Water Act regulations on
wildlife, and humans is an ongoing challenge. waters within private land, which would be a
Implementation of water quality standards broader interpretation of the act than had ever
for wetlands and drainage fields has occasionally been held. Several states filed lawsuits against
stirred controversy with farmers who contend the rule and the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals
that the EPA’s interpretation of clean water regu- granted a nationwide stay on the WOTUS rule
lations will have detrimental economic effects on in October 2015. The position of the EPA is that
agriculture. In 2015 the EPA and US Army mitigation of water contamination from all
Corps of Engineers finalized the Waters of the sources, including field runoff, is expensive and
United States (WOTUS) rule to clarify the defini- difficult to achieve, and a better strategy is to
tion of “waters of the United States.” WOTUS prevent the contamination at the source. Because
makes it clear that streams, tributaries, and wet- water seeps and runs through all land, it is nec-
lands—essentially any water that channels into essary to address contamination wherever it
larger bodies of water—fall under the Clean occurs. Opponents of the rule, especially private
Water Act. Critics of the rule argue that comply- land owners, argue that it gives the government
ing with Clean Water Act regulations for all of authority to define how they manage their land
these waters would require planting extensive and resources. Clearly, this is an ethical dilemma
buffer strips along waterways, including rural that pits individual rights against the utilitarian
drainage ditches, to reduce runoff from farm perspective of protecting the nation’s water sys-
fields. Some farmers raised concerns that this tems. A solution to this dilemma will require dis-
could result in millions of acres of farmland cussion and scientific thinking from both sides.
EXPANSION BOX 8.1
N I T R O G E N F E RT I L I Z E R
Nitrogen is essential for plant growth and Legumes, such as soybeans and alfalfa, have
reproduction. Nitrogen is used in photosynthe- a type of bacteria in their root nodules that con-
sis so plants deficient in nitrogen are yellowish verts nitrogen gas (N2) to usable forms (ammo-
while those with adequate nitrogen are dark nia or NH3) of nitrogen. These plants are
green. Plants take up simple inorganic nitrogen referred to as “nitrogen-fixing” plants.
compounds from soil as either ammonium Nonlegume crops such as wheat and corn do
(NH4) or nitrate (NO3). There are various forms not fix nitrogen and must rely on biologically
of nitrogen (nitrite NO2, nitrate NO3, nitrous available nitrogen in the soil or nitrogen
oxides NO, NO2 and HNO3, and ammonia applied from commercial fertilizer or manure.
NH3/ammonium NH4) in the soil and these The most common form of nitrogen fertilizer
forms change depending on conditions of pH, is anhydrous (without water) ammonia (NH3).
moisture, temperature, and oxygen. Utilization During WWII, anhydrous ammonia was pro-
of organic nitrogen by crops requires prior duced in large quantities to be used in muni-
transformation to inorganic ammonium or tions. When the war ended, it was recognized
nitrate by soil microbes. that it could be an effective and low-cost

fertilizer. About one-third of the nitrogen fertil- caused when infants, less than 6 months of
izer used in the United States is applied as age, consume high levels of nitrates. The
anhydrous ammonia. Other forms of nitrogen nitrates are converted to nitrites by bacteria in
fertilizer are ammonium nitrate, urea, and the infant’s stomach and are absorbed into the
ammonium phosphates. Anhydrous ammonia blood. Nitrites affect the oxygen-carrying
is a hazardous chemical and must be handled capacity of the blood causing a condition
with care during transport and application. called methemoglobinemia. The lack of oxy-
Applied to the field as a liquid, anhydrous gen causes the skin to look bluish. The condi-
ammonia is converted to ammonium (NH4) gas tion is readily reversible by sequestering the
when it reacts with water, which is then readily nitrites, but if untreated can be fatal. Older
absorbed by soil and plants. infants and children are not susceptible to
Manure (animal feces and/or urine mixed blue baby syndrome because they have devel-
with plant material or bedding) is organic mat- oped sufficient stomach acidity to prevent the
ter that contains large amounts of nitrogen. conversion of nitrates to nitrites. Nitrates in
Manure is composted for a period of time drinking water are not a significant direct
before being used as a fertilizer to allow any health concern for adults. The Safe Drinking
pathogenic microorganisms to decay. CAFOs Water Act requirements set a maximum
collect manure into holding lagoons, which nitrate level of 10 parts per million in commu-
allows manure slurries to be applied to fields nity drinking water supplies. Water systems
as liquid fertilizers. Dry manure is also col- that use rivers and streams that have come
lected and can be distributed onto fields with a through agricultural land often have higher
manure spreader. Manure provides a valuable levels of nitrates. These must be removed
source of organic matter, which improves soil using a special type of filter (ion exchange or
composition, increases the water-holding capac- reverse osmosis) that can be expensive to
ity of sandy soils, improves drainage in clay operate. Reducing nitrogen runoff from agri-
soils, provides a source of slow-release nutri- cultural land is a high priority to protect
ents, reduces wind and water erosion, and pro- water quality and avoid these problems. Soil
motes growth of beneficial soil organisms. management practices, such as using opti-
Nitrogen fertilizers such as anhydrous mum fertilization rates or applying forms of
ammonia and manure are relatively inexpen- nitrogen that are better retained in the soil,
sive and easy to apply. These factors have can be used to help optimize crop yields,
allowed farmers to apply nitrogen fertilizers nitrogen use efficiency, and water quality.
abundantly to their fields. In some parts of the Newer technologies that allow farmers to
US excessive use of nitrogen fertilizers has led measure nitrogen levels in the soil in real time
to high levels of nitrates in public drinking are being developed to make fertilizer applica-
water systems. High levels of nitrates in tion more precise.
drinking water can have mild health effects
on children and potentially severe effects on Suggested reading: Powlson et al. (2008).
newborn infants. Blue baby syndrome is

8.3.7 Carbon Footprint estimates that forests offset only about 15% of
total GHG generated, and the amount of for-
There are over 10 million known carbon- ested land has declined from about 1023 million
containing compounds, and all living things acres in 1630 to 766 million acres in 2012 due to
are carbon-based. As the fourth most abundant urbanization. Periods of high insect infestation,
element on Earth, carbon circulates throughout such as the pine beetle outbreak in the mid-
the biosphere of land, water, air, plants, and 2010s that killed millions of trees in the western
animals. Carbon exists in the atmosphere pri- United States, reduce the capacity of forests to
marily as CO2 and CH4, the main greenhouse remove CO2. Further loss of trees from wide-
gases (GHGs). Carbon footprint is defined as spread forest fires was exacerbated by the
“The quantity of GHGs expressed in terms of drought conditions in the western states and
CO2-e, emitted into the atmosphere by an indi- the high number of dead trees from insect dam-
vidual, organization, process, product or event age. Forest fires are doubly damaging because
from within a specified boundary” (Pandey, they take away the carbon sequestration activity
Agrawal, & Pandey, 2011). CO2-e refers to CO2 of trees, and release massive amounts of CO2.
equivalents, which are a measure of the impact Loss of forest land is a significant global con-
of a GHG on climate change relative to the cern, especially the dramatic loss of rainforests
impact of CO2 (e.g., methane has a high CO2- that are being cut down to grow crops.
e). To conduct a carbon footprint analysis, a Agricultural crops consume CO2 from the
lifecycle assessment (LCA) must be generated atmosphere as they grow. A Michigan State
that includes measurements of CO2-e at each University study found that 1 acre of corn
step “from cradle to grave” for the product. absorbs about 36,000 pounds of CO2 during
For a food product, defining a carbon footprint the growing season. Most of this will be
takes into consideration CO2-e during produc- returned to the atmosphere through animal or
tion, harvesting, processing, packaging, distri- human consumption of the grain, conversion
bution, and consumption. LCA is a useful to and burning of ethanol, or degradation of
analytical method to evaluate resource con- the plant biomass, so in this way crops are
sumption and the burdens on the environment carbon-neutral. The processes involved in
associated with a product, a process, or an growing agricultural crops, however, are not
activity. carbon-neutral. Soil that contains organic mat-
The large amount of CO2 produced by ter is a sink for CO2 but CO2 is released when
human activities is a major contributor to cli- soils are tilled and the organic matter is
mate change. High CO2 levels cause the Earth’s exposed to air and water. Tilling releases
surface to retain heat, which affects weather methane from the soils, which is a significant
patterns, so reducing these levels is a priority. GHG. Tractors, powered by engines burning
The burning of fossil fuels produces 54% of the fossil fuels that generate CO2, are used to till,
total CO2 produced on the planet. When plant, spread fertilizers, and harvest crops.
burned, one gallon of gasoline produces 20 And fertilizers and chemicals used on the
pounds of CO2 and 10 pounds of coal generates fields generate CO2 and other GHGs. Overall,
29 pounds of CO2. In contrast, plants consume raising crops produces more GHG than are
CO2 in the process of photosynthesis and consumed, contributing about 9% to the total
sequester it in their biomass. It has been esti- GHG emissions in the United States.
mated that one tree can absorb 48 pounds of Livestock production generates GHGs,
CO2 in a year and, over a 40-year lifespan, mainly CO2, CH4 and nitrous oxide (N2O),
retain 1 ton of CO2. The US Forestry Service that are directly produced by the animals, and

to biogas containing a high amount of meth-
ane. Methane can be used as an energy source
to replace petroleum in vehicles, or the biogas
can be further processed to generate pure
hydrogen. Hydrogen is used in fuel cells that
power electric cars and engines. It has been
estimated that the amount of biogas that could
be generated from landfills, waste water treat-
ment plants, and animal agriculture could be
substantial. While the technology to generate
biogas is fairly simple and inexpensive on a
small scale, it is complex and costly to imple-
ment on a commercial scale. California
has taken the lead nationally to implement
statewide clean air standards, which makes
FIGURE 8.9 Fossil fuel use (coal and petroleum) and biogas more economically viable as a source of
animal agriculture generate the majority of methane that
energy. By converting waste materials to
contributes to greenhouse gases. Landfills are also a source
of methane generated from food wastes. Source: biogas, the California Energy Commission gen-
Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov. erated 3.44% of the state’s electricity in 2015.
The dairy industry has also been proactive in
developing biogas digesters that can be
indirectly from the growing of the feed they installed on the farm to generate energy for
consume, the manure they produce, and the the operation. The digesters use manure and
energy used in the animal management opera- other biomass waste to generate biogas. By
tions. About one-third of the methane produc- capturing the GHG from manure to generate
tion in the United States comes from animals fuel, less fossil fuel is needed and the impact
(enteric fermentation plus manure). Fossil fuels on the environment is reduced.
(natural gas, petroleum, and coal) account for It is difficult to calculate the carbon footprint
42% of methane production and landfills add of individual food products because of the
20% (Fig. 8.9). Beef cattle produce about 65% many variables involved from production to
of the total livestock GHG emissions, dairy cat- consumer. Efforts to standardize this assess-
tle 20% and swine 8%. How animal waste is ment have been proposed. Table 8.3 lists esti-
handled determines the amount of GHG pro- mates of GHG emission from production of
duced. CH4 generation is high when manure is 100 kcal of food by category. Foods derived
stored in liquid slurries, and low if stored in from animals top the list for the highest GHG
dry lots. In contrast, N2O generation is high production. It is helpful to further define the
when manure is stored in dry lots, and low if sources of GHG within a production system.
stored in liquid slurries. Using milk production as an example, the
Production of biogas from waste products amount of CO2 contributed at each stage can
including animal manure, human sewage from been estimated (Fig. 8.10). The highest sources
waste water treatment plants, and food wastes of GHG from milk production are the enteric
is an approach to lower GHG emissions and methane production and manure management,
generate a renewable source of fuel. From a followed by feed and transportation. Using
process of anaerobic digestion, the organic these types of analyses, farmers and researchers
matter in these waste-streams can be converted can identify where to implement conservation

TABLE 8.3 Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Estimates for methods to lower the environmental impact of
100 kcal Portions of Foods food production. Carbon footprint calculators
Food category GHG (kgCO2e) have been developed (https://www3.epa.gov/
carbon-footprint-calculator/) to help consumers
Meat from ruminants 857 evaluate their own personal behaviors regard-
Fish 517 ing energy use. Farmers also can use software
Mixed dishes 312
modeling to find ways to reduce the carbon
footprint of their operations (www.cometfarm.
Pork, poultry, eggs 308 nrel.colostate.edu).
Fruits and vegetables 290
Dairy foods 216
Snacks and sweets 91
8.3.8 Food Miles
Starches (cereals, grains, bread) 61 The carbon footprint for food miles is calcu-
lated by multiplying the distance the food
Food fats 55
(or each food ingredient) has traveled by
From Vieux, F., Soler, L.-G., Touazi, D., & Darmon, N. (2013). High the carbon emission of the transportation type,
nutritional quality is not associated with lowest greenhouse gas emissions airplane, truck, barge, or railroad. The distri-
in self-selected diets of French adults. American Journal of Clinical
Nutrition, 97(3), 569 583 (Vieux, Soler, Touazi, & Darmon, 2013).
bution patterns of food in the United States
have clearly changed since the days when 40%
FIGURE 8.10 The main sources of greenhouse gases generated during milk production are from feed production,
enteric methane release, and decaying of manure. Transportation of products by truck also generates significant green-
house gases. Source: From Thoma, G., Popp, J., Nutter, D., Shonnard, D., Ulrich, R., Matlock, M., . . . Adom, F. (2013).
Greenhouse gas emissions from milk production and consumption in the United States: A cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment circa
2008. International Dairy Journal, 31, S3 S14 (Thoma et al., 2013).

of Americans lived on farms and produced the movement. Defining how buying local affects
majority of their own food. As discussed in the environmental impact of farming is compli-
Chapter 3, Innovations in US Agriculture, food cated. With an increased interest in local foods,
production occurs in concentrated regions, there will be smaller deliveries made by more
with fewer but larger operations. More food farmers. A consumer that drives to one large
is also imported from other countries. grocery store, once a week to purchase food
Distribution of foods from their site of produc- will use less fuel than a consumer who drives
tion to consumers involves a complex network to a farmer’s market for produce, a dairy farm
of handlers and modes of transport. Air trans- for milk, and a butcher for chicken. In contrast,
portation is by far the most energy-intensive the net amount of energy needed to deliver all
method of food distribution and barge trans- the food to the large grocery store is high,
port the lowest: whereas the farmer has essentially no transpor-
tation costs for the food s/he produces.
• Airplane—10.0 MJ/km
Limiting foods to those that are grown or
• Truck—2.7 MJ/km
produced locally would have an impact on
• Railroad—0.3 MJ/km
those living in temperate climates, which is
• Barge—0.2 MJ/km
most of the United States. There would be lim-
There are efficiencies of scale associated ited access and availability of tropical fruits
with larger food production systems that make such as oranges, bananas, kiwi, pineapple, and
them more economical, such as more mechani- avocado. Consumption of fresh fruits and
zation to reduce labor costs, and higher volume vegetables would be limited to the summer
generating more net income. There is a trade- months or to preserved or greenhouse-grown
off in these efficiencies by adding the costs, products during the rest of the year. The cost
both economic and environmental, to distribute of all foods would likely increase. Consumers
the product. The mode and volume of trans- have come to expect all fresh fruits and
portation of food defines the net environmental vegetables to be available during the entire
impact. Food transported by road contributes year and seasonality is a concept of the past.
60% of the world’s food transportation emis- Based on today’s economy and lifestyles, reli-
sions because vans and trucks move smaller ance on only foods produced locally cannot be
amounts of food, compared to railroads or achieved in most parts of the country.
barges. A smaller carbon footprint and less Quantifying these economic, social, and envi-
energy may be needed to deliver milk by bulk ronmental impacts of food production and dis-
rail transport several hundred miles from a tribution will be needed to optimize the food
dairy to a distribution center, than for one con- system. It is not sufficient to simply assume a
sumer to drive 25 miles for 3 gallons of milk. local food production model will correct the
The purpose of “Buy Fresh Buy Local” environmental impact without considering all
(BFBL) initiatives is to reduce transportation aspects of the food system.
miles and to support rural economies for the
benefit of farmers and small town businesses.
The sociological aspects of our current food
8.3.9 Invasive Weeds, Insects,
system are very different than 50 years ago
when more people were engaged in agricul-
and Diseases
ture. Many consumers have lost connectedness The types and quantities of pests that affect
with food production. The desire to regain agricultural production are influenced by the
this connection has fostered the buy local temperature, amount of sunlight, water, and

humidity conditions. Climate change is pre- impacted that region in September 2004, sug-
dicted to have significant effects on the envi- gesting that the fungus may have been trans-
ronmental conditions that define the survival ported from South America in the wind and
and proliferation of agricultural pests. In 1999, water of that storm. Soybean rust causes
President Bill Clinton signed Executive Order severe economic losses to soybean farmers and
13112, called the Invasive Species Act, which the presence of the disease in the United States
created an Invasive Species Council to oversee raised great concern. In response, the USDA
planning and implementation of approaches to implemented a coordinated soybean rust mon-
mitigate invasive species. Invasive species itoring and tracking program soon after the
refers to any seeds, eggs, spores, or other bio- disease was discovered that involves farmers,
logical material capable of propagating a spe- extension educators, agribusinesses, and
cies that is not native to the ecosystem. Palmer USDA-APHIS. Thus far, the spread of soybean
amaranth is an invasive weed that negatively rust has been contained to the Southeast and
impacts crop production across the lower half not spread into the Midwest soybean farming
of the United States. This plant is an example areas, mainly because the fungus is not able to
of a highly adaptable and invasive species that survive the freezing temperatures of the
evolves quickly to survive in varying environ- Midwest. Plant pathologists are concerned that
ments, and develops resistance to herbicides. as climate change causes winters in the
The plant produces tiny seeds that are trans- Midwest to become warmer, soybean rust may
ported by humans, equipment, or in animal spread into these areas.
feed. Controlling the spread of the seeds is There is evidence from agricultural research
difficult. It is thought that the spread of data in the United States that some insects
Palmer amaranth infestation into Indiana, have increased their geographical ranges and
Michigan, and Wisconsin may have started others are surviving through the winter as
when local beef and dairy cattle were fed grain temperatures have increased. Corn flea beetle
from amaranth-infested fields in the southern causes damage to young corn plants and trans-
United States. The seeds were disseminated mits a bacteria to the plant that causes
onto croplands when the manure from the ani- Stewart’s wilt. The beetle and the bacteria
mals was spread for fertilizer. Several other combine to cause significant damage to corn
invasive weeds have expanded their territory production. The corn flea beetle’s survival is
as they have adapted to new climate condi- dependent on the temperatures during
tions, requiring farmers to learn quickly how December, January, and February. When tem-
to manage these pests. peratures are warm during those months, as
Plant pathologists, who study crop diseases, has occurred in recent years, the pest survives
have found that wind and precipitation pat- and can cause damage to the spring crop.
terns, as well as seasonal temperature changes, Because of the large variety of agricultural
allow certain plant diseases to spread into new pests, and their close interactions with the
areas. The soybean rust fungus is such an environment and crops, tracking each species
example. Soybean rust was not present in the will be necessary to fully understand how they
western hemisphere until 2001 when it first are responding to climate changes.
appeared in South America. By 2004 soybean The spread of invasive weeds, insects, and
rust was reported in the United States, first in plant diseases will be continually influenced
Louisiana and thereafter in other southeastern by weather and agronomic practices. Climate
states. The locations of soybean rust followed change increases the chaos in predicting where
the path of Hurricane Ivan, which had and when these pests will spread. Regions of

