OVERVIEW

Computer can only understand one language, machine language. Machine

language is very difficult to learn because it consists only of the binary
numbers 0 and 1.

So we use languages that we know as well as there are some ways of converting
this to machine language. It is very hard to convert natural languages, so
special programming languages have been developed similar to natural
languages (specially in English). Therefore these are easy to learn. These
programming languages are used to develop computer programs that give the
computer a detailed set of instructions to execute.

It is very tempting to start entering your program into the computer as soon as
you have some idea of how to write it. Instead, you need to analyse the problem
and its solution before you write any program instructions.

It has been clearly demonstrated that time spent defining the problem to be
solved and then designing the solution leads to more efficient programming
and fewer errors in the program.

PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT CYCLE

The task of creating a program that meets the user's requirements and is
adaptable is a complex and difficult task unless it is organised. This is done
using a cycle of well-defined steps to create simpler parts to reduce the
complexity.

A number of stages can be identified in the program development process.

These stages are referred to as the Program Development Cycle to emphasise
the point that it may be necessary to return to an earlier stage if errors or
ambiguities are detected.

Six stages of program development can be identified:

1. Problem definition.
2. Development of a solution.
3. Testing of the solution.
4. Coding of the solution.
5. Testing the program.
6. Maintenance and documenting the program.
 1. PROBLEM DEFINITION
This stage is the most important because all subsequent stages are dependent
on it. Problem definition involves analysing the problem until a clear
understanding is reached. Without a clear understanding of the problem, time
and effort spent on later stages can be wasted. It may be necessary to have a
discussion with the person who proposed the problem to clarify issues.

In a business environment the programming problem is generally presented as

a program specification, which sets out
i) Input,
ii) Processing
iii) Output requirements and
iv) Other requirements of the program.

The program specification should also include known results for given inputs
to the program. Sometimes these known results are termed as test cases.
These known results can be used as a guide to the successful solution of the
problem.

An IPO chart is a tool that can be used to help document the problem
definition.

An IPO chart is a table that specifies the input, processing and output
requirements of the program.

IPO charts are sometimes called defining diagram.

An accessory to the IPO chart is a list of names for each of the input and
output data storage. These names are easier to use than a full text description
of an item and can lead to the removal of ambiguity. This list is referred to as
the Initial Data Dictionary. Other data items, which are neither input nor
output, are added to this list as the processing steps are developed. The
complete list of data items used in a program is referred to as the Data
Dictionary for the program.
 2. DEVELOPMENT OF A SOLUTION
The technique of top-down design in the development of a solution involves
breaking the problem down into a number of tasks to establish an outline of
the solution, and then breaking these tasks down into sub-tasks until the
solution of each task is manageable.

The solution outline can be represented by a hierarchy or structure chart.

Hierarchy charts show the relationships between sections in a program.

The set of logical steps that describe the actions to be carried out in each task
to solve the overall problem is called an algorithm.

There are many different techniques used to represent an algorithm.

Algorithms can be diagrammatic or descriptive.

Diagrammatic algorithms include:

1. Flowcharts.
2. Nassi-Shneiderman diagrams.
3. Action diagrams.

Descriptive algorithms include:

1. Pseudocode.
2. Point form.
3. Structured English.
 3. TESTING OF THE SOLUTION
It is vital to check that the algorithm actually solves the problem and produces
the expected results for given inputs. In addition to the known results that may
have been included in the program specification, other test data should be
designed to test the logic of the solution.

A technique for testing the algorithm with test data is the desk check. This is a
step-by-step walk-through of the logic of the algorithm to see how the input is
transformed into output. This is a paper (or whiteboard) exercise that is carried
out before the program code is entered on the computer. If the results from the
desk check do not match the expected results it is necessary to return to stage
2 to modify the algorithm. The modified algorithm is then retested and modified
until the expected results are obtained for the test data. Since the conclusions
derived from a desk check are only as good as the test data, it is necessary to
design comprehensive test data, which should test all conceivable conditions.
 4. CODING THE PROGRAM
The commands of a programming language are used to transform the algorithm
into a computer program after the logic of the program has been planned. Any
programming language can be used to code the algorithm, however a particular
language may be more suitable than others depending on the type of problem.

During the coding of the program it is good practice to include comments that
explain the logic of the processing steps. These comments will make it easier to
understand the program at a later date and make the maintenance of the
program easier.

A compiler or interpreter is used to convert the program code to machine

language that the computer can understand. When the compiler detects an
error in the program, an error message is displayed.

