Asli 2

International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 87 (2024) 1207–1223
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/he
Renewable hydrogen for the energy transition in Australia - Current trends,

challenges and future directions
Lynda Andeobu , Santoso Wibowo * , Srimannarayana Grandhi
Central Queensland University, Australia
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Hydrogen is viewed as a potential energy solution for the 21st century, with capabilities to tackle issues relating
Renewable energy transition to environmental emissions, sustainability, energy shortages and security. Even though there are potential
Hydrogen benefits of renewable hydrogen towards transitioning to net-zero emissions, there is a limited study on the
Hydrogen technologies
current use, ongoing development and future directions of renewable hydrogen in Australia. Thus, this study
Hydrogen production
Hydrogen storage
conducts a systematic review of studies for exploring Australia’s renewable hydrogen energy transition, current
Opportunities trends, strategies, developments and future directions. By using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic
Challenges Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, earlier studies from 2005 to 2024 from two major databases
Australia such as ProQuest and Web of Science are gathered and analyzed. The study highlights significant issues relating
to hydrogen energy technologies and opportunities/challenges in production, storage, distribution, utilization,
and environmental impacts. The study found that Australia’s ambition for a strong hydrogen economy is made
apparent with its clear strategic actions to develop a clean technology-based hydrogen production, storage and
distribution system. This study provides several practical insights on Australia’s hydrogen energy transition,
hydrogen energy technologies, investments and innovation as well as strategies/recommendations for achieving
a more environment friendly, secure, affordable and sustainable energy future.
1. Introduction quantities of carbon dioxide released from countless events into the
environment, the outcome will be catastrophic consequences for the
For several decades, fossil fuels (natural gas, oil and coal) have world climate. These fears and uncertainties are unquestionably altering
powered the major sectors such as technology, transportation and how we perceive, evaluate and utilize energy and, moving countries
communication networks that strengthen and sustain the economy and away from traditional hydrocarbon-based fossil fuels towards renewable
society [1]. However, the ongoing powering of the world through fossil and sustainable sources [2,5].
fuels threatens the supply of energy and creates massive pressure on the Owing to the growing impact of climate change worldwide, at “the
environment [2]. The demand for energy worldwide is projected to 26th Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention on
double by 2050 due to response to increasing growth in population, Climate Change (COP 26)”, several countries have announced their
industrialization and rising standards of living [3]. A major challenge of commitment in achieving net-zero greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by
the 21st century is sustaining the growth in global energy demand [1]. 2050. Correspondingly, over 100 businesses that utilize huge quantities
Since the 1990s, the world has continued to struggle with unending of energy or manufacture energy-consuming products have pledged to
energy crises due to shortages of fossil fuels and environmental pollution support net zero emission over the next decades [4]. The ability of
[2]. Notable among these environmental concerns is the discharge and hydrogen to replace fossil fuels in the manufacturing, communications,
build-up of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other “climate-changing” gases transportation, power and other sectors could address major environ
from fossil fuels into the atmosphere. These emissions are now indis mental problems and climate change worldwide [6,7]. Since the first
putably beyond acceptable heights and are acknowledged to be “Hydrogen Energy Ministerial (HEM) meeting in Japan in 2018”, in
accountable for elevating the global (normal) temperatures through terest in hydrogen has grown and various governments and businesses
greenhouse effects [1,4]. Unless drastic measures are taken to reduce the are creating visions with robust plans for hydrogen [8].