the country that were protected from some few open-pollinated varieties of a single race,
pests due to climate or soil conditions will find although there are some 200 known races of
them occurring more frequently, while other corn. Uniformity in planting, cultivation, and
areas may see a reduction in some pests. The harvesting means reduced competition for
effectiveness of pesticides and herbicides is nutrients, sunlight, and space and allows effi-
likely to become increasingly reduced as pests cient management of the crop, resulting in
develop resistance. high yields. Specialization in one crop reduces
the amount of labor and equipment needed for
farm operations. As noted in Chapter 4,
Animals in the Food System, modern farm
8.3.10 Biodiversity operations typically specialize in 1 3 pro-
The number of living species, not including ducts, unlike farms in the past that produced
bacteria, on Earth has been estimated to be many different crops and animals. Animals
between 2 and 8 million, but only about 1.3 bred for selective traits of high growth, high
million of these have been catalogued. The feed efficiency, and optimum milk, meat, or
precise number of species is in constant flux as eggs are more cost effective for the producer.
new species arise and others become extinct. The risks of this reduced genetic diversity
Determining how many species come (diversi- are a loss of disease and pest resistance, or
fication) and go (extinction) over time is diffi- growth and reproductive problems. In field
cult to measure. There is evidence that the crops, planting the same species repeatedly in
number of species extinctions is higher in the the same fields drains the fields of selected
modern era compared to prehuman era, by nutrients and allows pests to become adapted
perhaps as much as 1000 times. The to the crop and the pest-control methods.
Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) rec- Broilers that have been bred for high breast
ognized global diversity as a public resource. meat have skeletal and metabolic disorders.
The loss of species diversity as a form of harm For these reasons, variety in crop rotations and
was noted in the US Endangered Species Act genetic diversity in animal species needs to be
(1973). maintained. Alternatives to monocultures are
Genetic diversity, which defines biodiver- systems of polycropping and agroecology.
sity, is necessary for adaptation to various Polycropping is the planting of more than one
environmental stresses. Agriculture, through crop in the same space at the same time. It also
selection and breeding, tends to reduce genetic includes companion planting and intercrop-
diversity within plant and animal species. The ping to increase the diversity of plants, primar-
top producing species become dominant and ily to decrease the incidence of disease and
crowd out other species. A monoculture insect damage. Agroecology or agroforestry is
results when a single species of crop, plant, or polycropping with trees and shrubs in perma-
livestock type is grown at one time. Reduced nent strips or rows. Retaining varieties of
biodiversity has occurred with agricultural genetic species of livestock is important as
domestication. Over 80% of the world’s calo- well.
ries are provided by only 10 20 crops. In the Further limiting crop diversity is the small
United States, 42% of the soybeans, 43% of the number of agribusinesses that produce seeds
corn, and 38% of the wheat were dominated and animal stocks. The seed corn market is
by the top six varieties. The hundreds of corn controlled by four companies and, globally, 10
hybrids grown in the United States are based companies control 32% of the commercial seed
on about 12 inbred lines that originated from a trade. Lack of competition in seed markets

keeps prices high and reduces development of sum, or about 1% of the GDP. Agriculture and
new products and adoption of new technolo- agriculture-related industry provide 9.2% of
gies. It reduces farmers’ access to diverse US employment or about 16.9 million full-time
genetic resources and often leads to the elimi- and part-time jobs. Americans consume more
nation of specialized varieties for local condi- than 37 million tons of meat annually, worth
tions, which will become more important to $100 billion, and US fisheries harvest 5 million
respond to climate changes. A criticism of metric tons of fish and shellfish, which contri-
genetic engineering is the control of the pro- butes more than $1.4 billion to the economy
cess by a few companies and economic bar- annually. Sustainability of this production sys-
riers to entering the market adding to reduced tem is essential for the economic viability of
genetic diversity in agriculture. the United States.
Agriculture affects biodiversity by reducing Traditional and diversified farms of the
wildlife habitat. Fragmentation of preserved 1930s and 1940s may be viewed as being ide-
areas, diversion of water for irrigation, and ally sustainable (if soil erosion was controlled).
destruction of prairie and woodlands have But these farms were inefficient, had demand-
negative effects on native plants, animals, and ing labor inputs, low production volume, and
insects. Drainage of wetlands for conversion generated low income for farmers with high
to cropland reduces wildlife population and food costs for everyone. Modern, conventional
diversity. Runoff and chemicals used in agri- farming, which is often referred to as “indus-
culture negatively affect water quality, which trial farming,” generates a negative image of
hinders aquatic wildlife. Mitigation of the destroying the environment to produce cheap,
impacts of agriculture on wildlife while unhealthy foods. Finding a sustainable food
increasing the amount and quality of food production system lies somewhere in the mid-
produced is a wicked problem to solve. In a dle of these extremes. Sustainable farming
global view, it may be most efficient, economi- means an integrated or mixed farm pattern
cal, and ethical to concentrate the growing of with a concern for the environment and mini-
crops or raising of animals in certain areas so mal external inputs. Consideration of where
that other lands may be preserved for parks, and how food is produced, with size and scale
forests, and wildlife reserves. Deciding where of operations interspersed with market
to produce food to optimize wildlife and natu- demands is needed. Any food production sys-
ral areas, as well as support the expanding tem “. . .must be efficient, which in most cases
human population, is and will continue to be will require that farming remain mechanized,
challenging. scientifically informed, and chemically sup-
ported. Only such an agriculture will be able
to feed 9 billion people by 2050” (Conkin,
8.4 CREATING A SUSTAINABLE 2008).
FOOD SYSTEM Being able to clearly predict the impact of
climate change on weather patterns, the envi-
The economic impact of US agriculture is ronment, and ultimately agricultural produc-
significant. Agriculture and agriculture-related tion is unlikely given the wide range of factors
industries (forestry, fishing, food, beverage, that are involved. Vulnerability of agriculture
tobacco, textiles, apparel, leather, and foodser- to these changes will be dependent upon not
vice) contributed $789 billion to the US gross only the natural systems that arise, but on the
domestic product (GDP) in 2013. The output of ways humans respond to these changes. The
America’s farms generated $167 billion of this key drivers as defined by the USDA (Technical

8.4 CREATING A SUSTAINABLE FOOD SYSTEM 313
Bulletin Number 1935 (Walthall et al., 2012)) • Consumer behavior (e.g., diet change)
that will impact agriculture include: • Perception of climate risk
• Increased variability in growing conditions Identifying ways to increase resilience and
(changes in seasonal temperature and find adaptive solutions will be essential. The
precipitation patterns) USDA has defined a national adaptation strat-
• Increased soil degradation (increased egy to address the impacts of climate change
erosion reduces soil quality) on agriculture (Table 8.4). It will be necessary
• Increased pest pressure, novel pests to monitor local climate changes closely and to
• Increased number, length, and/or intensity adapt agricultural practices early and effi-
of drought events ciently. Early and efficient adaptation is possi-
• Increased number and/or intensity of flood ble in large, midlatitude countries such as the
events United States where crops can shift within
• Shift in optimum zones for current national borders. Adaptation will be difficult
production systems in developing countries with high population
• Government climate change policy densities. Poor countries are the least flexible
• Economic (e.g., carbon markets) and most likely to experience famine.
TABLE 8.4 Proposed Adaption Strategies to Mitigate Climate Change Impacts on US Agriculture
Integrating adaptation into federal Agencies are taking steps to manage climate impacts to federal agency
government planning and activities missions, programs, and operations to ensure that resources are invested
wisely and federal services remain effective for the American people.
Agencies are developing climate adaptation plans to identify their
vulnerabilities and prioritize activities that reduce climate risk.
Building resilience to climate change in Recognizing that most adaptation occurs at the local level, Federal
communities agencies are working with diverse stakeholders in communities to prepare
for a range of extreme weather and climate impacts (e.g., flooding,
drought, and wildfire) that put people, property, local economies, and
ecosystems at risk.
Improving accessibility and coordination of To advance understanding and management of climate risks, the federal
science for decision making government is working to develop strong partnerships, enhance regional
coordination of climate science and services, and provide accessible
information and tools to help decision makers develop strategies to reduce
extreme weather impacts and climate risks.
Developing strategies to safeguard natural Recognizing that American communities depend on natural resources and
resources in a changing climate the valuable ecosystem services they provide, agencies are working with
key partners to create a coordinated set of national strategies to help
safeguard the nation’s valuable freshwater, ocean, fish, wildlife, and plant
resources in a changing climate.
Developing strategies to safeguard natural Recognizing that American communities depend on natural resources and
resources in a changing climate the valuable ecosystem services they provide, agencies are working with
key partners to create a coordinated set of national strategies to help
safeguard the nation’s valuable freshwater, ocean, fish, wildlife, and plant
resources in a changing climate.
From Federal Actions for a Climate Resilient Nation. ,https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ceq/2011_adaptation_progress_report.pdf..

8.4.1 Organic Farming botanicals (pyrethrins), and bacteriological

compounds (Bacillus thuringiensis) for pest con-
The Organic Foods Production Act of 1990 trol. Irradiation treatment, use of genetically
authorized the USDA to define specific criteria modified seeds and use of human sewage
for organic food production and to certify pro- sludge for fertilizer are not approved. A pri-
ducers and food products as “organic.” Foods mary goal of organic production methods is to
produced following these standards bear the improve the health of soil and reduce soil ero-
organic seal. To obtain the organic certification sion. The addition of organic matter from
growers must follow a 3-year transition during manure and cover crops is required in organic
which only approved crop and livestock prac- farming practice, which enhances the water-
tices are used. Table 8.5 describes the crop, holding capacity of the soil and enhances ben-
livestock, and food processing standards that eficial microorganisms and biota. The planting
must be met for the organic certification. of cover crops, limited tillage, retention of crop
Organic food production practices include residue, and specific irrigation methods are
the use of animal manure, fish meal, peat, additional approaches used in organic farming
compost, and cover crops as fertilizer; the to protect and promote soil health. Organic
use of mulch, cover crops, cultivation, oils, farming practice requires farmers to employ
vinegar, copper sulfate, sodium hypochlorite, strategies to mitigate pests, including using
and soaps for weed control and the use of mulches to suppress weeds, rotating crops to
boric acid, lime sulfur, copper sulfate, oils, reduce insects and diseases, and using natural
and approved compounds such as minerals, rather than synthetic chemicals when needed
TABLE 8.5 Defined Organic Standards by the USDA
Organic crop production Organic livestock production Organic processing practices
Soil fertility: no sewage, use cover Living conditions: natural behavior; Organic ingredients: organic processors
crops, soil conservation practices access to outdoors; protection from must use 95% organic ingredients; no
extreme temperatures ingredients produced by GMO, from
sewage, sludge, or ionizing radiation
Seeds and planting stock: organic Grazing: ruminants access to pasture; Commingling and contact: no mixing
seeds; not GMO; not treated with not continuously confined organic with nonorganic ingredients;
prohibited chemicals clean and sanitize equipment between
sources
Crop rotation: different crop each Animal health: vaccination and Managing pests: may use synthetic pest
season; wait years before planting prevention strategies; no antibiotics or management if needed, but cannot be
same crop growth hormones in contact with products
Pest management: prevention, Organic feed: feed, pastures, bedding
avoidance, monitoring, and must be certified organic; nonorganic
suppression; approved pesticides vitamins and minerals allowed
Identity and integrity of crops: Animal origin: raised organically from
separate organic production from last third of gestation; birds for poultry
conventional to prevent contamination; or egg production raised organically
wait 36 months after prohibited from second day of life
chemicals used
From USDA Organic Standards. ,www.ams.usda.gov/grades-standards/organic-standards..

to treat plants. In this manner, organic farming items are fruits and vegetables, followed by
promotes healthy soils and reduced environ- dairy, packaged/prepared foods, breads and
mental contamination. grains, snack foods, then meat, fish, and poul-
Organic foods have been well accepted by try. Although organic agriculture began as
consumers, which has driven increased pro- small farm enterprises, consumer demand has
duction. Between 1992 and 2011, the number led major retailers to enter the market. Nearly
of organic farmers and acres of crop land con- 93% of organic foods is sold in grocery stores
verted to organic increased (Fig. 8.11), but the or supermarkets, and the majority of organic
total amount of organic production remains a milk, lettuce, and spinach is marketed by large
small fraction of total agricultural output. By corporations such as Walmart. Consequently,
2011 organic crops accounted for only 0.63% of organic producers have had to expand their
total US crop land and 0.49% of pasture and production capacity to meet the demands of
rangeland. During this time period, organic supplying these major retailers. In 2013, US
food sales grew from almost nothing to over producers exported $537 million in organic
$25 billion. Sales of organic foods show no produce, primarily apples, lettuce, and grapes.
sign of decreasing; in 2014 organic foods repre- Imported organic bananas, coffee, olive oil,
sented 4% of total food sales, estimated at over mangoes, wine, soybeans, and other foods
$35 billion a year. The most popular food were valued at $1.4 billion. Organic is the
FIGURE 8.11 The amount of land under organic operation, and the number of organic farm operators, have both
increased since 1992. Sales of organic foods have increased more steeply than other food categories, creating high price
demands for organic products. Source: USDA Economic Research Service, www.usda.ers.gov.

dominant sustainable food label and is the 8.4.2 Sustainable US Food Production
largest component of the global sustainable
food industry partly because of the high Food production in the United States will be
investment by governments and private sector impacted by climate changes but with regional
businesses. effects. Some areas near climate thresholds
EXPANSION BOX 8.2
O R G A N I C A L LY G R O W N F O O D S A N D H E A LT H
For the past several years, most grocery stores vegetable is determined by the cultivar or geno-
and markets prominently feature organic pro- type, and the environment in which it is grown,
ducts. Fruits and vegetables are displayed in sep- including soil and climate. The degree to which
arate locations in the produce aisle labeled with the plant is stressed from temperatures, too
banners indicating that they are organically much or too little water, or pests affects how
grown. Packaged food products that contain 95% much and which nutrients are retained. The
organically produced ingredients display the length of the growing period, harvest time, stor-
USDA Organic Seal, and those that contain 70% age conditions, and length of storage deter-
organic ingredients are labeled as “made with mines which nutrients are available when the
organic ingredients.” Such separate and distinct food is consumed. Further complexity arises
labeling and marketing tends to generate a “bet- because of the large number of nutrients pro-
ter for you” perception in consumers. From sur- vided by fruits and vegetables, some of which
veys of consumers, most will respond that are essential (vitamins and minerals) and others
organic foods are healthier, safer, and taste bet- that are nonessential (bioactive compounds)
ter; help small farmers; and are better for the and have no defined human requirement.
environment than commercially grown foods. Research studies have reported a higher or
Foods that are grown using conventional agricul- lower content of one or more nutrients or bioac-
tural practices do not receive comparable market tive compounds in organically grown versus
attention. The rapid increase in sales of organic conventionally grown fruits and vegetables but
foods indicates consumers see a perceived bene- these differences have not been consistent from
fit. Compared to conventionally grown foods, season to season or year to year. The overall
organically produced foods are more labor- impact on a person’s health from small differ-
intensive, and tend to have lower yields. These ences in nutrient content of one food may be
factors, plus the consumer willingness to pay insignificant. For example, some grass-fed beef
more, has led to significantly higher prices for may have higher levels of omega-3 fatty acids
organically produced foods than conventionally than conventionally raised beef, but the total
produced foods (Fig. 8.12). There is very little sci- amount of these fats in beef adds only a minor
entific evidence that organically grown foods are contribution to the overall diet.
safer, or have special nutritional value for consu- When a large number of studies that com-
mers compared to conventionally grown foods. pared nutrient content from organic and conven-
Research studies comparing methods for tionally grown foods were integrated using
growing plant foods are difficult to conduct statistical analyses (metaanalysis), vitamin C,
because of the many variables that must be con- phenolic compounds, magnesium, calcium,
trolled. The nutrient content of a fruit or potassium, zinc, and copper content were