There are two basic categories of error messages:

1. Syntax and
2. Run-time.

The compiler detects and displays syntax errors as it attempts to translate the
program. If the program contains a syntax error, it cannot be translated and
the program cannot be executed.

Syntax errors occur if the rules of the programming language (the syntax) are
not adhered to. This may occur when reserved words (words that have special
meaning to that programming language) are misused, misspelled or
punctuated incorrectly. These syntax errors must be corrected before the
program can be run. The program code is stored in a text file, which can be
printed from the program editor, a text editor, or a word processing package.
The program listing is the documentation for this stage.

Run-time errors are detected and displayed during execution of the program.
They occur when the program instructs the computer to perform an illegal
operation, such as subscript out of range, dividing a number by zero, type
mismatches or manipulating undefined or invalid data. When a run-time error
occurs, the computer stops program execution and displays an error message.
 5. TESTING THE PROGRAM
This step involves running the program with the same test data used to test the
algorithm. If the output does not match the expected results it indicates that
errors have been made in converting the algorithm into program code.
Debugging the program is the process that identifies these errors.

A number of techniques can be used to check the progress of the processing

steps. Many program editors have a debugger, which can be used for this
purpose. When an error is identified, the program is modified and then tested
again. This cycle is repeated until the program gives the required output.
 6. MAINTENANCE OF THE PROGRAM AND
DOCUMENTATION
Documentation consists of the written materials produced at each stage of the
program development process. It is a cumulative process that starts with the
initial statement of the problem, adds the details of the solution design, then
the coding and details of the testing.

One document that is developed over several of the stages in the program
development cycle is the Data Dictionary. This is an alphabetic list of the
names of all the data items used by the program. It includes a description of
the data item and the type of data. The initial data dictionary from the problem
definition stage is added to during algorithm development and during coding as
extra data items are used in the steps to convert the input to output.

The data dictionary is provided both as written documentation and as a series

of comments in the first part of the program. The written document is used as
a reference for data items in the algorithm; the data dictionary in the program
provides the programmer, and other programmers, with a reference section to
ensure consistency in the use of data within the program.

Once the program has been thoroughly tested, the documentation should be
reviewed to ensure consistency between the materials produced at each stage.

Documentation for a program consists of:

1. Program specification.
2. IPO chart.
3. Hierarchy or structure chart.
4. Algorithm in pseudocode or NS diagrams or flowcharts.
5. Test data and desk check.
6. Program listing.
7. Results of testing the program.

It is likely that the program will be changed at some time after it has been
successfully designed and tested. Errors may occur or modifications may be
requested. As changes are made they should be documented and the materials
from each stage modified to reflect those changes.
PROBLEM DEFINITION
A program specification is a formal way of documenting what a computer
program is to do. The format of a program specification should contain the
following:

1. A general DESCRIPTION of the program i.e. what it is required to do.

2. Program INPUTS - a list of data items which are to be provided as inputs

to the program and where these inputs are coming from
e.g. keyboard, file etc.

3. The PROCESSING requirements - a description of how the program

inputs are to be processed so that the required program outputs are
produced.

4. Program OUTPUTS - a list of those results which are to be produced by

the program and where the outputs are going e.g. screen, printer, file etc.

5. The OVERALL TASKS, i.e. the broad solution steps (the highest level of
top-down design) or an overall view of the tasks the program will have to
perform.

The purposes of the program specification are:

1. It helps to clarify what the program is required to do.

2. Any problem ambiguities are removed.

3. It gives the programmer an excellent starting point for thinking about the
details of the algorithm.
Below is an example of a program specification.

Example 1.1

DESCRIPTION

The Computer Disk Supply Company has made a

request for a program to handle the ordering of their
floppy disks. The diskettes are supplied in boxes of 10
and prices vary according to size and density of the
diskettes. The program is to ask for the details of an
order then give the cost of the order entered. After an
order is entered the user is to be given the chance to
continue to enter another order (by pressing the enter
key) or to terminate the input of orders by entering the
word END. Once the user enters END, some statistics
on all orders entered are to be provided.