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: l.andeobu@cqu.edu.au (L. Andeobu), s.wibowo1@cqu.edu.au (S. Wibowo), s.grandhi@cqu.edu.au (S. Grandhi).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.08.499
Received 16 May 2024; Received in revised form 17 July 2024; Accepted 31 August 2024
Available online 14 September 2024
0360-3199/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
L. Andeobu et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 87 (2024) 1207–1223
Australia has an established “track record as a trusted global energy 2. Research methodology
exporter”. The nation is sufficiently positioned to produce renewable
hydrogen in large quantities to support decarbonization of its own 2.1. Search approach and criteria for selection
economy, and export to other countries [9]. According to the IEA [3],
Australia is predicted to be the next major exporter of renewable This study was conducted through utilizing secondary data gained
hydrogen by 2030 and the largest by 2050. This would enable the from a systematic literature review (SLR) of earlier research studies on
Australian hydrogen industry attain the size of its existing liquefied hydrogen. Systematically reviewing prior studies helps in identifying,
natural gas (LNG) industry [10]. Australia’s LNG exports in 2020 is evaluating, assessing and interpreting relevant information on hydrogen
valued at around AUD $48 billion, and this represents approximately for this study. The main purpose of conducting SLR for this research is to
16% of its overall resource and energy exports. Actualizing this prospect maintain an impartial review methodology that supports reliability and
for hydrogen is expected to stimulate massive expansion in domestic credibility of research outcomes [15]. This study adopts the “five-step
industries and create new jobs in significant areas including project approach” for systematically reviewing the literature advocated by
financing, engineering, management, operations and maintenance [11]. Wolfswinkel et al. [16]. This “five-step approach” are “(a) defining the
A review of the literature found a number of research gaps. Firstly, scope of the review, (b) searching the literature, (c) selecting the final
although there are potential benefits of renewable hydrogen towards samples, (d) analyzing the samples using content analysis and (e) pre
transitioning to net-zero emissions, there is limited study on its current senting the findings”. Adopting the “five-step approach” enables the
use, ongoing development and future directions of renewable hydrogen researchers to conduct a comprehensive search, review and analyze the
in Australia. Secondly, while hydrogen has an important potential to collected research articles from the databases.
accelerate the process of clean and renewable energy, its integration into Define the scope of the review - The first step in the SLR is to explain
power systems has received little attention in Australia. Thirdly, most the scope of the review and this involves defining the precise criteria for
significant recent studies have demonstrated the importance of including and excluding pertinent sources and the benchmarks for cat
hydrogen energy [12,13]. Some studies focused on the contributions egorizing and recovering those sources in the literature. To search for
that hydrogen can make to sustainable development, others focus on the relevant articles in the literature, two notable databases such as
potential contributions of hydrogen for resolving environmental issues “ProQuest” and “Web of Science” were used. The selection of the data
[14]. However, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, no study has bases was based on their “representativeness and coverage” in pub
focused on the future prospects for hydrogen production, storage and lishing remarkable academic articles in hydrogen. Several keywords
distribution in Australia, and a transition to an era in which the main such as “renewable energy transition” AND “hydrogen” OR “hydrogen
energy carriers are hydrogen. This study intends to fill this gap through technologies” OR “hydrogen production” OR “hydrogen storage” OR
focusing on hydrogen energy strategies and prospects, and the key role “hydrogen opportunities” OR “hydrogen challenges” AND “hydrogen
of Australia’s hydrogen energy in this century and beyond. This study transition in Australia” are used to guarantee a wider coverage from the
intends to add the growing body of literature on renewable hydrogen in selected databases. The criteria for setting the limitation include nar
Australia using a structured systematic review. The objectives of this rowing the type of document to peer-viewed academic papers, book
study are to explore Australia’s renewable hydrogen energy transition, chapters, conference papers, and other notable reports from “World
current trends, strategies, developments and future directions. To realize Energy Council (WEC), International Energy Agency (IEA), International
the objectives of this study, earlier studies from 2005 to 2024 from renewable energy agency (IRENA), Australian Renewable Energy
major two databases such as ProQuest and Web of Science are gathered Agency (ARENA), Australian Hydrogen Council (AHC) Commonwealth
and analyzed. Significant issues relating to hydrogen energy technolo Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO)”, relevant
gies and opportunities/challenges in production, storage, distribution, Australian government departments, date of publication from 2005 to
utilization, and environmental impacts are explored. This study provides 2024 and the language in English. The selection of these document types
several practical insights on Australia’s hydrogen energy transition, is based on their research output with high impact. Fig. 1 presents a
hydrogen energy technologies, investments and innovation as well as summary of the search approach and the criteria for selection.