FIGURE 8.12 The price of organically produced foods is generally much higher than conventionally grown
foods. Some consumers are willing to pay higher prices for these foods even though there is no scientific evi-
dence that they are safer or more nutritious than conventionally grown foods. Source: USDA Economic Research
Service, www.usda.ers.gov.
equally available from both types of food pro- Because there are a wide variety of flavonoid
duction. Bioactive compounds (such as phenolic compounds in foods, and their specific function
or flavonoid compounds that act as antioxi- in the body is not well-defined, there is no clear
dants) in organic compared to conventionally amount of flavonoid intake that correlates with
grown strawberries, plums, peaches, pears, and a health outcome. Most nutritionists agree that
cabbage were present in similar amounts. consuming more fruits and vegetables, regard-
Higher levels of some bioactive compounds less of how they are grown, provides beneficial
such as the flavonoids have been reported for nutrients to the diet.
organic compared to conventionally grown A majority of consumers (70%) base their
foods. Flavonoids include a large number of dif- decision to purchase organic foods on the belief
ferent chemicals that function to protect the that organic foods contain fewer pesticides and
plant from pests and sun-derived radiation chemicals than conventionally produced foods.
damage, and provide the color pigments respon- The fear of chemical exposure is a major con-
sible for attracting pollinators and seed disper- sideration that drives the purchasing of organic
sers. When plants are stressed the concentration foods. The USDA prohibits synthetic pesticides
of flavonoids tends to increase. Year-to-year var- from use in organic food production but does
iations in various flavonoids in apples, blueber- allow over 195 chemical compounds in the pro-
ries, tomatoes, and peppers have been duction, processing, and handling of organic
documented regardless of production method. foods. Conventional farming also follows

regulations regarding the types and amounts of had a higher rate of violations than domestic
pesticides that are allowed. The EPA reviews products. Most health professionals agree that
the scientific data on all pesticide products the risk to health from pesticide residues on
before they can be registered for use and estab- foods, both conventionally and organically
lishes a tolerance for use on food crops. The grown, is insignificant.
FDA enforces these tolerances on most foods By regulation, organically raised animals are
while the USDA enforces tolerances for meat, not exposed to antibiotics or growth hormones.
poultry, and certain egg products. The FDA This is frequently used as a marketing strategy
and USDA set enforcement guidelines for resi- to promote organically produced foods. Most
dues of pesticides that may remain in the envi- consumers are concerned that exposure to anti-
ronment and in the food. Based on scientific biotics or hormones in foods will have negative
evidence, an Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) is effects on their health and the health of their
defined for each pesticide that is set at 1/100 of children. As discussed in Chapter 4, Animals in
the exposure level that would cause toxicity in the Food System, when conventional farmers
lab animals. This tolerance level is intended to use these products they must be fully cleared
be several magnitudes below where any risk to from the animal before meat, milk, or eggs enter
human health would occur. The FDA provides the food system. The risk of exposure to antibio-
an annual report of the pesticide residues mea- tics or artificial hormones from conventionally
sured in food samples obtained from grocery raised animals is extremely low and essentially
stores (Table 8.6). In recent surveys, the great not different from organically raised products.
majority of foods contained no measurable resi- The decision to purchase organically pro-
dues, and those that did contain residues were duced foods is sometimes based on the consider-
below the safety threshold. Only a very small ation of taste and flavor. The assumption is that
percent of foods had levels of chemical residues organically produced foods have better flavor
that violated the standards. Imported foods, than conventionally grown foods. Flavor com-
particularly grains, vegetables, and fruits pounds in fruits and vegetables and animal foods
TABLE 8.6 Pesticide Residues in Foods Analyzed by the FDA

Domestically produced Imported
No residue Safe range Violation No residue Safe range Violation
Percent of total
Grains 64.7 33.8 1.5 62.3 13.4 24.3

Dairy/eggs 95.5 4.5 0.0 85.7 14.3 0.0
Fish 68.8 27.5 3.8 90.5 9.1 0.5

Fruits 19.0 80.3 0.7 54.3 37.0 8.7
Vegetables 55.0 39.5 5.5 55.1 34.8 10.1
From Pesticide Monitoring Program Fiscal Year 2013 Pesticide Report, U.S. Food and Drug Administration. ,http://www.fda.gov/
downloads/Food/FoodborneIllnessContaminants/Pesticides/UCM508084.pdf..

are influenced many factors, and perception of grown products receive higher prices in the
desired flavor is defined by personal experience marketplace, which may benefit some small
and preference. Freshness is another factor that farmers. Consumer demand for organic foods
affects flavor. A tomato picked from the garden is strong and continues to increase, which will
and consumed immediately will have a different demand a new paradigm for organic food pro-
flavor profile than the same tomato eaten after duction. To meet demand, organic farmers will
being held for a few days on the grocer’s display need to increase the size of their operations, or
table. Organic farmers tend to grow different more farmers will need to enter the organic
varieties of fruits and vegetables than commercial production market. Another strategy will be for
growers. Some of these may be heirloom, or vari- conventional farming to adopt some of the
eties that have unique taste and texture profiles. organic approaches to better meet consumer
There will be inherent differences in taste and expectations. The latter approach has been pro-
texture in these products, not mainly derived posed by Secretary of Agriculture Tom Vilsack
from the organic production practices but more in the Enhancing Coexistence report. Coexistence
so because of the cultivar. When the same culti- is defined as “. . . the concurrent cultivation of
vars, grown under organic or conventional meth- conventional, organic, IP [identity preserved],
ods, are compared no consistent differences in and genetically engineered (GE) crops consis-
flavor preference have been found. Organically tent with underlying consumer preference
raised animals consume more plant material and and farmer choices” (Coexistence Report, 2012).
less grain than conventionally raised animals, Bringing together the best practices from
which affects the flavor profile of the meat, milk, organic and conventional farming, rather
and eggs. Some people will prefer the taste pro- than forming an “us versus them” mentality,
files of organic foods while others may not. will be better for consumers, farmers, and the
Organically and commercially grown fruits environment.
and vegetables and animal foods provide simi-
lar nutrient value, and neither pose a health Suggested reading: Economic Research Service. (2015).
Organic agriculture. Available from ,http://www.ers.usda.
risk from pesticide, antibiotic, or hormone resi- gov/topics/natural-resources-environment/organic-agriculture.
dues. Organic methods do support practices for aspx. and U.S. Department of Agriculture Advisory
improved soil quality and integrated methods Committee on Biotechnology and 21st Century Agriculture
(2012).
of crop and animal production. Organically
such as wine-growing regions of California high temperatures during the growing season
and the grain-producing Great Plains are likely increase by as little as 2 degrees. Increased
to experience decreases in yield and quality stress from weeds and plant pests may miti-
while other areas with limited growing sea- gate increased crop yields as these also will
sons such as the Great Lakes region may bene- change in response to higher CO2 and tem-
fit by being able to grow more products. peratures. Crop yield directly impacts the eco-
Decreased yields of wheat, rice, corn, soybean, nomic balance of farming, with lower yields
barley, and sorghum occur when the average tending to generate lower profits. But there are

many other variables that affect that equation. pounds, which is a 44% increase from 2011. In
Overall crop availability and demand define the past, expanded populations were fed
crop prices, so a low crop yield with high because of the inputs of fossil fuels for fuel,
prices may net the same income as a high yield fertilizer, and pesticides, and water and crop
with low prices. Predicting how climate improvement technologies from the Green
change will drive yields and commodity costs Revolution. From 1930 to 2000, global agri-
requires development of models that consider cultural output of most commodities includ-
all of these variables. ing corn, soybeans, oats, rice, and wheat
More extreme weather events, such as increased. Looking toward the future, climate
floods, droughts, and hurricanes are projected variability is expected to decrease the global
to occur leading to economic losses for farmers production of these commodities, with the
and higher government subsidies for crop possible exception of wheat due to enhance
losses and damage. Some predictions indicate yield with higher CO2 (Fig. 8.13) As discussed
a 60% 90% decrease in snowfall in the Sierra in Section 8.3.9 climate change will impact
Nevada Mountains over the next decade, pests, plant, and animal diseases and soil
which could result in a lack of irrigation water quality, which threaten global food produc-
in California’s Central Valley and desertifica- tion. Globally, the cost of food is a higher per-
tion in some locations. The Central Valley pro- cent of personal income than it is in the
duces more than 25% of US fruits, vegetables, United States. Reduced food production will
and nuts. Apricots, almonds, artichokes, figs, increase prices and drive more people into
kiwis, olives, and walnuts require some chill- food insecurity. As was observed during the
ing temperature threshold for dormancy and Arab Spring of 2011, food scarcity and high
to set fruit. With increasing temperatures, a prices lead to civil unrest and war. Most mod-
30% 40% decrease in production of wine and els predict that agriculture production will
table grapes, almonds, oranges, walnuts, and decline in developing countries under climate
avocados could occur. Some predictions sug- change scenarios, likely increasing the risk of
gest Colorado will be drier resulting in less political and social turmoil.
grass for cattle grazing while Florida will see The US food system is closely intertwined
an increase in storms and hurricanes. There with the global food system. Agriculture
will be less rainfall throughout the Midwest. trade and food security will be affected as cli-
Building models to predict climate change mate change alters areas of production.
influences on agriculture economics is compli- Growth in US agricultural exports has
cated by the many factors that influence pro- exceeded the growth in imports, leading to a
duction, prices, and markets. positive trade balance. Rising global demand,
primarily in developing countries, along with
the dollar’s competitive exchange rate,
helped US exports grow faster than imports
8.4.3 Sustainable Global Production
during the past decade. As a result, the US
and Trade agricultural trade surplus widened to $38.8
Climate change and population growth are billion in 2014. Nearly 40% of the food and
the most serious concerns for future food pro- feed crops produced in the United States
duction. The world’s population increased to were exported in 1995. While the United
4.5 billion people in the last 100 years and is States is the second largest grain producer in
expected to reach 9.5 billion by 2050. By 2050, the world and holds the world’s largest grain
the world’s food needs will be 14.3 trillion surplus, grain exports from the United States

FIGURE 8.13 The effects of climate change on agriculture production are difficult to predict. Some projection models
suggest that staple crop production in 2020 and 2040 will be decreased as much as 10% as a result of climate change,
whereas some crops such as barley and wheat may be less affected. Source: Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov.
amount to only about 5% of global produc- social, and sometimes the environmental,
tion and are primarily fed to animals in dimension of sustainability by guaranteeing
Europe and Japan. It has been predicted that a “fair” price for local producers. The
as the economic status of global populations price takes production costs and profit into
increase the demand for animal-derived account, rather than simply market demand
foods will also increase. This will put higher forces. Standards for wages are set for small
demand on corn, soybean, and alfalfa crops farmers (cooperatives) and workers on planta-
to provide feed for these animals. Debate tions and in processing factories (organized
around this scenario has arisen with concerns workers) and incorporated into the market
about the net environmental effects of raising price. Fair Trade labeling and certification is
crops in the United States that will be usually conducted by a network of indepen-
shipped to other countries to be fed to ani- dent, nonprofit organizations and the Fair
mals to provide food for the people of those Trade symbol is internationally recognized
countries. Consideration of the ethical, envi- and monitored by the Fair Trade Labeling
ronmental, and economic balance of these Organization International (FLO). Other orga-
choices will clearly be needed. nizations focused on sustainable production
An example of how global food sustainabil- include the Marine Stewardship Council, The
ity can be approached from the economic and Rainforest Alliance, and Food Alliance, which
human dimensions are the Fair Trade efforts. work in the local environment to prevent
Fair Trade is a partnership between producers environmental damage and worker abuse,
and consumers that creates greater equity in and connect consumers with products that
the global marketplace. Fair Trade targets the meet sustainable production standards.

8.4.4 Role of Government The 2014 Farm Bill addressed several aspects
in Sustainable Agriculture of sustainability including rural development,
conservation, renewable energy, next-
As noted in Chapter 1, Ethics and Scientific generation farmers and ranchers, local and
Thinking, a sustainable food system must regional food systems, and specialty crops and
include economic, environmental, and societal organic production. Specifically, funding was
acceptability. For most of US history, agricul- provided for water and wastewater infrastruc-
ture has been focused on applying new tech- ture, farmers markets and local food production
nologies to increase production. Consumers promotion, and local and regional food systems
benefited from low food prices, consistently grants. Specialty Crop Research Initiative
high quality products, year-round availability (SCRI) funding was increased to $80 million
and diversity in food choices. Environmental annually, subsidies for crop insurance pre-
impacts of agriculture were rarely considered. miums were linked to conservation practices
This changed somewhat in the 1970s when the for highly erodible lands and wetlands, $880
EPA was established, and water, air, and million was earmarked for energy programs,
ground pollution regulations were enforced. $100 million for the Beginning Farmers and
Farming regulations that protect the environ- Ranchers Development Program, and $72.5 mil-
ment have largely been implemented as volun- lion for specialty crop block grants. These pro-
tary or best practices, perhaps because of the grams will encourage new approaches to
strong farm lobby, which resists regulatory agriculture and provide funding for crops that
policies. Since the 1990s, following the intro- have not been well supported previously.
duction of the Organic Foods Production Act, The USDA, EPA, and related government
demand for changes in the way agriculture is agencies are well aware of the urgency to
done began to enter the public arena, and gov- address climate change and environmental
ernment responded to these concerns. impacts of agriculture. Several comprehensive
The USDA established the Low Impact documents have been developed by scientists in
Sustainable Agriculture (LISA) program in these agencies that outline the projected pro-
1985 to address research needs for alternative blems and proposed actions. Policy recommen-
agricultural methods. LISA was replaced by dations include reforestation, conservation of
the SARE program, which supports $19 mil- energy, decreased fossil fuel combustion, devel-
lion for agricultural systems research for long- opment of renewable fuels, increased energy
term, interdisciplinary study of components efficiency of farm implements, increased water
that influence food and farming outcomes. use efficiency, and decreased soil loss. Finding
Sustainable agriculture was defined by the right balance of agricultural policy that
Congress in the 1990 Farm Bill as: addresses environmental protection without
incurring high economic costs will be a chal-
an integrated system of plant and animal pro- lenge. Organic food production has promise to
duction practices having a site-specific application
that will, over the long term: satisfy human food
reduce chemical use and enhance soil and water
and fiber needs; enhance environmental quality and quality, but these approaches may not be fully
the natural resource base upon which the agricul- adaptable to all types of agriculture on the scale
tural economy depends; make the most efficient use necessary to generate food at reasonable costs.
of nonrenewable resources and on-farm resources Conventional food production is moving more
and integrate, where appropriate, natural biological
cycles and controls; sustain the economic viability of
toward precision systems that accurately detect
farm operations; and enhance the quality of life for and deliver chemicals to the fields that will
farmers and society as a whole. lessen the environmental impact. It is essential

that both types of agricultural systems are val- US food production currently is involved in
ued so that the optimum food system can be the production of food, fiber, biofuels, and
developed. renewable energy but a sustainable future will
The food system is multidimensional with require agriculture to expand its responsibility
complex social interactions, which requires to provide clean water, reduce soil erosion,
food systems research to be cross-disciplinary. foster carbon sequestration, and enhance wild-
Areas that need to be studied include the life habitat. While some farmers have already
quantity and quality of food for the world’s adopted these environmental responsibilities,
population (by input/output and mass balance it is likely to require government regulation
research); evaluation of the environmental and oversight to enforce a national, and per-
impacts of food systems (by LCA, carbon foot- haps global, change in agronomic practices. It
print, and water footprint studies); methods to must also be noted that environmental protec-
distribute value in the food chain (by costing, tion will come with added costs. Consumers
value chain, and GDP analyses); mechanisms will need to be prepared to pay higher taxes
to create employment and corporate social and more for their food at the grocery store.
responsibility; and methods to ensure adapt- Such changes will impact rates of food secu-
ability to crises (by cost benefit, impact, and rity, as more people are likely to fall below the
risk assessments). poverty level.
There are currently many economic and
social barriers to creating a fully sustainable
food system. As has been discussed in previ-
8.4.5 Role of Farmers
ous chapters of this text, there is widening dis-
parity among farmer incomes and escalating
in Sustainable Agriculture
concentration of agribusiness involved with Farmers will apply sustainable practices
manufacture, processing, and distribution of and innovations to their operations when they
farm products into only a few companies. provide an economic or competitive advan-
Market competition is limited and farmers tage. It is not economical to overuse pesticides
have little control over farm prices. Farmers and fertilizers, to till the soil more than neces-
receive only a small portion, about 10%, of the sary or to damage the land or water that pro-
consumer dollar spent for food. The reduction vides the farmer with an income. Just as with
in the number of farms and the number of other behaviors related to future benefits (such
young farmers entering agriculture has contrib- as recycling and limiting water usage), adop-
uted to the disintegration of rural communities tion of sustainable farming practices occurs
and local marketing systems. Also, productive along a bell-shaped curve with a few farmers
farm land has been lost to urban and suburban using many sustainable practices, the majority
sprawl. Less than 2% of Americans produce of farmers using some and a few farmers using
food for all US citizens yet consumers, most none. Enforcing compliance generally requires
with no agricultural knowledge, are increas- political action and government regulation.
ingly involved in driving decisions about farm- The dairy industry provides an example of
ing practices. It is critical that discussions how modern agriculture has become more
about changes in the US food system occur environmentally sustainable. Today the dairy
with respect for the farmers who produce food industry produces 1 billion kilograms of milk
and with engagement of nonfarmers with crea- using 21% fewer animals, 23% less feed, 35% less
tive ideas for improvement in agricultural water, and 10% less land than in 1944. The net
practices to protect the environment. environmental impact of these improvements

include 24% less manure, 43% less CH4, and carbon sequestration by applying no-till meth-
56% less NO2 generated per billion kilogram ods, planting drought- and weed-resistance
milk. The carbon footprint of milk produced in crops, reducing the use of chemical fertilizers
2007 was 37% less than an equivalent milk pro- and pesticides, conserving water, and improv-
duction in 1944. These advances were achieved ing the management of grasslands and live-
from better dairy cattle genetics and nutrition stock. GHG emissions can be reduced
leading to cows that are more efficient in con- with better manure management practices and
verting feed to milk, improved manure manage- biogas production systems. Integrated pest
ment strategies, and efficiencies of scale. management (IPM) also uses current and com-
Field crops have also become more produc- prehensive monitoring of the life cycles of
tive. According to USDA surveys, energy use pests to limit damage to crops by appropriate
per bushel of corn fell 43% between 1980 and application of pesticides and other physical
2011 due to farming methods that reduce control mechanisms. The expected occurrence
chemical, water, and diesel fuel use. Some of of insects and disease in a very localized area
these reductions were associated with the use can be weighed against the likely production
of GMO crops. Efficiencies have occurred in losses and cost of treatment. Use of computer-
overall crop production, including 30% less ized data, development of low-carbon fertili-
land, 67% less soil erosion, 53% less irrigation zers, genetic modification of crops for reduced
and 36% less GHG emissions. To be sustain- water and fertilizer needs, drip irrigation, use
able from an economic perspective, farmers of buffer strips, wetland restoration, and other
will continue to improve production efficiency developments in agricultural science will con-
while reducing resource use and mitigating tinue to help farmers decrease inputs while
adverse environmental impacts. increasing yields. Research will be needed to
Use of precision farming techniques, prac- define a whole systems analysis approach that
ticed since the 1980s, may be the solution to can be used to improve management deci-
some of the expected variations in precipita- sions, weigh costs and benefits, and evaluate
tion, day/night temperature differences, and productivity and environmental impacts.
summer and winter temperature averages
caused by climate change. As discussed in
Chapter 3, Innovations in US Agriculture, pre-
8.4.6 Role of Consumers
cision farming uses global positioning systems
(GPS) to make applications of nutrients pre-
in Sustainable Agriculture
cisely to locations throughout a field so little The chapters of this book describe the his-
or no excess fertilizer will be leached to tory and progression of the US food system
groundwater or washed to surface waters. over time and the ways food is produced, pro-
Inputs can be directly linked to soil conditions cessed, and consumed. In the United States,
and past production. The use of drones and the production of food shifted from self-
computer mapping systems allow real-time sufficiency to commercial in less than four
assessment of field conditions. Practices such generations. US farmers have been highly suc-
as no-till farming use less fuel and reduce soil cessful in providing nutritious, inexpensive,
erosion and water evaporation while seques- convenient, and plentiful food for consumers.
tering carbon. Only about 10% of US cropland The agricultural section has expanded the US
is in no-till production and 25% is tilled selec- economy with many people working in agri-
tively leaving room for improvement in tillage businesses, although only a few are involved
methods. Agriculture can contribute more to in direct food production. In contrast, the