PROCESSING

1. Validate each of the inputs as they are entered. If an invalid

value is entered an error message should be printed and a new
value requested until a valid value is entered.
2. Calculate the order cost as follows:
 3.5" diskettes cost $20 per box for double density.
 5.25" diskettes cost $10 per box for double density.
 8" diskettes cost $15 per box for double density.
 For 3.5" and 5.25" diskettes add $3 per box for high density.
3. Statistics includes:
 The number of orders processed.
 The number of boxes of each size of diskette sold (all
densities combined).
 The cost of all orders.
OUTPUT

1. For each order print the details of the order (person/company

name, size, density, number of boxes and order cost) to the
screen.
2. After the orders have been entered i.e. after the user enters
END to finish the session the following are displayed on the
screen:
 The total number of orders made.
 The total number of boxes of each size (double and high
combined).
 The total cost of all orders.

OVERALL TASKS

1. Initialisations
2. Input and validate order details or END
3. Calculate order cost
4. Update statistics
5. Print details of order
6. Print statistics for all orders entered
Exercise 1
In each of the following write a program specification.

1. POST0: A program outputs to the screen the postage charge for a parcel
when the weight of the parcel (in Kg) is entered from the keyboard. The
charge is set at $1.50 per kg.

2. BANK0: A loan officer requires a program to calculate the monthly

repayment M on a customer loan by entering from the keyboard the
principal P, at an annual interest rate of R% p.a., over a period of T years
where M=P*(1+R*T/100)/(12*T). All inputs and the result is output to the
screen.

3. ANIM0: The consultation fee for a vet is obtained by multiplying the

number of hours by the hourly rate of $25. A program accepts the
number of hours (rounded up) from the keyboard and outputs the
consultation fee to the screen.

4. TEMP0: Convert a temperature entered from the keyboard in degrees

Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius where degC=(degF-32)/1.8 and output the
result to the screen.

5. RECT0: A program accepts the height and width of a rectangle from the
keyboard, calculates the perimeter and area of the rectangle and outputs
the results to the screen.

6. DISC0: A program accepts the marked value of an item in $ and cents,

and the discount rate as a % from the keyboard and returns the
discounted price to the screen.

7. TIME0: A program allows a person to enter values for the number of

days, hours, minutes and seconds and outputs the total number of
seconds to the screen.

One means of coming to understand a programming problem is to identify and

state the following details:

1. The data provided by the user (INPUT).

2. The processes involved in solving the problem (PROCESSING).
3. The information that is provided to the user (OUTPUT).

A program will usually require some form of input, be it information to process

or the selection of a processing option from a menu. You usually cannot do
any processing until you have completed the input of information to process.
The program will often then process some of the input and convert it to some
form of information based on the data supplied. The processing steps should
be described only as actions at this stage. The details about how each step will
be carried out are developed as part of the algorithm design.

The last section of a program often involves output. This can be in the form of
a report displayed on the screen or output to a printer, or it could be
information written to some sort of storage device, such as disk or tape.

The IPO chart should be able to be read and understood by a non-programmer.

It may provide the basis for discussion with the person who proposed the
program if ambiguous details need to be clarified. Thus, the entries in the IPO
chart should be in plain English.

Example 1.2

Problem: A program is required that will allow a user to enter a temperature

in degrees Celsius and will display the temperature in degrees
Fahrenheit.

Problem definition:
An analysis of the problem indicates a single input and a single
output. The input has to be converted to the output.

IPO CHART
INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT
Temperature in 1. Enter the Temperature in
degrees Celsius temperature in degrees degrees Fahrenheit
Celsius
2. Convert the
temperature in degrees
Celsius to the
temperature in degrees
Fahrenheit
3. Display the
temperature in
degrees Fahrenheit
Note: The precise details of converting a temperature in degrees Celsius to a
temperature in degrees Fahrenheit are not required at this stage. It is sufficient
to describe what is to be done, not how it will be done.

The IPO chart should now be analysed and modified until the following
questions are satisfied:

1. Are all the inputs required for the processing steps specified?
2. Are all of the required outputs specified?
3. Do the processing steps transform input to output?
Exercise 2
Problem 1:

Using an IPO Chart, determine how an employee's gross pay and net pay
is determined. The employees would need to be prompted to enter their
hours worked and the hourly rate. The result would be displayed on the
screen.

where
gross pay = hours worked x hourly rate
tax amount = 10% of gross pay
net pay = gross - tax amount

Problem 2:

A program is required to perform arithmetic calculations on two integers.

The program should prompt for the input of the two integer numbers and
display the following on the screen:

a. The sum of the two numbers.

b. The difference of the two numbers.
c. The product of the two numbers.
d. The quotient of the two numbers.

Develop an IPO Chart.