strategies for achieving a more environment friendly, secure, affordable Search the literature - Searching the literature follows which re
and sustainable energy future. quires “running the search query” in the databases selected and then
The following two research questions are proposed for this study: recovering search outcomes. Initially, 20,821 articles in total were
recovered after searching with the pre-determined keywords. This pre
• What is the current status of hydrogen energy transition in Australia? liminary search is conducted in other to enable the researchers select the
• What are the opportunities and challenges of hydrogen energy transition articles based on a well-defined criteria for inclusion and exclusion.
in Australia? Table 1 illustrates the criteria for inclusion/exclusion decided for this
research.
The organisation of this study is in seven sections. Section 1 provides Final samples selection - The next stage involves gathering the final
existing literature on renewable hydrogen, the objectives of the study set of samples for a broad and detailed analysis. The search focuses on
and justification. Section 2 presents the research methodology for this the titles and the abstract of all the selected articles on their relevance to
study and the justification for adopting a qualitative methodology based hydrogen and hydrogen energy transition. This led to identifying a total
on secondary data acquired through systematically reviewing the liter of 3159 pertinent research articles. Research articles that not related are
ature. Section 3 presents the historical developments of hydrogen and isolated and the remaining 116 articles are then used for further review.
overview of Australia’s renewable hydrogen industry. Section 4 outlines Sample analysis through qualitative content analysis - The identi
trends and current status of Australia’s hydrogen energy. Section 5 fied relevant research articles are then read in full for “coding and
presents the major approaches to hydrogen production, technologies for analysis”. An evaluation of the dispersion of the chosen articles in
hydrogen production and storage and opportunities/challenges in relation to the year of publication reveals that there has been a growing
Australia. Section 6 discusses the future of renewable hydrogen in interest and awareness in hydrogen from 2005 to 2024. Fig. 2 shows the
Australia. Section 7 provides the conclusion, limitations of the present PRISMA diagram for illustrating the procedures followed in identifying,
study and future research opportunities. screening, authenticating and including/excluding articles.
1208
hydrogen”, “blue hydrogen” and “green hydrogen” [22]. While grey

hydrogen can be produced from natural gas often through a steam
reforming process that can generate CO2, blue hydrogen is produced
using a similar process, but in this case, more than 80% of the CO2
produced are captured and stored rather than released into the atmo
sphere [22,23]. Green hydrogen is produced from renewable energy
sources through a process called electrolysis. When hydrogen is burnt as
a direct fuel and used for heating or to generate mechanical energy, a
process known as propulsion, it is converted into water. This means that,
unlike fossil fuels, hydrogen does not produce CO2. When used as a fuel
cell, it is easily converted into water and electricity [23]. There are
several significant benefits and limitations associated with hydrogen
energy [24,25]. These benefits include “(a) existence of several pro
duction processes, (b) non-toxic and a clean energy carrier, (c) utilized
as a chemical feedstock in significant sectors such as power, transport,
manufacturing, petrochemical, food, and in renewable energy systems
(RES), (d) produces non-toxic emissions, (e) generated from multiple
sources including renewable sources and (f) used to generate electricity
via fuel cells”. The limitations include “(a) burns in lower concentrations
when in contact with air which leads to safety concerns, and (b) chal
lenging processes of storing hydrogen in liquid form due to low tem
peratures needed to liquify hydrogen”.
Hydrogen energy has powered the “first internal combustion en
gines” to becoming a fundamental aspect of the contemporary refining,
transport and power industries [26]. The widespread use of hydrogen in
the economy was envisioned by some researchers as far back as the
1970s. As of 1994, hydrogen was not viewed as a sustainable and
practical source of energy globally. Interest in hydrogen prior to these
Fig. 1. Search approach and criteria for selection. periods was limited to a small number of academic studies [27]. With
advancements in technology and the acknowledged need for alternate
fuels, hydrogen research globally has become popular, and the majority
Table 1
of the publications were produced in the last two decades [28,29].
Australia’s investment in hydrogen energy as at December 2022 [23,45].