evolution of our food production system has and movements such as slow food, eco-
produced negative impacts on the environ- gastronomy, and agrotourism grew from this
ment, human workers, and rural communities. collective desire to feel good about how food is
These impacts include pollution and depletion produced. Personal choices such as a vegetarian
of groundwater, loss of soil and reduced soil diet and buying local and organic foods are
quality, and increased global warming due to sometimes made from an ethical perspective or
GHG emissions and use of fossil fuels. The to foster a perceived healthier lifestyle. These
food system has also been blamed for creating social initiatives become economic issues when
health problems including obesity and related consumer demand drives production, and can
chronic diseases. Hot-button issues such as lead to political change. A society that is inter-
high fructose corn syrup, lean finely textured ested in sustaining a healthful and sustainable
beef, GMO crops, chemicals (pesticides, hor- food system must consider the entire breadth of
mones, antibiotics, and food additives) migrant the food system, not just the local food environ-
farm workers, and animal housing systems ment and personal food behaviors.
have brought attention from consumers to the Innovations in food production are continu-
food system. Conflict between farmers and ally arising. New systems for growing food
consumers around these issues is plentiful, include high-tunnels and greenhouses, hydro-
and fueled by social media and activists. ponics, and vertical, roof, and urban garden-
An ethical approach to sustainability sug- ing. These methods can move agriculture out
gests that society has an obligation to refrain of the fields and closer to where people live. In
from wasteful uses of resources among the some cities, unused industrial warehouses are
affluent, and a special obligation to foster eco- being converted into food production facilities
nomic development for the poor, while main- that grow food indoors. Fish and shrimp can
taining environmental resources. Sustainable be raised in tanks housed in abandoned big-
production must be defined by what is to be box stores. Simultaneously growing fish with
sustained, for whom, and for how long. hydroponic vegetables is a way to recycle fer-
Sustainability is not an absolute condition, but tilizer (from the fish excrement) for the plants,
always partial. Sustainability, like justice, with water purification (by the plants) for the
occurs along a continuum. A main concern of fish. Scientific approaches to generate new
the food production industry is economics. foods is also underway. Plant proteins and fats
Food producers attempt to manage the market have been modified to produce an egg substi-
and government regulations to best suit their tute (www.thevegg.com) and meat has been
economic gain. US farm policy has supported cultured from starter cells (www.modernmea-
increased productivity by providing long-term dow.com). While currently too expensive for
financial security and technological advances widespread application, these and other
to farmers. The result has been great efficiency approaches to expand the ways and locations
and increased production, but at potentially where food is produced will add to the sus-
high environmental costs. Consumers also tainability of the food system.
have an economic drive for low-cost foods, but
want to feel good about how food is produced
(not hurting animals, not taking advantage of
people, not polluting the environment).
8.4.7 Management of Food Waste
Alternative food production practices such as Food that is produced but not consumed is
organic; marketing networks such as Fair Trade, a significant waste of energy, natural
local, and community sponsored agriculture; resources, and money. Globally, one-third of

food produced, about 2.9 trillion pounds per grain products are the top three food groups
year, is wasted. In developing countries, the in terms of food loss, while meat, poultry, fish,
majority of food waste occurs during produc- vegetables, and dairy products are the largest
tion and postharvest. Pest damage of crops, categories of loss in terms of value.
inadequate storage and refrigeration, and lack Reducing food waste would have a direct
of transportation are some of the reasons for immediate positive impact on the food system
food waste. In developed countries, where by reducing the amount of food that needs to
food production and storage are very efficient, be produced. Environmental impacts of
retail and consumers account for the majority reduced food waste include less GHG gener-
of food waste. In the United States, 30% 40% ated in producing food and from food waste
of food produced (133 billion pounds a year) is decaying in landfills. There are many ways
discarded. Almost all of this uneaten food food waste can be reduced at the level of food
ends up in landfills. About 25% of total munic- processing, retail and restaurants, and by con-
ipal solid waste (MSW) is organic material that sumers (Table 8.7). As discussed in Chapter 7,
generates a significant amount of GHG as it Nutrition and Food Access, efforts to provide
decays and ferments. Food is the single largest food to those in need can be combined with
component of MSW (21%) going to landfills. reducing food waste. Gleaning efforts and
Food scraps, which can be composted, repre- redistribution of edible foods from restaurants,
sent 11.9% of MSW by weight. schools and colleges, and retail outlets help con-
The USDA defines food loss as the edible nect food-insecure people with excess foods.
amount of food, postharvest, that is available Many people associate fresh foods with being
for human consumption but is not consumed more healthful, and perhaps more sustainable
for any reason. This includes cooking loss and because they have been less processed. As con-
shrinkage from moisture loss; damage by sumers’ demand for fresh foods increases, food
mold, pests, and inadequate storage; food dis- waste and negative impacts on the environment
carded by retailers; and plate waste by consu- increase. Fruit and vegetable waste accounts for
mers. The main sources of food loss include 38.4% of total food waste (Fig. 8.14). Fruits and
consumer food waste at restaurants and at vegetables have a limited shelf-life, so they must
home (21% of the food supply, or 90 billion be transported quickly and with refrigeration.
pounds) and convenience stores and other In order to maintain a year-round supply,
retail outlets (10% of the food supply or 43 bil- fruits and vegetables that are not in season
lion pounds). Dairy products, vegetables, and in the United States are imported from other
TABLE 8.7 Ways to Reduce Food Waste

Reduce excess food Reduce food spoilage Reduce food loss
Food Grow and produce foods for Harvest and process foods close to the farm Store and transport foods
processing defined markets efficiently
Food Match food stocks with Limit size of fresh food displays Donate unused food to
retailers customer demand those in need
Restaurants Balance food production with Manage food handling and storage Reduce portion sizes, offer
customer demand limited menus
Consumers Buy only what you need Store and use food efficiently, read and Plan meals to use food
understand “best by” dates efficiently

FIGURE 8.14 Food waste in the United States occurs mainly at the consumer level. Fresh products including, meat,
poultry and fish, vegetables, and dairy products are the major food groups most commonly discarded. Source: USDA
Economic Research Service, www.usda.ers.gov.
countries. Consuming more fresh fruits and vitamin E, minerals, and fiber are generally sim-
vegetables imposes higher fuel use and contri- ilar in comparable fresh and processed pro-
butes to GHG production. Retail stores and res- ducts. The canning and freezing processes do
taurants throw out a great majority of fresh consume energy and require water, which both
fruits and vegetables each day because they have environmental impacts. Consumers would
spoil quickly, adding to landfill GHG. Fresh need to wash, cook and store fresh fruits and
fruits and vegetables are more expensive than vegetables as well, and commercial processing
canned or frozen versions (Table 8.8). is done more efficiently than individual con-
The nutrient content of frozen and canned sumer processing. Based on the high nutritional
fruits and vegetables are similar to fresh and value of processed fruits and vegetables, and
there is no unique health benefit to consuming the lower food waste incurred by processing
fruits and vegetables in the fresh state. While them at the peak of their freshness, consuming
canned foods are often regarded as less nutri- fresh fruits and vegetables is less sustainable
tious than fresh or frozen products, this is gen- and worse for the environment than consuming
erally not true. Canning does reduce the content processed fruits and vegetables.
of water-soluble and thermally labile nutrients
but the processing methods are set to ensure
these losses are minimal. The nutritional content
8.4.8 Sustainability of Animal Foods
of fresh fruits and vegetables prepared at home The nutritional benefits of meat, milk, and
may be reduced during storage and cooking eggs to human health, as well as the potential
and these losses are not controlled. Carotenoids, health risks of these foods, were presented in

TABLE 8.8 Comparison of Fresh, Frozen, and Canned Vegetables

Vegetable Cost ($) Food waste (%) Cost ($)/oz. Cost ($)/Serving (cooked 1/2 2/3 c)
PEAS
Fresh in pods 3.99/lb 62 0.24 2.43
Frozen 2.97/28 oz 0 0.11 0.33
Frozen microwave pkg 1.25/10 oz 0 0.12 0.42
Canned 1.59/15 oz 10 0.10 0.43
CORN
Fresh, on cob, in season $6/doz 46 — 1.09/ear (1/2 c)

0.50/ear
Frozen, on cob 3.79/4 ears 46 — 0.95/ear (1/2 c)
Frozen 1.25/14.4 oz 0 0.09 0.28
Frozen, microwave pkg 1.99/12 oz 0 0.17 0.50
Canned 1.59/15.25 oz 10 0.11 0.45
GREEN BEANS
Fresh 3.19/lb 12 0.59
Frozen 1.25/16 oz 0 0.08 0.21
Canned 0.59/15 oz 10 0.04 0.02
BROCCOLI
Fresh 2.69/lb 19 0.17 0.80

Frozen 2.85/28 oz 0 0.10 0.31
Chapter 7, Nutrition and Food Access. The growing crops. In that manner, grazing cattle
production of animal foods has been discussed are highly sustainable. When cattle are fed
in Chapter 4, Animals in the Food System, grains, the equation is modified because grains
and the environmental issues associated require significant water, energy, and chemical
with animal production were presented in inputs. The amount of grain required to pro-
Section 8.3.7. Defining the sustainability of ani- duce 1 kg of animal product has been esti-
mal food production requires engagement of mated to be highest for beef cattle and lowest
all of these aspects of these food sources. From for dairy cattle (milk):
a sustainability perspective, ruminant animals
• Beef cattle 5 13 kg
can generate high-quality foods for humans
• Eggs 5 11 kg
(meat and milk) from grasses that are not food
• Swine 5 5.9 kg
sources for humans. They also generate
• Turkeys 5 3.8 kg
manure that is an effective fertilizer for

• Broilers 5 2.3 kg The current production methods to gener-
• Dairy cattle (milk) 5 0.7 kg ate animal foods are energy, land, and water
intensive. In a comparison of the use of land
The inputs of grain required for animal
and energy resources needed to produce a
food production, and the consumption of
meat-based diet or a lacto-ovo-vegetarian
water, production of manure, and required
diet, the meat-based food system required
energy are factors that must be considered in
more energy, land, and water resources than
defining sustainability. It is estimated that the
the lacto-ovo vegetarian diet (Pimental &
amount of water required to produce 1 kg of
Pimental, 2003). In this limited sense, the
animal protein is 100 times greater than to pro-
lacto-ovo vegetarian diet is more sustainable
duce 1 kg of plant protein. Producing meat
than the average American meat-based diet.
and milk from cattle fed grain would be con-
The amount of fossil fuels used to generate a
sidered less sustainable than from grazing ani-
3600-kcal diet that included 1000 kcal from
mals, but the nutritional quality of meat and
animal products required 35,000 kcal of fossil
milk for human health is high. Determining
energy, a vegetarian diet required 18,000 kcal
what foods should be produced and how
energy, and a lacto-ovo vegetarian diet
foods should be produced are not simple
required 25,000 kcal energy. Measures of the
equations.
amounts of GHG emissions produced by
The United Nations Food and Agriculture
selected diets consumed by French citizens
Organization defines a sustainable diet as
have also been completed as another measure
“diets protective and respectful of biodiversity
of sustainability (Vieux et al., 2013). Diets
and ecosystems, culturally acceptable, accessi-
with higher nutritional quality with more
ble, economically fair and affordable; nutrition-
animal-based products tended to generate
ally adequate, safe and healthy; while
more GHG than plant-based diets. By com-
optimizing natural and human resources.”
paring GHG production on a per-calorie
Meeting all aspects of this definition is clearly
basis, fruits and vegetables were similar to
challenging, especially for a complex food sys-
animal foods (exclusive of beef) in the
tem such as in the United States or other
amount of GHG emissions. The production of
developed countries.
some fruits and vegetables can be very water
The term nutrition ecology was first intro-
and energy intensive, and some such as rice
duced by German nutrition scientists in 1986,
generate methane at high levels. Consuming
as an interdisciplinary scientific discipline that
a vegetarian diet did not necessarily guaran-
considers the entire food chain from produc-
tee a low GHG emission rate, and in fact diets
tion to consumption, including waste disposal,
that contained modest amounts of animal
as well as its interactions with health, the envi-
products were among the lowest in GHG
ronment, society, and the economy. A tenet of
emissions because of the higher nutrient
nutritional ecology is that
quality. A similar finding was made in a
modeling study in which ideal diets to pro-
vegetarian diets are well suited to protect the
environment, to reduce pollution, and to minimize mote health and minimize GHG emissions
global climate changes. To maximize the ecologic were tested (Macdiamond et al., 2012). The
and health benefits of vegetarian diets, food should study found that it was not necessary to elim-
be regionally produced, seasonally consumed, and inate meat or dairy products from the diet to
organically grown. Vegetarian diets built on these create a low-GHG diet. Using such computer-
conditions are scientifically based, socially accept-
able, economically feasible, culturally desired, suffi- based tools it is possible to design and test
ciently practicable, and quite sustainable. diet composition to meet nutritional and
Leitzmann (2003) environmental ideals.

The production of animal foods is unlikely to Walmart and Ben & Jerry’s are two food
end in the United States or other countries, and processors known as leaders in corporate
in fact the demand for these foods is increasing sustainability initiatives. Walmart is the
especially in countries with rapidly growing world’s largest grocer and is able to estab-
populations with higher economic status. The lish policies and practices for other seg-
positive impact of animal foods to provide ments of the food system. Walmart works
important nutrients must be considered in the with farmers to optimize fertilizer and til-
overall assessment of a sustainable food system. ling practices for soy and corn, sourcing
Using environmentally sound approaches to goods from small- and medium-sized farm-
animal husbandry, and optimizing waste man- ers and sustainably sourcing palm oil, beef,
agement, will be necessary to ensure sustainabil- and seafood. The Walmart statement about
ity of these food sources. Balancing animal food sustainability reads:
intake with nutrient needs, especially by afflu-
ent societies may be recommended to limit cur- Walmart is committed to a sustainable food sup-
rent environmental effects. ply chain, which means offering customers choices
and transparency into how their food is grown and
raised, helping to further the humane treatment of
8.4.9 Sustainability in the Food animals, and always working to lessen the environ-
Processing Industry mental impact of our agricultural practices. We
believe that it is our responsibility to identify the
As discussed in Chapter 5, Human Resources challenges that impact our supply chain and our
customers, and be a part of the solution. We are
in the Food System, processed foods are an
working with our suppliers, government agencies,
essential component of a sustainable food sys- academics, NGOs, animal health companies and
tem. Food companies must be responsive to cus- veterinary experts. As part of this effort, Walmart U.
tomer requests for information and concerns S. and Sam’s Club U.S. announced new positions
about sustainability because their business around animal welfare and the responsible use of
antibiotics in farm animals in the U.S.
depends on customers who will purchase their
Walmart (www.corporate.walmart.com/global-
products. Most US businesses have statements responsibility/environment-sustainability/sustainable-
of responsibility that address sustainability and agriculture)
provide examples of sustainability practices.
Food companies address environmental sustain- Ben & Jerry’s issued a Social and
ability by sourcing ingredients from responsible Environmental Assessment Report and has
producers, reducing carbon emissions and initiatives to promote GMO labeling, a carbon
energy usage in processing and transportation, reduction program, a Fair Trade certified sup-
reducing landfill waste, using less packaging ply chain and a “Caring Dairy” program.
material, and conserving water. Similarly, res- Learning more about a food company’s posi-
taurants target sustainability goals by reducing tion on sustainability is helpful when compar-
energy and water use, using energy-efficient ing foods to purchase or companies to support.
equipment, developing strategic transportation,
establishing standards for products in order to
reduce waste, and implementing standards for
animal welfare. In contrast, some approaches, 8.5 PERSONAL DECISIONS
such as refusing to accept GMO technology, or AND CHOICES
the use of approved food additives, may reduce
sustainability potential of the food system by Responsible food behaviors for individuals
limiting productivity and increasing food waste. include learning about nutrition and food,

8.5 PERSONAL DECISIONS AND CHOICES 331
recognizing the relationship between food are also important tools, as is using scientific
and health, thoughtful purchasing of food, thinking when making food choices.
and preparing healthful meals. Reduction of Small changes, made by many people, will
waste, resisting advertising and overcon- have a great impact on the sustainability of the
sumption, eating foods in season, and main- food system. It is not necessary to buy only
taining a healthy weight are practices that organic foods from local vendors, or eliminate
contribute to a healthy food environment and animal foods from the diet to contribute to sus-
support sustainability goals. Consumers who tainability. Reducing food waste is one of the
understand the importance of their food most important aspects of food sustainability
behaviors will make efforts to change buying that can be readily achieved by everyone.
and eating habits. Table 8.9 lists several ways Remembering that canned and frozen foods are
consumer behaviors affect economic, societal, healthful and can be stored longer than fresh
and environmental issues. Reading food foods can save money and reduce waste. Buying
labels and understanding the role of food only the quantity of food that can be consumed
additives in maintaining freshness and safety and storing it properly will reduce waste.
TABLE 8.9 Consumer Behaviors and Their Impacts on a Sustainable Food System
Consumer
behavior Economic effect Societal effect Environmental effect
Buy organic foods High-income consumers can afford; higher Groups can influence Lower environmental
prices for some producers policy and availability in impact
market
Eat less meat Consumer saves money on food purchased, Some benefits for May reduce production of
meat producers may lose money, producers personal health grains, use of water, need
of other products may earn more money for manure disposal
Buy Fair Trade High-income consumers can afford; higher Strengthen connections Production of crops is
foods prices for some producers between US consumers more sustainable
and international market
Buy from farmers’ High-income consumers can afford; higher Strengthen relationship May increase GHG
markets or CSAs prices for some producers between consumer and emissions from
producer transportation to markets
Eat fresh (raw) High-income consumers can afford; higher Perceived as a healthier May generate more GHG
foods prices for some producers diet pattern emissions than some
processed foods, more
waste
Reduce wasted Consumers, business, taxpayers save money Increased respect for food Reduced need for waste
food costs disposal, less GHG from
landfills
Buy directly from High-income consumers can afford, keeps Strengthen relationship May increase GHG
local producers small producers viable between consumer and emissions from
producer transportation to markets

8.5.1 Learning About Agriculture, agronomy, horticulture, animal science, food sci-
Food, and Nutrition ence, human nutrition, plant pathology, and
other areas of study related to food. There are
There are many ways to learn about food also colleges that offer work experience on farms
and the food system. Agricultural production such as School of the Ozarks and many universi-
information is available on the USDA, EPA, ties have student-run organic farms such as
FDA, and land-grant university websites. Fun those at Michigan State University, Clemson
events such as county fairs and festivals cele- University, University of California Santa
brate all kinds of food such as wild rice, water- Cruz, California Polytechnic State University,
melon, pork, bacon, apples, grapes, turkey, Berea College, Iowa State University, University
BBQ, chili, ribs, chocolate, wine, cheese, pump- of California Davis, and many others. There are
kins, and more. There are technical demonstra- international volunteer farm work programs.
tions of current farming practices at fairs and The Worldwide Opportunities on Organic
agricultural shows offered in most states. Farms (WWOOF) links volunteers with farmers
Historical agriculture festivals such as Steam around the world and in the United States.
Thresher’s Reunions (in Illinois, Ohio, Some offer room and board in exchange for
Minnesota, Iowa); ethnic events that showcase work on the farm; some offer apprenticeship
Polish, Indian, German, Asian, Latin, Greek, programs as well as volunteer opportunities.
and other cultures with their foods; agricul- There are agrotourism and food experiences
tural museums; and living history farms (see offered by travel agencies. Some food proces-
the Association for Living History Farms and sing plants offer tours and sampling of their
Museums) provide education and entertain- foods to the public. Celestial Seasonings in
ment around US foods. Boulder, Colorado; Ben & Jerry’s Ice Cream in
There are many ways for individuals to Waterbury, Vermont; Cabot’s Cheese in Cabot,
become involved in food production through Vermont; Eli’s Cheesecake in Chicago, Illinois;
gardening themselves or in community garden- Hershey’s in Hershey, Pennsylvania; and
ing projects. Community gardens are collabora- Coca-Cola in Atlanta, Georgia are popular
tive projects on shared open spaces where tourist destinations. Visits to wineries, orch-
participants contribute to the maintenance of ards, cheese factories, candy stores, and even
the garden, and receive a portion of the pro- the local supermarket can provide insights
ducts. School gardens were encouraged by about food.
Michelle Obama’s Let’s Move campaign for Reliable nutrition information and instruc-
healthier lives through exercise and balanced tions for cooking healthful meals can be found
eating. Gardening offers many benefits in addi- on many websites, including WebMD Living
tion to the consumption of fruits and vegetables. Healthy (http://www.webmd.com/living-
Gardeners are engaged in physical activity, healthy), Food and Nutrition Information
learning new skills, and creating green space. Center (http://fnic.nal.usda.gov/), Academy
Gardeners also learn first-hand the trials and tri- for Nutrition and Dietetics (http://www.eat-
bulations of crop production and appreciate the right.org/), land-grant university extension
labor required to produce good food. programs such as http://www.extension.umn.
Of course, learning about agriculture, food edu/family/health-and-nutrition/, and Best
science, and human nutrition through course- Food Facts (http://www.bestfoodfacts.org).
work is a formal way to understand more about Consumer information about food is every-
the food system. For more in-depth study of where, including cooking shows on television,
agriculture, land-grant colleges offer majors in websites with food information, nutrition

8.5 PERSONAL DECISIONS AND CHOICES 333
labeling websites, extension service programs, Holes: Fascinating Facts About What We Eat and
community cooking classes, and church and Drink (by Don Voorhees, Kensington
charity groups. Use scientific thinking and ver- Publishing Corp, New York, 2004).
ify the reliability of the sources to ensure the High quality cookbooks include Cookwise:
information is based on scientific evidence. The Hows & Whys of Successful Cooking with Over
Some recommended books with interesting 230 Great-Tasting Recipes (by Shirley
and accurate information about food science O. Corriher, William Morrow and Company,
are On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore Inc., New York, 1997), The Joy of Cooking (by
of the Kitchen (by Harold McGee, Scribner, Irma Rombauer, Marion Bombauer Becker, &
New York, 2004) and Why Do Donuts Have Ethan Becker, Simon & Schuster Inc, New York,
FIGURE 8.15 Components of a sustainable food system must include economic, environmental, and social cultural
considerations. The goal to produce healthy, abundant, and affordable food that promotes health and well-being while
protecting the environment and natural resources will require the unified efforts of consumers, producers, and the gov-
ernment. Sustainability will be achieved by working together to address the challenges and problems of future food pro-
duction. Source: Illustration by Reannon Overbey.

first published 1931, latest edition 2006), and Environmental Protection Agency. (2016). Agriculture
any version of the Betty Crocker Cookbook, which and food supply. Available from ,http://www3.epa.
gov/climatechange/impacts/agriculture.html..
is particularly helpful for beginners. Heller, M. C., & Heolian, G. A. (2000). Life cycle based sus-
Development of a healthy and sustainable tainability indicators for assessment of the U.S. food system.
food system is a priority for the United Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Center for
States. Some of the key components of a sus- Sustainable Systems, School for Natural Resources and
tainable food system presented in this book Environment. 59 p. Available from ,http://css.snre.
umich.edu/css_doc/CSS00-04.pdf..
are shown in Fig. 8.15. By learning about Hoekstra, A. Y., & Chapagain, A. K. (2007). Water foot-
food, and how it is produced, processed, and prints of nations: Water use by people as a function of
affects the body, consumers will be better their consumption pattern. Water Research Management,
able to make decisions about the food system. 21(1), 35 48.
Relying on accurate, scientifically based evi- Leitzmann, C. (2003). Nutrition ecology: The contribution
of vegetarian diets. American Journal of Clinical
dence is essential when defining policies, Nutrition, 78 (Supplement), 657S 659S.
making recommendations, and implementing Macdiamond, J. I., Kyle, J., Horgan, G. W., Loe, J., Fyfe, C.,
regulations about food. Scientific thinking Johnstone, A., & McNeill, G. (2012). Sustainable diets
and ethical theories are necessary tools for for the future: Can we contribute to reducing green-
interpreting and understanding the food sys- house gas emissions by eating a healthy diet? American
Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 96(3), 632 639.
tem. A goal of this book is to instill in the Maupin, M., Kenny, J. F., Hutson, S. S., Lovelace, J. K.,
reader a historical context from which the US Barber, N. L., & Linsey, K. S. (2014). Estimated use of
food system developed. Knowing and underwater in the United States in 2010. U.S. Geologic Survey
standing history is necessary to provide a Circular 1405. Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Survey. 56 p.
solid foundation for moving forward. The Available from ,http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1405/pdf/
circ1405.pdf..
food system is complex, and filled with con- Mekonnen, M. M., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2011). The green,
troversial and challenging issues. Each com- blue and grey water footprint of crops and derived
ponent of the food system influences and is crop products. Hydrologic Earth System Science, 15,
influenced by all the other components, and 1577 1600.
changes to one create a cascade of events. Pandey, D., Agrawal, M., & Pandey, J. S. (2011). Carbon
footprints: Current methods of estimation.
Realizing these interrelationships is beneficial Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 178, 135 160.
when even small decisions, such as what to Pimental, D., & Pimental, M. (2003). Sustainability of meat-
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Appendix A: Important Dates in
US History and Their Impact
on the Food System
Date Event Impact Date Event Impact
1607 Settlers arrived in US Europeans settled along 1862 USDA created Provided cabinet office
Colonies Atlantic coast for agriculture, granted
Homestead Act public land to settlers,
1775 83 Revolutionary War Freedom from British
Morrill Act granted public land for
rule opened new agricultural colleges
markets for agricultural (land-grant colleges)
products
1866 69 Completion of railroad Opened trade routes
1789 US adopts Constitution Current political from Omaha, NE to from West to Midwest
system initiated,
Ogden, UT
George Washington, a
farmer, elected 1876 Telephone created Enhanced
president communication for
business transactions
1803 Louisiana Purchase Added 828,000 square and reduced isolation
miles to US territory of rural communities
1804 06 Lewis and Clark Mapped the northwest 1879 Light bulb created Allowed work to occur
expedition passage from St. Louis,
after sunset, which
MO to the Pacific lengthened the
Ocean workday
1812 14 War of 1812 Freedom from British 1883 Harvey Wiley Campaigned for Pure
restrictions on trade appointed chief Food and Drug Act
1846 Oregon territory Northwestern border chemist at USDA
acquired defined at 49th parallel 1884 Bureau of Animal Prevented diseased
1848 Guadalupe Hidalgo Southwestern territory Inspections created animals from being
Treaty acquired used as food
1849 Gold rush to California Increased population of 1887 Hatch Act Funded Agricultural
California Experiment Stations at
land-grant colleges
1860 Abraham Lincoln Opposed slavery,
elected president supported agriculture Bureau of Agriculture
education became cabinet level
1861 65 Civil War North versus South, 1890 Second Morrill Act Funded 1890 colleges
ended slavery and for African American
reunited the US students
(Continued)
339
340 APPENDIX A: IMPORTANT DATES IN US HISTORY AND THEIR IMPACT ON THE FOOD SYSTEM
1892 General Electric Replacement of steam 1921 Hybrid corn Improved crop yields,
company founded power and manual introduced introduced scientific
labor with mechanized method to agriculture
equipment
1927 USDA Bureau of Increased regulation
1893 Office of Road Inquiry Built roads for Chemistry renamed and oversight of food
in USDA transport of Food, Drug, and safety
agricultural products Insecticide
Administration (FDIA)
1894 USDA released first Provided information
diet recommendations to consumers to 1929 42 Great Depression Banks failed and US
improve health through economy crumbled
food choices
1930 FDIA became Food Continuation of federal
1902 National Reclamation Funded major water and Drug oversight of food safety
Act projects to irrigate Administration and consumer
western states protection
1905 The Jungle by Upton Depicted poor 1933 Farm Credit Act Farm credit system
Sinclair published sanitation in Chicago established to support
meat packing industry all typed of agriculture
operations
1906 Pure Food and Drug Prevented sale of
Act adulterated food and 1935 Rural Electrification Brought electricity to
drugs Act rural communities
Federal Meat Ensured sanitary 1934 37 Severe drought and Brought attention to the
Inspection Act conditions for meat poor farming practices need for oversight of
created the Dust Bowl farming practices and
1908 Model T introduced Opened possibility for environmental
rapid transportation
stewardship
1912 Concept of “vitamins” Initiated discovery of 1936 Soil Conservation Act Implemented
proposed micronutrients in foods
regulations to reduce
1913 Haber Bosch process Created ammonia soil erosion
to fix nitrogen fertilizer, a less costly
1938 Federal Food, Drug, FDA given authority
form of plant nutrient and Cosmetic Act for food safety
1914 Smith Lever Act Funding created (FFDCA) standards
extension programs at Agriculture Subsidies paid to
land-grant colleges Adjustment Act farmers to reduce crop
1916 Federal Farm Loan Act Federal land banks acreage
established to provide
1939 Food Stamp Program USDA bought
long-term credit to
part of New Deal commodities from
farmers farmers and gave to
1917 19 US in World War I High demand for needy Americans
agriculture products 1940 FDA moved from Regulation of food
led to increased farm under USDA to safety became separate
production
Department of Health, from agency that
1920 Radio introduced Enhanced Education, and Welfare oversaw food
communication production
APPENDIX A: IMPORTANT DATES IN US HISTORY AND THEIR IMPACT ON THE FOOD SYSTEM 341
1941 45 US in World War II Great Depression 1961 64 Pilot Food Stamp Provided food
ended, industrialization Program began assistance to needy
expanded into Americans
agriculture, number of
farmers began to 1962 Silent Spring by Rachel Raised awareness of
decrease Carson published environmental damage
from chemical
1941 Food and Nutrition Defined nutrient pesticides; DDT banned
Board released requirements for in 1972
Recommended Dietary healthy people
1964 Food Stamp Act Made Food Stamp
Allowances
Program permanent
1944 Federal-Aid Highway National system of
Act interstate highways 1969 Neil Armstrong Science and technology
created allowing food walked on moon advances by NASA
transportation by truck applied to consumer
products
1947 Federal Insecticide, Required registration of
Fungicide, and pesticides 1969 White House Raised awareness of
Conference on Food, food insecurity and role
Rodenticide Act
(FIFRA) Nutrition, and Health of nutrition in disease
1950 60 Green Revolution Improved crop traits 1970 Environmental Oversight of pesticides
and agronomic Protection Agency and land use
practices provide food created
for millions Egg Products ARS authorized to
1950 53 US in Korean War Reduced commodity Inspection Act inspect eggs
stockpiles, created 1972 Animal and Plant Consolidated activities
higher demand for Health Inspect Service to oversee plant and
food (APHIS) created within animal health within
1950 70 85 new pesticides Chemical management USDA one agency
introduced of agriculture increased 1973 Gasoline rationing and Raised awareness of
crop yields high prices due to energy production
1953 BAI and Bureau of More structured OAPEC oil embargo issues and began
alternative fuel research
Dairy became agricultural research
Agricultural Research programs 1974 Glyphosate introduced Roundup herbicide
Service (ARS) used for corn and
1953 Structure of DNA Field of biotechnology soybean production
discovered began, and applied to 1976 Apple computer Information technology
agriculture company started for business and
1958 Food Additive Safety of ingredients in personal use rapidly
implemented
Amendment to FFDCA processed foods
Humane Slaughter Act 1977 Dietary goals for the Provided dietary
passes Standards for animal
slaughter United States released recommendations to
reduce the risk of
1961 73 US in Vietnam War Increased discontent chronic diseases; DG
with government and are updated every 5
military, financial drain years
on US economy (Continued)
342 APPENDIX A: IMPORTANT DATES IN US HISTORY AND THEIR IMPACT ON THE FOOD SYSTEM
1978 Humane Slaughter Act Amendment included Food Quality and Required EPA to
regulating practices for Protection Act ensure safety of
slaughter of poultry pesticides
1980 90 Low commodity prices Many farmers went 2000 Golden rice developed GMO rice with
and high farmer debt bankrupt and rural enhanced beta carotene
created a farm crisis populations decreased, content to improve
consolidation of farm vitamin A nutrition
operations
2001 11 US in Iraq War Enhanced food
1982 Recombinant insulin First drug produced production technology
approved by FDA using GM in military meals
biotechnology and
accepted by consumers 2005 Energy Policy Act Promoted development
and use of biofuels
Renewable Fuel
1986 Coordinated Authorized USDA,
Framework for the EPA, and FDA to Standard
Regulation of oversee genetically 2010 Healthy, Hunger-Free Revision to school
Biotechnology modified organisms Kids Act lunch nutrition
1988 Recombinant chymosin GMO enzyme for standards
approved cheese production 2010 Affordable Care Act Required nutrition
replaced chymosin information on
obtained from young restaurant and vending
calves machine foods
1990 Organic Foods Created standards for 2011 Food Safety Major reform to food
Production Act organic food Modernization Act safety laws with focus
production and passed on preventing food
marketing contamination
1992 USDA released the Graphic illustration of 2011 USDA released Replaced MyPyramid
Food Guide Pyramid food intake MyPlate as a visual diet
recommendations recommendation for
1994 Equity in Education Granted land-grant consumers
Land-Grant Status Act status to Native 2014 2014 Agriculture Act Reduced direct
American colleges and (Farm Bill) payments to farmers,
created an endowment increased funding for
for continued funding specialty and organic
1994 Flavr Savr tomato First GMO food crops and local foods,
entered market marketed to consumers reduced nutrition
support funding
1995 GM corn, cotton, Introduced herbicide-
canola, and soybeans tolerant traits to 2015 GMO salmon First animal with
approved bioengineered trait
approved agriculture, farmers
rapidly adopted the approved for human
technology food
1996 Hazards Analysis Enhanced food safety

Critical Control Points by defining process to
(HACCP) legislation monitor food
production systems
Index
Note: Page numbers followed by “f” and “t” refer to figures and tables, respectively.
A agriculture-related industries, 160 American Crystal Sugar Company