The historical development of hydrogen has been made possible by
Commonwealth, states Commitment in specific Announced support for the contribution of several researchers and institutions from the 16th
and territories hydrogen support (AUD) hydrogen (AUD)
century to the 21st century. These prior studies have recognized the
government
opportunities for hydrogen production through various sources, for
Commonwealth $1,589,377,972 $27,057,000,000
onward transportation, storage, and utilization to deliver ultimate en
government
Australian Capital $130,000 $12,000,000
ergy output with no emissions [30,31]. Fig. 3 Provides a chronology of
Territory (ACT) the historical development of hydrogen form the 16th century to date.
New South Wales (NSW) $3,264,100,000 $1,300,000,000 Hydrogen is progressively becoming a major energy discussion in
Northern Territory (NT) $5,000,000 $2,000,000 every region worldwide, with many countries and businesses acknowl
Queensland (QLD) $169,950,000 $4,500,000,000
edging hydrogen as having valuable potential and plays a crucial role in
South Australia (SA) $682,090,000 $150,000,000
Tasmania (TAS) $280,200,000 $4,600,000 the global energy future [32–34]. As a result, many governments are
Victoria (VIC) $97,735,000 $2,168,800,000 now considering renewable hydrogen in lowering substantial de
Western Australia (WA) $170,000,000 – pendency arising from traditional fossil fuels [35]. Hydrogen offers
TOTAL $6,250,671,637 $35,198,400,000
opportunities to concurrently contribute to decarbonization goals across
sectors, improve energy security and alter the energy landscape [36].
The re-enforced interest in hydrogen globally is due to the possibilities
3. Results of the review of producing hydrogen in several ways that are cost-effective and
reduced emission of carbon when compared to “traditional production
3.1. Overview of hydrogen, historical developments and global trends techniques” that heavily depend on the usage of fossil fuels. Renewable
hydrogen can support up-to-date industrial processes, and new path
Hydrogen is among the least complex and most plenteous elements ways to decarbonization in those sectors that are mostly reliant on fossil
on the planet [17,18]. Hydrogen is a significant aspect of water and fuels [1].
covers around 60% of the earth’s surface. It is “a versatile energy carrier As the world’s interest around hydrogen remains strong, hydrogen
and feedstock, obtained predominantly by splitting water or through the has been widely acknowledged as a crucial choice for the realization of
reaction of fossil fuels with steam or controlled quantities of oxygen” the “net zero greenhouse gas emissions commitments” recently
[18]. Hydrogen is endowed with some special characteristics including announced by many governments. Currently, various sectors are
(a) harmless, flexible, transportable and storable, (b) exists in diverse financing extensive hydrogen projects to produce hydrogen through
forms, and (c) can be found in humans, plants, animals, fossil fuels as “water electrolysis or fossil fuels with carbon capture, utilization and
well as other chemical compounds [19,20]. Globally, hydrogen is storage”. They are a set of technologies that significantly contribute to
acknowledged as a sustainable energy pathway, especially if produced the realization of global energy and climate goals. They entail capturing
from major renewable energy sources such as wind, hydropower and carbon dioxide from large infrastructure sources, including power gen
solar [1,21]. eration or industrial facilities that utilize either fossil fuels or biomass for
Hydrogen can be grouped into three broad categories namely “grey fuel [37,38]. Currently, the demand for hydrogen is growing and there is
widespread readiness as specified by the “current economic and political
1209
Fig. 2. PRISMA diagram for conducting the study.
strategies” worldwide on hydrogen which validates “the net-zero With the abundant use of Australia’s clean hydrogen, there is the
greenhouse gas emissions and access to clean energy” [31,39]. The opportunity to decarbonize sectors currently dependent on coal, gas and
continuing reduction of the cost of renewable energy and the growing liquid fossil fuels, to revitalize old industries and commence new ones.
ambition globally in relation to emissions reduction will support the Decarbonization could give Australian manufacturers of energy-
application of renewable hydrogen production to additional sectors that intensive products such as steel a comparative market advantage as
have been using fossil fuels. These applications are mostly in “transport they will have the opportunity to use low-cost hydrogen [46,47].