AAA. See Agricultural Adjustment American agriculture, 145 (ACSC), 154
Act (AAA) byproducts, 204 American Farm Bureau Federation
AASHTO. See American Association chemicals, 77 80 (AFBF), 153
of State Highway and fertilizer, 77 American Medical Association
Transportation Officials pesticides, 77 80 (AMA), 237
(AASHTO) experiment stations, 62 63 American Society of Farm Managers
Abomasum acids, 94 95 land use in, 292 294 and Rural Appraisers
ACA. See Affordable Care Act (ACA) Native Americans agricultural (ASFMRA), 174
Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI), systems, 145 Americans’ nutritional status,
317 318 productivity, 161 assessing, 252 255
Acetyl-CoA, 265 266 risk coverage programs, 65 food consumption surveys, 254 255
Acidic foods, 189 solar energy use in, 72 73 NHANES, 253 254
Acidosis, 98 subsidies, 65 66, 66t Amino acids, 229
ACSC. See American Crystal Sugar systems, 56, 61 Ammonia production plants, 77
Company (ACSC) technology, 147 Ammonium nitrate pellets, 77
“Act-utilitarian”, 11 in United States, 288 289 Amphetamines, 276 277
ADHD. See Attention deficit water footprint in, 300 301, 301f, AMS. See Agricultural Marketing
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) 302f Service (AMS)
ADI. See Acceptable Daily Intake water use in, 296 298, 297f, 299f Androgens, 125 126
(ADI) women and minorities in, 159 160 Anhydrous ammonia, 77, 78f
Adrenaline, 277 workers, 149 150 Animal agriculture, 59 60
AFBF. See American Farm Bureau workforce, 176 Animal and Plant Health Inspection
Federation (AFBF) Agriculture Adjustment Act (1938), Service (APHIS), 64 65,
Affordable Care Act (ACA), 156 157, 65 109 110
278 Agriprocessors plant, 166 Animal feeding operations (AFOs), 98,
Aflatoxin, 219 Agrobacterium tumefaciens, 84 131
AFOs. See Animal feeding operations Alabama, farm worker program in, Animal Legal Defense Fund (ALDF),
(AFOs) 167b 135
Agent Orange, 79 ALDF. See Animal Legal Defense Animal Liberation Front (ALF),
Agreement workers, 150 151 Fund (ALDF) 135 136
Agribusiness, 45, 56, 167 169, 172 ALF. See Animal Liberation Front Animal Welfare Act (AWA), 64 65,
Agricultural Act (2014), 65 66 (ALF) 136
Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA), Alkaline treatment of corn, 210 Animal(s)
39 40, 66, 239 Alli. See Orlistat animal housing systems, ethical
Agricultural Labor Relations Board, Aluminum, 208 issues in, 135 138
153 AMA. See American Medical animal rights, 135 137
Agricultural Marketing Act, 34 35 Association (AMA) animal welfare assessment,
Agricultural Marketing Service American agriculture, 145 137 138
(AMS), 107 108, 174 176 American Association of State disease management, 123 125
Agricultural/agriculture, 23 24, 292, Highway and Transportation in food system
332 334. See also Food system Officials (AASHTO), 75 77 cattle industry, 93 100
343
344 INDEX
Animal(s) (Continued) Atwater, Wilbur, 62 63 Bracero program, 151f

consumer influence on animal Autologous gene transfers, 83 Breadmaking, 188
food production, 139 142 AWA. See Animal Welfare Act (AWA) Brining, processing foods by, 192
dairy industry, 111 119 Broccoli, 81 82
egg industry, 104 108 Brown sugar, 213
environmental issues of food B BSE. See Bovine spongiform
animals, 131 135 “Baby Boom”, 43 44 encephalitis (BSE)
ethical issues in animal housing Bacillus, 192 Bt. See Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)
systems, 135 138 Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), 84 85, Bupropion, 276 277
hog industry, 100 104 314 315 Bureau of Animal Industry (BAI),
hormones and growth Bacteria, 119, 206 95 96
promotants, 125 127 BAI. See Bureau of Animal Industry Bureau of Labor Statistics
in human diets, 93 (BAI) employment classifications, 185
in human health, 119 122 Bakery, Confectionery, and Tobacco Burning of weeds, 77 78
poultry industry, 108 110 Workers and Grain Millers Butter, 112 114
sustainability, 327 330 International Union (BCTGM), Butylated hydroxy anisol (BHA),
therapeutic and nontherapeutic 153 154 199 200
use of antibiotics, 127 131 Beef cattle, 93 94, 125 126, 133 134 Butylated hydroxyl toluene (BHT),
health, 87 88 Beef Products Inc. (BPI), 140 141 199 200
in nutrition research, 232b “Beet plant”, 154 Butyrate, 94 95
products, 93 Belviq, 276 277 Buy Fresh Buy Local (BFBL), 309
Anorexia, 274 Ben & Jerry’s, 330
Anorexigenic signals, 274 Beneficence, 8, 14 C
Anthocyanidins, 228 229 Beta carotene, 86 CA. See Controlled atmosphere (CA)
“Antibiotic-free” claim, 221 Beverages, 194 CAA. See Clean Air Act (CAA)
Antibiotics BFBL. See Buy Fresh Buy Local (BFBL) CACFP. See Child and Adult Care
antibiotic-resistant bacteria, BHA. See Butylated hydroxy anisol Food Program (CACFP)
128 131, 128f (BHA) CAFOs. See Concentrated animal
drugs for animal and human BHT. See Butylated hydroxyl toluene feeding operations (CAFOs)
therapeutic use and animal (BHT) California
growth promotion, 129t Big Data, 80 market vegetables production,
USDA survey, 130f Bill, Curtis, 73 75 58 59
therapeutic and nontherapeutic use, Bill Emerson Good Samaritan Food milk production, 59 60
127 131 Donation Act, 260 using solar energy in agriculture,
Antioxidants, 228 229 Biodiversity, 311 312 72 73
Antiscience, 19 Biofuels, 70 72 California Agricultural Labor
APHIS. See Animal and Plant Health Biogas production from waste Relations Act (CALRA), 153
Inspection Service (APHIS) products, 307 Cancer, 121, 263
“Apprenticeships”, 147 Biomass, 70 72 Canned food, 189 190
Armour Company, 75 Bison, 93 94 Canning, processing food by, 189 190
Arsenic testing, 219 “Black Codes” law, 146 Carbohydrates, 228, 275 276
Artificial colors, 200 Black farm operators, 147 Carbon dioxide (CO2), 197, 289 290
Artificial flavors, 200 Black farmers, 147, 159 160 Carbon footprint, 306 309
ASFMRA. See American Society of Body mass index (BMI), 258 259, 267, Carbon monoxide (CO), 197
Farm Managers and Rural 267t Cardiovascular disease (CVD),
Appraisers (ASFMRA) “BMI-for-age” measurement, 272 232 233, 263 266, 264f
Aspergillus, 219 ratio, 267 Carotenoid lycopene, 209
Associated Farmers of California, Botox, 189 Carson, Rachel, 79 80
149 150 Botulism, 189 Catechins, 228 229
Association of Black Farmers, Bovine spongiform encephalitis (BSE), Cattle industry, 93 100
159 160 123 124 cows, 94f
Attention deficit hyperactivity Bovines, 93 94 meat safety regulations, 95 98, 97t
disorder (ADHD), 200 BPI. See Beef Products Inc. (BPI) in United States, 98 99, 99f
INDEX 345
CCC. See Civilian Conservation Corps Chymosin, 202 role in sustainable agriculture,
(CCC) Chymotrypsinogen enzyme, 111 324 325
CCPs. See Critical control points Circulating hormones, 274 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes of
(CCPs) Civil society, 10 Individuals (CSFII), 254 255,
CDC. See Centers for Disease Control Civil War, 26 32, 73 75, 95, 146 270 271
and Prevention (CDC) Civil Works Administration, 39 Contract farms, 55 56
Celery powder, 192 Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), Contractors, 147 149
Cellulosic ethanol, 70 72 39 Contrave, 276 277
Center for Food Integrity (CFI), 139 Clean Air Act (CAA), 63 64, 131 132 Controlled atmosphere (CA), 196
Center for Veterinary Medicine Clean Water Act, 63 64 storage, 196t, 197
(CVM), 127 Climate change, 298 300 Conventional farmers, 56
Centers for Disease Control and and population growth, 320, 321f Conventional farming, 56, 312
Prevention (CDC), 205, 206f, and threats to food system, Cooking, 180 181, 196
215, 227, 238, 267, 278 289 292 Cooperative Extension Service, 34, 35f,
Centrifugation, 184 GHGs, 290 292, 291f 108 109, 233 234
CERCLA. See Comprehensive temperature, 290 292 Corn, 70 72
Environmental Response, Clostridium botulinum, 189, 192 products, 85 86
Compensation, and Liability Clustered regularly interspaced short Cosmetic Act, 192
Act (CERCLA) palindromic repeats technology Cotton, 147
CFBAI. See Children’s Food and (CRISPR technology), 83 Council of Better Business Bureaus,
Beverage Advertising Initiative Co-ops, 172 279 280
(CFBAI) Coal, 70 Coxiella burnettii, 188
CFI. See Center for Food Integrity Colon cancer, 262 263 Credible sources, 17 18, 18t
(CFI) Colonial era, 24 25 Creutzfeldt Jakob disease,
CGMPs. See Current Good Color additives in processed foods, 123 124
Manufacturing Practices 200 202 Crisco product, 233 234
(CGMPs) Colorado River, 300 CRISPR technology. See Clustered
“Chain gangs”, 147 Commissioner of Agriculture, 62 regularly interspaced short
Checkoffs programs, 174 176, 175t Commodities, 40 41 palindromic repeats technology
Cheese, 112 114, 119 commodity boards, 174 176, 175t (CRISPR technology)
Chemical management of weeds, 79 Commodity Credit Corporation Critical control points (CCPs),
Chemical pesticides, 78 79 Charter Act, 40 41 218
“Chemical revolution”, 228 Commodity Supplemental Food Crops, 86
Chemicals, 78 79 Program (CSFP), 40 41, 238 diversity, 311 312
Chickens, 108 109, 137 138 Comorbidities, 273 Cross-breeding corn, principles of,
Child and Adult Care Food Program Comprehensive Environmental 82 83
(CACFP), 238 Response, Compensation, and CRP. See Conservation Reserve
Childhood obesity, 272, 272t, 273f Liability Act (CERCLA), Program (CRP)
Children, food insecurity impact on, 132 133 CSFII. See Continuing Survey of
258 259 Concentrated animal feeding Food Intakes of Individuals
Children’s Food and Beverage operations (CAFOs), 98, 131, (CSFII)
Advertising Initiative (CFBAI), 294 CSFP. See Commodity Supplemental
279 281 Conflicting studies, 18 19 Food Program (CSFP)
Chinese culture of food, 1 Conservation programs, 68 69 “Cubes and tubes”, 194
Chlordane, 78 79 Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), Cultured butter, 112
Chocolate chip cookies, 180 296 Curing, processing foods by, 192
Cholesterol, 265 266 Conservation Stewardship Program, Current Good Manufacturing
Chronic disease, 262 274 37 Practices (CGMPs), 204 205
colon cancer, 262 263 Consumers, 278 279 Curtis, S. R., 73 75
CVD, 263 266, 264f engagement with food system, 5 6, CVD. See Cardiovascular disease
obesity, 266 269 6f (CVD)
Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium, 77 78 influence on animal food CVM. See Center for Veterinary
Chylomicrons, 265 266 production, 139 142 Medicine (CVM)
346 INDEX
D disease, 262 274 organic farming, 314 316

2,4-D acetic acid. See 2,4- colon cancer, 262 263 organically grown foods and health,
Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid CVD, 263 266, 264f 316b, 317f
(2,4-D acetic acid) obesity, 266 269 pesticide residues in foods by FDA,
Daily Value (DV), 250 factors, 231, 266 318t
Dairy industry, 111 119, 323 324 fats, 265 sustainability in food processing
butter and cheese, 112 114 fiber intake, 263 industry, 330
sanitation and safety of milk, supplements, 277 sustainability of animal foods,
115 117 Direct costs, 273 327 330
in United States, 117 118, 118f Disease-carrying insects, 78 79 sustainable global production and
yogurt, 119 DNA trade, 320 321
Dairy state, 59 60 comparison analysis, 23 sustainable US food production,
DDT. See Dichloro-diphenyl- mapping, 93 316 320
trichlorethane (DDT) sequence, 83 Economic Research Service (ERS), 254
Dehydrated foods, 191 DNA RNA protein sequence, 83 Economics, 87
Dehydration, processing foods by, Domestication, 23, 93 of farming, 160 161, 161t, 162f
191 192 Dopamine, 276 277 Edible films, 208 209
Delany House Committee hearings, 79 DRI. See Dietary Reference Intakes Egg
Department of Health and Human (DRI) egg-producing states, 59 60
Services (DHHS), 156, 243 244 Dried foods, 191 industry, 104 108
Department of Health and Human Droughts, 47t, 299 300, 320 consumption of eggs in United
Services Food and Drug Drying techniques, 191 States, 108f
Administration (DHHS-FDA), 4Ds. See Diarrhea, dermatitis, laying hens and egg production,
88 90 dementia, and death (4Ds) 105 106
DEXA. See Dual-energy X-ray DSHEA. See Dietary Supplement, in United States, 107
absorptiometry (DEXA) Health, and Education Act specialization, 159
DGA. See Dietary Guidelines for (DSHEA) Egg Products Inspection Act (EPIA),
Americans (DGA) Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry 96, 109 110, 215
DHHS. See Department of Health and (DEXA), 267 1890 schools. See Historically black
Human Services (DHHS) Dust Bowl, 35 37, 36f, 39, 47t colleges and universities
DHHS-FDA. See Department of impact on US agriculture policy, (HBCUs)
Health and Human Services 37b Electric Home and Farm Authority,
Food and Drug Administration DV. See Daily Value (DV) 32 33
(DHHS-FDA) Dyslipidemia, 265 266 Electronic benefit transfer (EBT), 242
Diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia, and Emergency Planning and Community
death (4Ds), 237 Right to Know Act (EPCRA),
Dichloro-diphenyl-trichlorethane E 132 133
(DDT), 78 79 EAR. See Estimated average Employment immigration, 163 164
2,4-Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-D requirement (EAR) Emulsification, 266
acetic acid), 79 Eating, 274 Energy, 228
Dietary Guidelines for Americans EBT. See Electronic benefit transfer energy-saving programs, 70
(DGA), 243 244, 265 (EBT) programs, 68 69
Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI), 235, Economic food plans, 234 Energy Efficiency Improvement
235t, 236f Economic impact of US agriculture, Program, 72 73
Dietary Supplement, Health, and 312 330 Energy for agriculture, 70 73. See also
Education Act (DSHEA), 252 consumers role in sustainable Government role in agriculture;
Dietary/diet agriculture, 324 325 Transportation in agriculture
carbohydrate, 229 230 farmers role in sustainable biofuels, 70 72
cholesterol, 265 266 agriculture, 323 324 increased use of gasoline, nitrogen,
composition, 263 government role in sustainable and chemical pesticides, 70t
Dietary Guidelines, 209 210, agriculture, 322 323 mechanization and fossil fuels, 70
214 215, 247 249, 248t management of food waste, wind and solar energy, 72 73
dieting, 276 325 327, 326t, 327f wind turbines, 74f
INDEX 347
Energy Independence and Security F women and minorities in
Act (2007), 70 72 Fad diets, 276 278 agriculture, 159 160
Energy Policy Act (2005), 70 72 FADR. See Food Assistance for Farm Service Agency (FSA), 64
Enrichment, 209 Disaster Relief (FADR) Farm-to-market roads, 75 77
Environmental act, 68 69 FAIR. See Federal Agricultural Farmers, 147 150, 157 158, 160 161
Environmental Defense Fund, Improvement and Reform Act Farmers Union, 153
79 80 (FAIR) role in sustainable agriculture,
Environmental disasters, 63 64 Fair Trade, 321 323 324
Environmental ethics, 12 Fair Trade Labeling Organization Farmers’ Market Nutrition Program
Environmental Protection Agency International (FLO), 321 (FMNP), 238
(EPA), 63 64, 289 290, Family farms, 53, 56 Farming, economics of, 160 161, 161t,
301 302 Family-based immigration, 163 164 162f
pesticide regulations and impact on Family-run businesses, 54 Fats, 214 215, 228, 265
agriculture, 64t Farm fat-soluble vitamins, 210
Environmental toxins, 219 crisis, 45 46, 47t replacers and stabilizers in
EPA. See Environmental Protection Farm Bill (1985), 65, 68 69 processed foods, 203
Agency (EPA) Farm Bureau, 139 140, 153, 157 Fatty acids, 229 230, 264 265
EPCRA. See Emergency Planning and farm crisis (1980s), 47t FCS. See Food contact substances
Community Right to Know Act groups, 153 (FCS)
(EPCRA) labor, 145 147, 148f FDA. See US Food and Drug
Ephedra, 277 laborer unions, 147 155, 150t, 151f, Administration (FDA)
EPIA. See Egg Products Inspection Act 152f FDIC. See Federal Deposit Insurance
(EPIA) operation Corporation (FDIC)
Epinephrine, 277 management companies, 174 FDPIR. See Food Distribution Program
ERS. See Economic Research Service mechanization, 161 163 on Indian Reservations (FDPIR)
(ERS) operators, 153 FDR. See Franklin Delano Roosevelt
Escherichia coli, 83, 96 98, 188 189, subsidy, 65 66 (FDR)
205 206 types and designations, 53 61, 55f Federal Agricultural Improvement
Estimated average requirement (EAR), agriculture systems, 56 and Reform Act (FAIR),
209 average farm expenses, 56 68 69
Estrogens, 125 126 contract farms, 55 56 Federal Deposit Insurance
Ethanol from corn, 70 exported agricultural products, Corporation (FDIC), 39
Ethics, 7 8 61t Federal Environmental Pesticide
ethical principles in food system, family farms, 53 Control Act (FEPCA), 80
8 9 family-run businesses, 54 Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
ethical theories in food system, global influence on US (FFDCA), 80, 192, 250
9 14, 10t agriculture, 61 Federal food assistance programs,
of GMO food, 89b, 90t nonfamily farm operations, 239 242, 240t
Kevin’s eating habits, 14b 54 55 Food Stamp Program, 239 242
scientific method, 15 21, 16f sharecropping and tenant Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
antiscience and pseudoscience, farming, 55 Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), 79,
19 specialized food production, 303 304
conflicting studies, 18 19 56 61 Federal Insecticide Act (1910), 79
credible sources, 17 18, 18t United States, 53 54, 54f Federal Margarine Act, 113 114
ethics and scientific thinking, 21 USDA criteria for defining farm Federal Meat Inspection Act (FMIA),
peer review, 16 17 type, 54t 95 96, 109 110, 215
scientific thinking, 20 21 work, 70, 163 Federal tax credit program, 70
European Food Safety Authority, workers, 157 160 Federal Water Pollution Control Act
200 201 demographics of farm owners, (FWPCA), 301 302
E-verify system, 165, 167 168 159t Federal-Aid Highway Act (1944),
Exporting products, 61, 61t harvest of shame, 157b 75 77
Extension Service, 82 83 program in Alabama, 167b Feedyard, 98
Extrusion, 196, 196t US workforce, 158t Feingold Diet, 200
348 INDEX
Fenfluramine and phentermine (fen- food deserts, 259 260 extrusion, 196
phen), 276 277 impact of food insecurity on food processing and manufacturing,
FEPCA. See Federal Environmental children, 258 259 184 186
Pesticide Control Act (FEPCA) nongovernmental food assistance gluten-free cake mix, 183f
Fermentation, 111 programs, 260 261 high-pressure processing, 198
fermented foods, 192 in US, 256 258, 257f infrared heating, 198
fermented milk products, 111 intake regulation, 274 278 MAP, 197
processing foods by, 192 fad diets and weight loss, microwave sterilization, 197 198
Fertilizer, 77 276 278 PEF, 198
FFDCA. See Federal Food, Drug, and obesity prevention programs, 278 processing of single ingredients, 184
Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) intake inhibiting signals, 274 Food processing, 171, 179 180.
Field crops, 324 marketing, 278 282, 280t See also Processed foods
FIFRA. See Federal Insecticide, in schools, 281 282, 281t by canning or thermal sterilization,
Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act miles, 308 309 189 190
(FIFRA) nutrients in, 216t, 227 234 cereal grains by milling, 186 188
Filipino workers, 149 preservatives, 199 by curing and smoking, 192
Filtration, 184 production, 290 degrees of, 180
Finely textured beef (FTB), 140 141 promotion for health, 233 234 by dehydration, 191 192
First colonial settlements in Virginia scientists, 171 by fermentation, 192
(1607), 47t security, 256 food in space, 194b
Flavorings and spices, 200 service industry, 169 food items and meals for
Flavr-Savr tomato, 83 84 in space, 194b astronauts, 195f
FLO. See Fair Trade Labeling stamps, 41f food products in US Marketplace,
Organization International technology, 222 183t
(FLO) wastes, 307 by freezing, 190 191
Floods, 320 management, 325 327, 326t, 327f grain milling, 187f
Florida, market Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, by irradiation, 192 195
vegetables production, 58 59 198 199, 207 methods, 186 195
Fluid milk, 115 Food additives, 198 199 by pasteurization, 188 189
Fluid Milk Board, 174 176 regulation for, 199 by refrigeration, 190
Fluid Milk Processors Promotion Food and Agriculture Organization, sustainability in food processing
Program, 174 176 193 industry, 330
FMIA. See Federal Meat Inspection Food and Drug Act, 95 96 Food Quality and Protection Act
Act (FMIA) Food animals, environmental issues (1996), 80
FMNP. See Farmers’ Market Nutrition of, 131 135 Food Safety and Inspection Service
Program (FMNP) CAFOs, 132f (FSIS), 96, 215
FNCS. See Food Nutrition and land use and carbon dioxide Food Safety and Inspection Service of
Consumer Services (FNCS) generation, 134t US Department of Agriculture
FNV. See Fruits ’n vegetables (FNV) spreading manure from animal (FSIS-USDA), 204 205
Folic acid, 231 operations, 133f Food Safety and Modernization Act
Food, 332 334 Food Assistance for Disaster Relief (FSMA), 96 98, 215, 218b
assistance programs on college (FADR), 238 Food Security Scale (FSS), 256
campuses, 261b Food contact substances (FCS), 207 Food Stamp Program, 41
benefits of food packaging, 207 209 Food Distribution Program on Indian Food system, 1 6, 2f. See also Human
chemically modified food starches, Reservations (FDPIR), 238 resources in food system
203 Food Nutrition and Consumer climate change and threats to,
consumption surveys, 254 255, 254f Services (FNCS), 238 239 289 292
deserts, 259 260 Food preservation and processing, consumer engagement with, 5 6, 6f
distribution, 73 180 186, 196 198, 206 economic impact of US agriculture,
government regulations for food advanced technologies for, 196t 312 330
labeling, 219 222 controlled atmosphere storage, 197 management of food waste,
industry, 227 development of new foods, 325 327, 326t, 327f
insecurity, 255 261 181 183 organic farming, 314 316
INDEX 349
organically grown foods and water use in agriculture, 296 298, G
health, 316b, 317f 297f, 299f Galilei, Galileo, 19
pesticide residues in foods by Food-borne Gasoline, 70
FDA, 318t illnesses, 205 Gasoline-powered tractor, 70
role of consumers in sustainable pathogens, 211t Gastrointestinal tract, 274
agriculture, 324 325 toxins, 219 Gatorade mixture, 209
role of farmers in sustainable Foodborne Diseases Active GATT. See General Agreement on
agriculture, 323 324 Surveillance Network Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
role of government in sustainable (FoodNet), 205 GDP. See Gross domestic product
agriculture, 322 323 Ford, Henry, 70 (GDP)
sustainability in food processing Ford Model-T automobile, 75 77 GE foods. See Genetically engineered
industry, 330 Ford pickup truck, 75 77 foods (GE foods)
sustainability of animal foods, Former production-based payments, Geary Act (1892), 146
327 330 68 69 Gelatin, 203
sustainable global production and Fossil fuels, 70, 71f Gene editing, 83
trade, 320 321 use and animal agriculture, 307f General Agreement on Tariffs and
sustainable US food production, Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR), Trade (GATT), 68 69
316 320 38 39 General Mills, 280
ethical justification for food system “Free-range” label, 221 Generally recognized as safe (GRAS),
dilemmas, 13t Freed blacks, 147 199
ethical theories and principles in, Freedom to Farm bill, 68 69 Genetic diversity, 311
6 14 Freeze-drying, 191 Genetic engineering, 83 86
“from field to fork” phrase, 2 3 Freezing, processing food by, 190 191 Bt variety, 84 85
influences on, 3 5 Frozen foods, 191 concerns about, 86 89
personal decisions and choices, Frozen meats and meals, 180 economics, 87
330 334 Fructose, 213 ethics of GMO food, 89b, 90t
components of sustainable food Fruit production, 58 59 GMO labeling of food, 88
system, 333f Fruits ’n vegetables (FNV), 278 human and animal health, 87 88
consumer behaviors and impacts Fruits and vegetables, 190 regulatory oversight, 88 90
on sustainable food system, FSA. See Farm Service Agency (FSA) weed resistance, 86 87
331t FSIS. See Food Safety and Inspection corn products, 85 86
learning about agriculture, food, Service (FSIS) economic advantages, 86
and nutrition, 332 334 FSIS-USDA. See Food Safety and FDA, 83 84
sustainable food system, 5f, Inspection Service of US herbicide-tolerant crop varieties, 84
287 289, 288t Department of Agriculture papaya crop in Hawaii, 84
sustaining natural resources, (FSIS-USDA) Shikimate pathway, 84
292 312 FSMA. See Food Safety and tools, 83
biodiversity, 311 312 Modernization Act (FSMA) trait, 83
carbon footprint, 306 308 FSS. See Food Security Scale (FSS) US farmers, 85f
food miles, 308 309 FTB. See Finely textured beef (FTB) vitamin A deficiency, 86
fossil fuel use and animal Functional additives in processed Genetically engineered foods (GE
agriculture, 307f foods, 198 203 foods), 83
invasive weeds, insects, and color additives in, 200 202 Genetically modified organisms
disease, 309 311 fat replacers and stabilizers in, 203 (GMOs), 65
land use in agriculture, flavorings and spices, 200 apple, 85 86
292 294 Kraft Macaroni & Cheese, 201b labeling of food, 88
nitrogen fertilizer, 304b nonnutritive sweeteners in Genetically modified potatoes (GM
precipitation and climate change, processed foods, 203 potatoes), 83 84
298 300 preservatives in, 199 200 Geographic information systems
soil erosion, 294 296, 296f regulation for food additives, 199 (GIS), 80
water contamination, 301 305 thickeners and texturizers, 203 Gestational stalls, 103, 103f
water footprint in agriculture, FWPCA. See Federal Water Pollution GHGs. See Greenhouse gases
300 301, 301f, 302f Control Act (FWPCA) (GHGs)
350 INDEX
GIS. See Geographic information HACCP. See Hazard Analysis Critical ACSC, 154
systems (GIS) Control Points (HACCP) agricultural cooperatives in 2014,
Glass, packaging of food, 208 Hatch, William, 62 63 172t
Gleaning, 262 Hatch Act (1887), 31 32, 62 63 Agriculture Labor Regulations, 150t
Global influence on US agriculture, 61 Hazard Analysis Critical Control agriculture-related workers and
Global positioning systems (GPS), 80, Points (HACCP), 96 98, wages, 169t
271, 324 206 207 commodity boards and checkoffs,
Glucose, 229 230, 275 HB56. See House Bill 56 (HB56) 174 176, 175t
Glycation, 275 HBCUs. See Historically black colleges demographics of farm owners, 159t
Glyphosate, 84 and universities (HBCUs) economics of farming, 160 161,
Glyphosate-resistant weeds, 84 HDL. See High-density lipoprotein 161t, 162f
GM potatoes. See Genetically modified (HDL) farm labor, 145 147, 148f
potatoes (GM potatoes) Health and Human Services (HHS), farm laborer unions, 147 155
GMOs. See Genetically modified 238 farm worker program in Alabama,
organisms (GMOs) Healthcare providers, 272 273 167b
Government farm policy, 65 69 Healthcare Safety Net Act, 156 farm workers today, 157 160
Government regulations for migrant Herbicide-tolerant crop varieties, 84 government regulations for migrant
farm workers, 156 157 HFCS. See High fructose corn syrup farm workers, 156 157
Government role in agriculture, (HFCS) harvest of shame, 157b
61 69. See also Energy for HHS. See Health and Human Services hired farm workers, 161 163
agriculture; Transportation in (HHS) IWW, 147 149
agriculture High fructose corn syrup (HFCS), 184, largest food and beverage
APHIS, 64 65 213 214, 275 276 companies, 171t
EPA, 63 64 High-density lipoprotein (HDL), members of BCTGM, 155f
government farm policy, 65 69 265 266 Mexican Farm Labor Agreement, 151f
in sustainable agriculture, 322 323 High-pressure processing (HPP), 196, MW, 170t
USDA, 62 63 196t, 198 nonfarm agriculture work, 167 174
GPS. See Global positioning systems Highly pathogenic avian influenza UCAPAWA union, 149
(GPS) (HPAI), 124 union worker strike and lockout,
“Graham bread”, 181 182 Hired farm workers, 161 163 153b
Graham flour, 233 Hispanic, 161 163 United Farm Workers of America
Grand Coulee Dam, 40f Historically black colleges and union, 152f
Grandin, Dr. Temple, 138f universities (HBCUs), 29 US immigration policies, 163 167,
GRAS. See Generally recognized as Hog housing systems, 102 104 164f, 165f
safe (GRAS) Hog industry, 100 104 US workforce, 158t
Grassland Reserve Program, 37 hog housing systems, 102 104 women and minorities in
Great Depression, 35 41, 46 hog production, 59 60 agriculture, 159 160
food stamps, 41f stages, 101f Human(s), 270 271
impact on agriculture, 38 41 pork products and consumption, civilization, 1 2
Great Depression (1929 41), 47t 104 health, 87 88
Green cards, 164 in states, 100 human diets, animal foods in, 93
Green Revolution, 45 Homestead Act, 27 28 intervention, 60
Greenhouse gases (GHGs), 133 134, Honey, 213 synthesize cholesterol, 265 266
290 292, 291f, 306, 308f, 308t Hormones, 125 127 Humane Society of the United States
Gross domestic product (GDP), 49, House Bill 56 (HB56), 167 168 (HSUS), 135
158, 184, 312 HPAI. See Highly pathogenic avian Hungry, 274
Growth hormone, 126 127 influenza (HPAI) Hurricanes, 320
Growth promotants, 125 127 HPP. See High-pressure processing Hybrid seed, 82 83
Gums, 203 (HPP) Hybridization, corn, 32, 33f
HSUS. See Humane Society of the Hydrogenation, 114, 265
United States (HSUS) Hyperglycemia, 275
H Human resources in food system. Hypoglycemia, 275
Haber-Bosch process, 77 See also Food system Hypothalamus, 274
INDEX 351
I Intestinal tract, 232 Life expectancy, 267
IACUC. See Institutional Animal Care Invasive Species Act, 309 310 Lifecycle assessment (LCA), 306
and Use Committee (IACUC) Invasive weeds, insects, and disease, Lincoln, Abraham, 75
ICE. See Immigration and Customs 309 311 Line extensions, 183
Enforcement (ICE) IOM. See Institute of Medicine (IOM) Linoleic acid, 230
IFIC survey. See International Food Iowa and North Carolina agricultural Lipoproteins, 265 266
Information Council survey history comparison, 48b Liquid ammonia, 141 142
(IFIC survey) agricultural use, 49f Liraglutide, 276 277
IGF-1. See Insulin-like growth factor I income from agricultural products, LISA program. See Low Impact
(IGF-1) 49f Sustainable Agriculture
IM foods. See Intermediate moisture IPM. See Integrated pest management program (LISA program)
foods (IM foods) (IPM) “Local” food label, 221
Immigration IR heating. See Infrared heating (IR “Lockout”, 153b
laws, 163 heating) Lorcaserin, 276 277
policy, 151 152 IRCA. See Immigration Reform and Low Impact Sustainable Agriculture
Immigration Act, 147 149 Control Act (IRCA) program (LISA program), 322
Immigration and Customs Irradiation, processing foods by, Low-acid foods, 189
Enforcement (ICE), 165 166 192 195, 193f Low-density lipoprotein (LDL),
Immigration and Naturalization Act Irrigation, 297 298 265 266
(INA), 163 Isoflavones, 228 229
Immigration Reform and Control Act ISS. See International Space Station
(IRCA), 164 165 (ISS) M
INA. See Immigration and IWW. See Industrial Workers of World Ma huang, 277
Naturalization Act (INA) (IWW) Macronutrients, 227 228
Inbreeding hybridization programs, Mad cow disease, 123 124
82 83 Malaria, 78 79
J Malnutrition, 40 41
Income in food insecurity, 258
“Jim Crow” law, 146
“Industrial farming”, 312 MAP. See Modified atmosphere
Industrial Workers of World (IWW), packaging (MAP)
147 149 K Margarine, 113b
Industrialization period, 147 149 Kraft Foods Group Brands LLC, 201 Marketing, 207, 278 279
Infrared heating (IR heating), 196t, 198 Kraft Macaroni & Cheese, 201b in schools, 281 282, 281t
Institute of Food Technologists, MATS. See Microwave-assisted
171 172 thermal sterilization (MATS)
Institute of Medicine (IOM), 237, L McDonald’s, 142, 169
279 280 Lacto-ovo vegetarians, 119 Meals on Wheels America, 261
Institutional Animal Care and Use Lactobacillus, 192 Meat products, 192
Committee (IACUC), 233 Lactose, 112 Meat safety regulations, 95 98, 97t
Insulin, 275 Land use in agriculture, 292 294 Meatless Monday campaigns, 121,
Insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-1), “Land-grant” institutions, 28 29, 32, 122b
126 127 34, 62 63 Mechanization, 48, 70, 168
Integrated pest management (IPM), Laws, 7 of farm operations, 161 163
81, 324 immigration, 163 Membrane technology, 184
Intermediate moisture foods (IM “Jim Crow”, 146 Meridia, 276 277
foods), 191 192 Laying hens and egg production, Metal organic framework (MOF), 209
International Atomic Energy Agency, 105 106 Metals, packaging of food, 208
193 battery cages for laying hens, 107f Methane (CH4), 290
International Food Information white leghorn chicken, 106f Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus
Council survey (IFIC survey), LCA. See Lifecycle assessment (LCA) aureus (MRSA), 128 129
5, 179 LDL. See Low-density lipoprotein Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE),
International Space Station (ISS), 194 (LDL) 70 72
Interstate Commerce Act, 29 31 Lean finely textured beef (LFTB), Mexican Farm Labor Program,
Interstate road system, 75 77 140 141, 141f 150 151
352 INDEX
Mexican workers, 147 149 N fossil fuel use and animal

Micronutrients, 227 228 NABG. See Nutrition Assistance Block agriculture, 307f
Microorganisms, 181, 190 191 Grants (NABG) invasive weeds, insects, and
Microwave NADC. See National Animal Disease disease, 309 311
heating, 196 Center (NADC) land use in agriculture, 292 294
processing, 197 198 Naltrexone, 276 277 nitrogen fertilizer, 304b
sterilization, 196t, 197 198 Nanotechnology, 209 precipitation and climate change,
Microwave-assisted thermal National Animal Disease Center 298 300
sterilization (MATS), 209 (NADC), 124 125, 125f soil erosion, 294 296, 296f
Mid-cold war era, 45 46 National Antimicrobial Resistance water contamination, 301 305
Migrant and Seasonal Agricultural Monitoring System for Enteric water footprint in agriculture,
Worker Protection Act, 156, 163 Bacteria program (NARMS 300 301, 301f, 302f
Migrant farm workers, government program), 129 water use in agriculture, 296 298,
regulations for, 156 157 National Cancer Institute (NCI), 297f, 299f
Migrant Health Act (1962), 156 250 “Natural” food label, 221
Migrant labor camps, 147 National Commodity Organizations, Natural Resources Conservation
Milk, 111 175t Service (NRCS). See National
fermentation, 111 National Farmers Union (NFU), 153 Resource Conservation Service
historical legislation to promoting National Farm Workers Association, (NRCS)
milk safety, 116t 152 153 NCI. See National Cancer Institute
sanitation and safety, 115 117 National Farmers Organization (NCI)
Milling, processing cereal grains by, (NFO), 149 150 Neuropeptide Y (NPY), 274
186 188 National health and nutrition New Deal, 39, 44 45, 147
“Minimally processed” products, 180, examination survey NFO. See National Farmers
196 (NHANES), 253 254, 253t Organization (NFO)
Minimum Wage (MW), 170t National health examination surveys NFU. See National Farmers Union
Modern farm equipment, 80 (NHES), 253 (NFU)
Modified atmosphere packaging National Institutes of Health, 200 NHANES. See National health and
(MAP), 196 197, 196t National Labor Relations Act (NLRA), nutrition examination survey
MOF. See Metal organic framework 149 150 (NHANES)
(MOF) National Labor Relations Board NHES. See National health
Molds, 206 (NLRB), 149 150 examination surveys (NHES)
Monosaccharides, 229 230 National Nutrient Database for Niacin, 228 229, 231
Monosodium glutamate (MSG), Standard Reference (NNDSR), Nitrogen, 77
200 228 229 fertilizer, 304b
Monsanto Company, 84 National Organic Program, 220 “nitrogen-fixing” plants, 304
Morrill Act, 28 29 National Resource Conservation Nitrous oxide (N2O), 290
Mortality, 104 105 Service (NRCS), 64, 296 Nixtamalization, 210
MRSA. See Methicillin-resistant National Restaurant Association, NLEA. See Nutrition Labeling and
Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) 169 171 Education Act (NLEA)
MSG. See Monosodium glutamate National Salt Reduction Initiative NLRA. See National Labor Relations
(MSG) (NSRI), 212 Act (NLRA)
MSW. See Municipal solid waste National School Lunch Program NLRB. See National Labor Relations
(MSW) (NSLP), 238 239, 242 245, Board (NLRB)
MTBE. See Methyl tertiary butyl ether 244f, 256 NNDSR. See National Nutrient
(MTBE) National System of Interstate Database for Standard
Municipal solid waste (MSW), Highways, 75 77 Reference (NNDSR)
325 326 Natural color additives, 200 Nonfamily farm operations, 54 55
Mushrooms, 219 Natural flavors, 200 Nonfarm agriculture work, 167 174
Mutation breeding, 82 Natural resources, 292 312 agricultural cooperatives, 172t
MW. See Minimum Wage (MW) biodiversity, 311 312 agriculture-related workers and
MyPyramid Food Guidance System, carbon footprint, 306 308 wages, 169t
245 247 food miles, 308 309 corporations with investment, 173t
INDEX 353
farm worker program in Alabama, food insecurity, 255 261 P
167b food marketing, 278 282 P&G Company. See Procter and
largest food and beverage labeling, 249 252, 251f Gamble Company (P&G
companies, 171t regulation of food intake, Company)
MW, 170t 274 278 Pacific Fruit Express Company, 75
Nongovernmental food assistance support programs, 67, 69 Paddle-wheel steamboats, 73
programs, 260 261 Nutrition Assistance Block Grants PAHs. See Polycyclic aromatic
Nonnutritive sweeteners in processed (NABG), 238 hydrocarbons (PAHs)
foods, 203 Nutrition Facts panel, 251 252, 251f Pantothenic acid, 231
Nontherapeutic use of antibiotics, Nutrition Labeling and Education Act Parathion, 78 79
127 131 (NLEA), 250 Partnership for Healthier America
Nonthermal preservation methods, Nutritional value of foods, (PHA), 259 260, 278
196 209 210 Pasteur, Louis, 181
Norepinephrine, 276 277 Pasteurization, 198
NPY. See Neuropeptide Y (NPY) pasteurized milk, 115
NRCS. See National Resource O processing food by, 188 189
Conservation Service (NRCS) OAA. See Older Americans Act “Pasture-raised” label, 221
NSLP. See National School Lunch (OAA) Pathogen reduction/HACCP systems
Program (NSLP) Obama, Barack, 67, 67f, 166 approach, 96 98
NSRI. See National Salt Reduction Obesity, 266 269, 267t, 276 PCBs. See Polychlorinated biphenyls
Initiative (NSRI) average body weight, 269f (PCBs)
Nutrients becoming epidemic, 267b Pectin, 203
in foods, 216t, 227 234 causes of, 270 272, 271f Peer review, 16 17
composition of foods, 228 229 childhood, 272, 272t, 273f PEF. See Pulsed electric field (PEF)
discovery of essential, 229 230 incidence of, 270f Pellagra, 237
nutrient deficiency diseases, life expectancy, 268f People for Ethical Treatment of
231 232, 231t prevention programs, 278 Animals (PETA), 135
promoting food for health, Occupational groups, 160 Perennial grasses, 70 72
233 234 Office of Road Inquiry, 75 77 Personal Responsibility and Work
requirements for population, Older Americans Act (OAA), 261 Opportunities Reconciliation
234 252, 236f Oleomargarine, 113 114 Act, 241 242
deficiency and public health, ω3 fatty acids, 264 265 Pesticides, 77 80, 292
236 238 ω6 fats, 264 265 chemical management of weeds, 79
dietary guidelines, 247 249, 248t On-farm income, 160 161 chemicals, 78 79
federal food assistance programs, OPEC. See Organization of Petroleum Delany House Committee hearings,
239 242 Exporting Countries (OPEC) 79
NSLP, 242 245 Organic animal production, 220 FEPCA, 80
nutrition education for public, Organic farming, 56, 314 316. See also systematic government, 79 80
245 247 Agricultural/agriculture Pests, 77 78
nutrition labeling, 249 252, 251f Organic Food Production Act, 220f, 314 management, 84
public policy and nutrition Organic foods, 314 316, 322 323 PETA. See People for Ethical
programs, 238 239 Organic solvents, 201 Treatment of Animals (PETA)
WIC, 245 Organically grown foods and health, Petroleum-derived herbicides, 79
Nutrition, 332 334 316b, 317f PGs. See Prostaglandins (PGs)
animals in nutrition research, 232b Organization of Petroleum Exporting PHA. See Partnership for Healthier
assessing Americans’ nutritional Countries (OPEC), 70 America (PHA)
status, 252 255 Orlistat, 277 Phenoxyacetic acid compounds, 79
chronic disease, 262 274 Outreach and Assistance for Socially Phentermine, 276 277
diet disease, 262 274 Disadvantaged Farmers and Pigs, 100, 102
ecology, 329 Ranchers and Veteran Farmers “Pink slime” situation, 139, 140b
education for public, 245 247 and Ranchers Program. Pioneer Hybrid Company, 82 83
food assistance programs on college See 2501 Program Plant
campuses, 261b Oxygen scavengers, 209 biotechnology innovations, 172 174
354 INDEX
Plant (Continued) consumer attitudes about, 222 223 Rats, 232