fuels, industrial process heat, electricity generation, grid stabilization The growth and expansion of Australia’s hydrogen industry is ex
and long-term energy storage” [12,40]. pected to improve energy security, generate new jobs and build an
export industry that is valued in billions. “It is projected that the
3.2. Australia’s renewable hydrogen industry hydrogen industry will generate more than 16, 000 jobs and 13,000
additional jobs from the construction of renewable energy infrastructure
The Australian hydrogen industry has been acknowledged as a by 2050 [22,44]. Australian hydrogen production for export and do
noteworthy opportunity for advancement and a significant enabler of mestic use is anticipated to generate more than $50 billion in GDP by
the transition to renewable energy in recent years [41]. The industry is 2050 and reduce greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to a third of
still developing and has a mission to support decarbonization worldwide Australia’s current fossil fuel emissions by 2050” [22]. To achieve these
through the Australian hydrogen industry that is commercially viable forecasts, technological developments supporting energy affordability,
and incorporating both “domestic and export value chains” by 2030 [42, improve energy systems reliability, and contribute to long-term re
43]. Specifically, Australia can utilize renewable hydrogen to: “(a) act as ductions in emissions is vital. The Australian hydrogen industry is sup
a feedstock in major industrial processes, (b) reduce emissions in ported by a multifaceted value chain, with technologies at various stages
high-temperature industries for achieving net zero realization by 2050, of maturity [17].
and (c) produce chemicals and fertilizer, and (d) provide support for the To be a global leader in renewable hydrogen by 2030, the
electric grids” [44]. Further, Australia’s renewable hydrogen could be Commonwealth government, industry and the communities must
“exported as a liquefied gas or as green ammonia, used in the processing collaborate towards a shared vision. This common vision includes: “(a) a
of Australia’s abundant raw materials, and produce green iron or favourable environment for investment through better and consistent
alumina” [45]. Along these lines, hydrogen will enable Australia to regulations, (b) building relationships with other countries, and (c)
entrench renewable energy in low emission commodities for exports supporting technological development” [45]. States and territories
[23]. Australia’s hydrogen industry is expected to contribute to governments recognize the role of consistent regulations in driving
both national and global decarbonizations to reduce global change in the industry and promoting technology. The Australian
warming in accordance with the Paris Climate Change Agreement renewable hydrogen industry is expected to drive growth through
which predicted that 15% of global energy use by 2050 will emanate assuming risks on new ideas and technology [23]. Several real-world
from hydrogen [13]. According to IEA [31] and DCCEEW [13], if all and speedy actions can be undertaken to enhance the regulatory envi
governments implement ambitious policies to meet their climate ronment and build transnational relationships include “(a) forecasting
pledges, hydrogen could help avoid 14 billion cubic metres of natural demand (b) producing low-cost hydrogen, and (c) reducing hydrogen
gas use per year and 20 million tonnes of coal per year and 360 delivery costs” [46].
kilo-barrels per day of oil use by 2030. Fig. 4 Shows the various uses of In addition, other action plans required to scale up the industry and
Australian hydrogen to decarbonize multiple sectors. activate markets in the light of global signals must be put in place as
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Fig. 3. A chronology of the historical development of hydrogen [24,30,32,33].
shown in Fig. 5. Beyond 2030, the cost of making, storing, moving and same as or even cheaper when compared to fossil fuels [46].
using clean hydrogen is projected to become progressively competitive Further, increasing large-scale industries due to cheaper hydrogen
with other fuels in an energy-hungry world. In the next decade, leading would mean a new generation of investments and new job opportunities
energy analysts predict that in some major hydrogen applications, such in Australia including regional Australians, who have prospered under
as transportation and industries, the cost of clean hydrogen will be the earlier waves of resource expansion. As with other resources industries
1211
hydrogen export projects, along with renewable hydrogen technologies,

green metal manufacturing and future transport solutions [46,47]. In
2022, the Australian Government dedicated over $146 million to
hydrogen projects. These investments in hydrogen projects are expected
to: “(a) accelerate development of Australia’s renewable hydrogen in
dustry, (b) catalyze clean energy industries, (c) support Australia in
connecting to new global hydrogen supply chains, (d) help Australia
better comprehend how renewable hydrogen can become part of Aus
tralia’s energy mix to drive down prices and emissions, and (e) provide a
foundation of expertise to build a competitive export industry” [23,46].