breeding, 81 89 developments in types and rbST. See Recombinant bovine
concerns about genetic marketing, 182t somatotropin (rbST)
engineering in agriculture, functional additives in, 198 203 RDA. See Recommended Dietary
86 89 government oversight, 215 222 Allowances (RDA)
genetic engineering, 83 86 foodborne toxins, 219 REA. See Rural Electric
hybrid seed, 82 83 FSMA, 218b Administration (REA)
tools, 82 regulations for food labeling, “Ready-to-eat” foods, 180
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 219 219 222 REAP. See Rural Energy for America
Polycropping, 311 government regulation, 217t Program (REAP)
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons negative issues in, 210 215 “Reasonable certainty of no harm”, 80
(PAHs), 121 fat, 214 215 Recombinant bovine somatotropin
Polysaccharides, 208 209, 229 230 salt, 210 212 (rbST), 126 127
Polyunsaturated fatty acid, 230 sugar, 212 214 Recommended Dietary Allowances
POMC. See Proopiomelanocortin nutrients in foods, 216t (RDA), 234
(POMC) Processing cereal grains by milling, Red meat, 121
Pork products and consumption, 104 186 188 Red River Valley Sugarbeet Growers
Postwar era, 43 45 Processing food. See Food processing Association (RRVSGA), 154
Poultry Procter and Gamble Company (P&G REE. See Research, Education, and
industry, 108 110 Company), 233 234 Economics (REE)
genetic science, 109 Progestins, 125 126 Reefers, 75
production regulations, 109 110 Proopiomelanocortin (POMC), 274 Refined carbohydrates, 275 276
specialization, 159 Propionate, 94 95 Refined sugar, 212 213
Poultry Products Inspection Act, 96, Prostaglandins (PGs), 264 265 Refrigeration, processing food by, 190
215 Protein, 228 Regulatory oversight, 88 90
Poverty threshold, 169 171 Pseudomonas, 192 Rehydratable foods, 194
Prairie States Forestry Project, 37 Pseudoscience, 19 “Relativism”, 10
Precipitation, 298 300 Public Renewable Fuel Standard, 70 72
Precision agriculture, 80 81 health, 236 238 Rennet, 111
advances in technology, 81f nutrition education for, 245 247 Research, Education, and Economics
IPM, 81 policy and nutrition programs, (REE), 238 239
Precision farming techniques, 58 59, 238 239 Research and promotion programs
59f Public Law, 40 41 (R&P programs), 174 176
Preservatives in processed foods, Public Law 78 (1951), 150 151 Resistance, 86 87
199 200 Pulsed electric field (PEF), 196, 196t, Resistant weeds, 84
Price loss coverage, 65 198 Revolutionary War era, 25 26
Principal farmers, 158 159 Pure Food and Drug Act, 215 Riboflavin, 228 229, 231
Prions, 123 124 Pyrethrum, 77 78 Rice production, 133 134
Processed foods, 179, 186. See also Pyrolysis, 70 72 Rights theory, 11
Food processing RNA modification, 83
benefits, 204 210, 206t Rodents, 232
benefits of food packaging, Q Roundup, 84
207 209 Qsymia, 276 277 Roux-en-Y gastric bypass, 277
breakfast cereals, 210f Quinoa, 4 5 RRVSGA. See Red River Valley
comparison of commercial brands Sugarbeet Growers Association
of Macaroni & Cheese, 204t R (RRVSGA)
food-borne pathogens, 211t R&P programs. See Research and “Rule-utilitarian”, 11
nutritional value of foods, promotion programs (R&P Rumen, 94 95
209 210 programs) Ruminants, 94 95
processing improves food safety, Railroads, 73 75 Rural Electric Administration (REA),
204 207 impact on agriculture, 75 32 33
processing increases efficiency, innovations in railcars, 76f Rural Energy for America Program
204 Nebraska, 75 (REAP), 72 73
INDEX 355
S Slaves, 145 146 State-by-state labeling regulations, 88
Saccharomyces, 192 “Smart Snacks in School” rule, 281 Stealth marketing, 280 281
Safe Drinking Water Act, 305 Smith-Lever Act, 34 Stevens, John, 73 75
Salmon, 85 86 Smoking, processing foods by, 192 Stigmatization, 272
Salmonella enteritidis (SE), 109 110 SMP. See Special Milk Program (SMP) Stover, 70 72, 72f
Salmonella infections, 205 206 SNAP. See Supplemental Nutrition Streptococcus, 192
Salt, 210 212 Assistance Program (SNAP) Students Helping Our Peers (SHOP),
Salting, processing foods by, 192 “Snowmageddon”, 291 292 262
Saltpeter, 77 Social justice, 287 288 Sucrose, 229 230
SARE. See Sustainable Agriculture Social Security Act, 39 Sugar, 212 214
Research and Education Sodium, 210 211 beet cultivation, 43
(SARE) Sodium arsenite, 79 cane, 213
Saturated fats, 120, 214 215, 264 Sodium benzoate, 199 200 production, 298
Sausage casings, 208 209 Sodium chloride, 192, 210 211 Summer Food Service Program
Saxenda, 276 277 Sodium nitrate, 210 211 (SFSP), 239
SCCP. See Side-chain crystallizable Sodium Warning Label Rule, 212 Sunset Yellow, 201
polymer (SCCP) Soil Conservation and Domestic Supplemental Nutrition Assistance
School Breakfast Program (SBP), Allotment Act, 39 Program (SNAP), 66, 69, 239,
238 239 Soil Conservation Service, 37 239f, 241f
Schools, marketing in, 281 282, 281t Soil erosion, 294 296, 296f Surface water, 298
Scientific method, 15 21, 16f Soil Erosion Service, 37 Sustainability, 5
antiscience and pseudoscience, 19 Solanine, 219 of animal foods, 327 330
conflicting studies, 18 19 Solar energy, 72 73 in food processing industry, 330
credible sources, 17 18, 18t use in agriculture, 72 73 sustainable agriculture
ethics and scientific thinking, 21 Somatotropin, 126 127 consumers role, 324 325
peer review, 16 17 Southern Tenant Farmers Union, farmers role, 323 324
scientific thinking, 20 21 149 150 government role, 322 323
Scientific thinking, 20 21 Soy oil, 184 sustainable food systems, 287 289,
ethics and, 21 Soybeans, 42 43, 43f, 184 288t
Screening, 184 Space, food in, 194b components, 333f
SCRI. See Specialty Crop Research Special Milk Program (SMP), 239 consumer behaviors and impacts,
Initiative (SCRI) Specialized food production, 56 57. 331t
SE. See Salmonella enteritidis (SE) See also Agricultural/ sustainable global production and
Secretary of agriculture, 61 62 agriculture trade, 320 321
Segregation policies, 147 agricultural production in United Sustainable Agriculture Research and
Senior Farmers’ Market Nutrition States, 58t Education (SARE), 287 288
Program (SFMNP), 239 animal agriculture, 59 60 Swift Company, 75
Serotonin, 276 277 distribution of agricultural “Swill milk”, 115
“7-Country Study”, 263 products, 57 58 Swine, 100
SFMNP. See Senior Farmers’ Market food production in United States, Synthetic pesticide production, 78 79
Nutrition Program (SFMNP) 57f
SFSP Summer Food Service human intervention, 60
Program (SFSP) placing drainage tiles, 60f T
Sharecropping, 55, 146 use of precision farming techniques, Tactical herbicides, 79
Shell eggs, 107 108 58 59, 59f Tartrazine. See Yellow 5
Shikimate pathway, 84 vegetable production, 58 TBHQ. See Tertbutylhydroquinone
SHOP. See Students Helping Our Yakima River Basin Project, 60 61 (TBHQ)
Peers (SHOP) Specialty Crop Research Initiative TEFAP. See The Emergency Food
Sibutramine, 276 277 (SCRI), 322 Assistance Program (TEFAP)
Side-chain crystallizable polymer Spoilage microorganisms, 206 Temperature effect in Climate
(SCCP), 209 Spray-drying, 191 Change, 290 292
Single ingredients, processing of, 184 Stakeholder, 3 Tenant farming, 55
Skinfold measurements, 267 Starch, 70 72 Tenant relationships, 146
356 INDEX
Tertbutylhydroquinone (TBHQ), United Cannery, Agricultural, Packing sustainable global production and
199 200 and Allied Workers of America trade, 320 321
Texturizers in processed foods, 203 union (UCAPAWA union), 149 sustainable US food production,
The Emergency Food Assistance United Farm Workers union (UFW 316 320
Program (TEFAP), 239 union), 152 153 and food production
The Food Stamp Act (1977), United Nations Food and Agriculture advances in US agriculture, 30f
241 242 Organization, 329 Civil War era, 26 32
The Food Stamp Program, 239 242 United States (US) colonial era, 24 25
Therapeutic use of antibiotics, farm policy, 65 Dust Bowl on US agriculture
127 131 food insecurity in, 256 258, 257f policy, 37b
Thermal sterilization, processing food food production, 323 early civilizations, 24f
by, 189 190 food system, 6, 320 321 events in US history and impact
Thermostabilized foods, 194 195 immigration policies, 163 167, 164f, on agriculture, 47t
Thiamine, 228 229, 231 165f federal legislation, 47t
Thickeners in processed foods, 203 Permanent Resident Card, 164 Great Depression era, 35 41
Thrifty Food Plan, 234 United States Department of Iowa and North Carolina
Thyroid gland, 236 Agriculture (USDA), 34, 62 63, agricultural history
Thyromegaly. See Thyroid gland 159, 165, 215, 227, 246f, 278, comparison, 48b
Tobacco, 145 147 294 295, 326 mid-cold war era, 45 46
production, 24 25 Beltsville Agricultural Center, during 1900s regional agriculture,
Topiramate, 276 277 62 63 31f
“Traction machine”, 32 Climate Change Program Office, Postwar era, 43 45
Trait, 83 292 productivity of US farmers, 34f
Trans fats, 247 249, 265 Climate Change Report, 293t progress in US agriculture, 46 49
Trans fatty acids, 265 mission areas and agencies Revolutionary War era, 25 26
Transgenic modification, 83 implementing programs, 63t World War I era, 32 35
Transportation in agriculture, 73 77. NRCS, 296 World War II era, 41 43
See also Energy for agriculture; organic standards by, 314t health, 64 65
Government role in agriculture Renewable Energy Systems, 72 73 innovations
interstate road system, 75 77 United States Public Health Service agricultural chemicals, 77 80
railroads, 73 75 (USPHS), 117 energy for agriculture, 70 73
Tuskegee Institute, 29 Unpasteurized foods, 188 189 farm types and designations,
2014 Farm Bill, 64 65, 66b, 67f, 68f, Unsaturated fatty acids, 233 234, 53 61
69t, 159 160 264 265 government role in agriculture,
2501 Program, 159 160 US agriculture, 23 24 61 69
Type 2 diabetes, 275 economic impact, 312 330 plant breeding, 81 89
Typhus, 78 79 management of food waste, precision agriculture, 80 81
325 327, 326t, 327f transportation in agriculture,
organic farming, 314 316 73 77
U organically grown foods and US Food and Drug Administration
UCAPAWA union. See United health, 316b, 317f (FDA), 199 201, 215, 227, 238
Cannery, Agricultural, Packing pesticide residues in foods by USDA. See United States Department
and Allied Workers of America FDA, 318t of Agriculture (USDA)
union (UCAPAWA union) role of consumers in sustainable USDA Economic Research Service
UFW union. See United Farm Workers agriculture, 324 325 (USDA-ERS), 160, 167 169
union (UFW union) role of farmers in sustainable USPHS. See United States Public
Ultrahigh temperature (UHT), 188 agriculture, 323 324 Health Service (USPHS)
pasteurization, 117 118 role of government in sustainable Utilitarian theory, 11
Underground Railroad, 146 agriculture, 322 323 Utilitarianism, 11
Undocumented workers, 151 152, sustainability in food processing
165, 167 168 industry, 330 V
Union groups, 149 150 sustainability of animal foods, “Value-added” processing, 184
Union worker strike and lockout, 153b 327 330 Vegetable production, 58
INDEX 357
Vegetarian diet, 195 “Welfare to Work”. See Personal World War (1914 18), 47t
Virtue theory, 12 Responsibility and Work World War I era, 32 35
Vitamin A deficiency, 86 Opportunities Reconciliation World War II (1941 45), 41 43, 47t,
“Vitamines”, 231 Act 186
Vitamins, 228 229, 231, 234, 237, Wetback, 151 152 Worldwide Opportunities on Organic
249 250 What We Eat in America survey Farms (WWOOF), 332
vitamin A, 228 229 (WWEA survey), 254 255 WOTUS. See Waters of the United
vitamin C, 210, 228 229 Wheat, 187 188 States (WOTUS)
water-soluble, 210 cereals, 180 WPA. See Work Projects
Volatile fatty acids, 94 95 White farmers, 147 Administration (WPA)
White flour, 187 188 WTO. See World Trade Organization
White table sugar, 213 (WTO)
W WHO-IARC. See World Health WW. See Weight Watchers (WW)
Walgreens, 259 260 Organization’s International WWEA survey. See What We Eat in
Wallace, Henry, 82 83 Agency for Research on Cancer America survey (WWEA
Walmart, 221, 259 260, 278, 288 289, (WHO-IARC) survey)
330 Whole wheat flour, 180, 187 188 WWOOF. See Worldwide
Washington, George, 29f WIC. See Women, infants, and Opportunities on Organic
Waste water treatment plants, 307 children (WIC) Farms (WWOOF)
Water, 228 Wind energy, 72 73
activity, 191 192 Wind turbines, 72 73, 74f
contamination, 301 305 Wobblies, 147 149 X
footprint in agriculture, 300 301, Women, infants, and children (WIC), Xenical. See Orlistat
301f, 302f 238, 245
scarcity, 298 “Wonder Bread”, 188
use in agriculture, 296 298, 297f, Work Alabama, 168 Y
299f Work Projects Administration (WPA), Yakima River Basin Project, 60 61
water-soluble vitamins, 210 39 Yale Rudd Center for Food Policy and
Waterloo Gasoline Traction Engine Workers’ rights, 149 150, 166 Obesity (2012), 279
Company, 70 World Health Organization, 193 Yeasts, 206
Waters of the United States (WOTUS), World Health Organization’s Yellow 5, 200 202
304 International Agency for Yellow 6, 200 202
Weed(s), 77 Research on Cancer (WHO- Yellow fever, 78 79
management, 77 78 IARC), 121 Yogurt, 119
resistance, 86 87 World trade agreements, 68 69 “Yogurt sundae”, 119
Weight loss, 276 278 World Trade Organization (WTO), Young Men’s Christian Association
Weight Watchers (WW), 276 68 69 (YMCA), 271 272

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