Table 1 shows the Commonwealth government, states and territories
investments in hydrogen projects as of December 2022.
An important priority of the National Hydrogen Strategy in 2020 was
engagement in global cooperation. As a result, several recent pro
nouncements have already been undertaken with governments of other
countries for collaboration on renewable hydrogen [46,48]. The
Commonwealth, states and territories governments are committed to
enduring collaboration with industry stakeholders to overcome any
barriers to development. This collaboration focuses on areas such as:
“(a) financing of renewable hydrogen supply chains, (b) developing
policies to build widespread domestic demand for hydrogen, including
actions that enable utilization of renewable hydrogen for industrial
feedstocks and heating, (c) projecting demand and supplies, (d) realizing
low-cost renewable hydrogen production, and (e) reducing hydrogen
delivery costs” [49]. Subsequent to the current global momentum, the
Australian renewable hydrogen industry has experienced considerable
Fig. 4. Various uses of Australian hydrogen to decarbonize multiple sectors. developments between 2020 and 2023 [46].
To track Australia’s renewable hydrogen industry progress alongside
developments globally, the Australian government recently committed
to publishing annually the “State of Hydrogen report”. Thirteen industry
progress indicators are clearly defined in the report to specify the cur
rent trends and development of the renewable hydrogen industry as
discussed in Section 4. In 2020, the “Department of Industry, Science,
Energy and Resources” engaged “Commonwealth Scientific and Indus
trial Research Organisation” (CSIRO) in the development of a “data
framework” to simplify consistent evaluation of the renewable hydrogen
industry progress. In 2021 an independent evaluation of Australian and
global hydrogen industries with the assistance of CSIRO’s data frame
work was commissioned. An independent evaluation led by Deloitte
which considered all the 13 progress indicators to determine current
industry trends and whether each indicator is “Progressing Speedily”,
“Progressing” or “Progressing Slowly” was conducted. Table 2 provides
an evaluation of the industry progress against global industry develop
ment indicators.
The vision for the renewable hydrogen industry, at the international,
national and state levels is audacious and is currently being interpreted
into quantifiable terms in relation to ongoing hydrogen projects under
the construction phase as discussed in Section 4. Noteworthy projects for
exports at the economic feasibility and profitability stages and Multi-
Fig. 5. Australia’s action plan to scale up the industry. Gigawatts projects for the longer term are being considered. The
global outlook for 2024 is uncertain and the full impact of the “conse
in Australia, the Australian hydrogen industry could also export more quences of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine” and the ongoing crisis in the
than just the commodity. The industry could offer expertise, equipment, Middle East is unknown. The ongoing commotion in the energy markets
technology, education and training. Most importantly, the industry around the world is harshly inhibiting the rebound in industrial activ
could offer innovation, along with Australia’s researchers and organi ities as seen in 2021. Major opportunities in end-use products which
zations that are at the forefront of developing hydrogen solutions accelerate industrial hydrogen demand have been substantially inter
globally [46]. rupted in 2022 [31]. However, demand for products derived from
In 2019, Australia launched a National Hydrogen Strategy with the renewable hydrogen, population growth and economic output is antic
goal of positioning the renewable hydrogen industry as a major supplier ipated to rise considerably in the medium-term due to current trends and
globally by 2030 [46]. NHS sets the vision for a clean, competitive, policy announcements. In this setting, it is projected that demand for
innovative, and viable renewable hydrogen industry that supports renewable hydrogen will surge by 11 Mt by 2030 comparative to 2021
Australia’s transition to a sustainable and inexpensive low-emissions levels. Existing and ongoing renewable hydrogen projects in Australia
energy future. It provides a structure for governments and industry to have the potential to reduce build up in greenhouse gas emissions by
join forces to build Australia’s renewable hydrogen industry. Thus, there 2030. If the Commonwealth, states and territories governments imple
are strong opportunities in the industry for investors in renewable ment the strategies necessary to achieve the goals established in their
climate pledges and commitment, new technologies in hydrogen
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Table 2
Independent industry study of the progress so far on Australia’s renewable hydrogen industry [45,46].
Industry progress indicators 2021 Evaluations 2022 Evaluations
2025 Pace 2030 Pace 2025 Pace 2030 Pace
Investment Progressing Speedily Progressing Progressing Progressing

Project Scale Progressing Speedily Progressing Speedily Progressing Progressing
Cost-competitiveness Progressing Speedily Progressing Speedily Progressing Progressing
Australia’s exports Progressing Progressing Progressing Progressing
Chemical feedstock Progressing Speedily Progressing Speedily Progressing Speedily Progressing
Electricity grid support Progressing Slowly Progressing Slowly Progressing Progressing Slowly
Mining and off-grid Progressing Progressing Slowly Progressing Progressing Slowly
Heavy transport Progressing Slowly Progressing Slowly Progressing Slowly Progressing Slowly
Light transport Progressing Slowly Progressing Slowly Progressing Slowly Progressing Slowly
Gas networks Progressing progressing Progressing Progressing Slowly
Electricity generation Progressing Speedily progressing Progressing Speedily Progressing Quickly
Steel and iron making Progressing Speedily Progressing Slowly Progressing Slowly Progressing Slowly
Industrial heat Progressing Progressing Progressing Slowly Progressing Slowly
production could “account for more than 13 Mt of renewable hydrogen activate the market and (d) putting safety, environmental sustainability
production by 2030” [45,46]. and benefits to all Australians at the forefront [46,52].
In recent years, investment in renewable hydrogen projects, research
4. Trends and current status of Australia’s hydrogen energy and development by the Commonwealth, states and territories govern
ments have intensified [13]. According to IEA [31], Australia is an
Many countries around the world including Australia are seeking to innovator and pacesetter in the global hydrogen economy and its value
reduce carbon emissions and risk posed by climate change [23]. of hydrogen projects increased from AUD$230 billion in 2021 to AUD
Consequently, there has been an increasing resurgence of interest in $300 billion in 2022. The Australian Government interest in hydrogen
hydrogen as an energy carrier with speedy expansion in policies and originally emerged in 2003 when a “National Hydrogen Study for the
projects worldwide [31]. Recognising the current and future commercial Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources” was commissioned
value of renewable hydrogen, Australia is investing in renewable [48]. AHC [23] and DCCEEW [46] reported that Australia is well-placed
hydrogen and has identified its pathway as complementing emission to make renewable hydrogen its next biggest export. The nation is
goals while supporting the renewable hydrogen industry [50]. Austral endowed with the natural resources required to produce renewable
ia’s adaptive pathway to clean hydrogen growth is focused on actions hydrogen, a track record and reputation for constructing large-scale
that remove market barriers, efficiently build demand and supply, and energy industries and an established partner with Asia’s biggest en
accelerate the global cost-competitiveness of Australia’s hydrogen in ergy importers.
dustry. Consequently, a ‘review-revise-adapt’ pathway as shown in The “Council of Australian Governments (COAG) Energy Council”
Fig. 6 will support and refine actions as technology and markets change endorsed a national hydrogen strategy in November 2019 with a “vision
[51]. The adaptive approach is guided by four principles: (a) “taking an for a clean, innovative, safe, and competitive renewable hydrogen in
adaptive and nationally coordinated action to support industry devel dustry” that would accelerate Australia’s transition to a sustainable,
opment, including regular reviews, (b) watching and prioritizing regu affordable, and low-emissions future [43,45]. In this vision, a
latory consistency and a coordinated approach to hydrogen project commercially viable Australian renewable hydrogen industry involving
approvals, (c) realizing the vision and supporting partnerships to both domestic and export value chains is predicted to be achieved by
2030. The national hydrogen strategy “builds on current industry led
hydrogen project investments in several Australian states and regions”,
supported by the Commonwealth, states and territories government
initiatives and “informed by strategies and action plans developed at
multiple government levels” [46].
The national hydrogen strategy offers to lay Australia’s foundation to
grab the opportunity for renewable hydrogen and grow into an estab
lished player in an expanding global market [46]. It sets the stage for
building Australia’s hydrogen industry and fast-tracks the commercial
ization of renewable hydrogen, moderate technical uncertainties and
scale-up production capabilities and internal supply chain through its
Hydrogen Headstart Program. The program intends to primarily focus
the use of hydrogen in “niche hubs” which will raise demand locally
[51]. The NHS adoption has led to the Commonwealth government
precise funding commitments in its 2023/2024 budget for “hydrogen
technology projects and feasibility studies” from national and state/
territories government agencies, including the “Australian Renewable
Energy Agency (ARENA) and Australian Hydrogen Council (AHC)” and
the enabling of improved inflows of funding into the renewable energy
industry through the “Clean Energy Finance Corporation” (CEFC). These
current investments focus on the deployment of industry-led projects in
Australia [46]. Further, the national hydrogen strategy outlines an
adaptive methodology that will equip Australia in expanding speedily as
the hydrogen market matures. It consists of a set of established “na
tionally coordinated actions” that will facilitate Australia’s
Fig. 6. Australia’s adaptive approach to hydrogen energy.
1213
collaboration with other countries [46,52]. In 2021, “Australia’s Smart hydrogen economy is obvious with clear strategic plans and actions to
Energy Council” declared its partnership arrangement with the “German facilitate clean hydrogen production [56,57]. These initiatives are
Energy Agency” to work together on the development and production of emphasized in Australia’s national hydrogen strategy to build a strong
renewable hydrogen in the two countries [52]. Thus, the national hydrogen value chain and take advantage of the abundant renewable
hydrogen strategy will support initial steps to utilize hydrogen in resources. Australia’s hydrogen production with up-to-date technologies
transport and manufacturing industries, gas distribution networks and and supply-chain infrastructure will offer competitive advantage [17].
facilitate the integration of renewable hydrogen into power systems Currently, the states and territories are aligning their policies and stra
[46]. tegies on hydrogen with the national strategy. Accordingly, achieving a
With current investments in renewable hydrogen projects, the globally competitive hydrogen industry requires Australia to address
Australian renewable hydrogen industry is projected to generate thou some of the challenges/difficulties linked with technologies for
sands of jobs, particularly in regional communities. The industry is ex hydrogen production, transportation, distribution and storage [58,59].
pected to add billions of dollars to Australia’s gross domestic product
over the coming decades. When appropriately managed, renewable 5. Approaches/technologies in hydrogen production, storage
hydrogen projects could assist Australia to reliably integrate extensive and distribution in Australia
renewable energy generation into the electricity grid. By utilizing
renewable hydrogen, Australia can reduce its dependency on imported The global interest in clean hydrogen presents a major opportunity
fuels and reduce carbon emissions [32,53]. According to CSIRO [41] and for Australia. Australia has significant competitive advantages for
Clean Energy Council [48], there are around 103 hydrogen related in developing and producing substantial quantities of hydrogen for storage
dustry projects in Australia valued at AUD$163.2 billion. Majority of the and subsequent export. Majority of Australia’s largest trading partners
forthcoming hydrogen projects in Australia are mostly located Western which cover around 90 % of Australia’s hydrogen exports by value have
Australia and Queensland. The “Western Australia Green Hydrogen committed to achieving net zero emissions by 2050. Many of Australia’s
Plant” is the biggest hydrogen production facility in Australia. The trading partners do not share the similar attributes which make
plant’s capacity is estimated at 3.5mtpa, presently at its feasibility stage Australia perfectly suited to hydrogen production and distribution [23,
and is anticipated to commence production by 2030. With the current 46]. These countries reliance on hydrogen is likely to be significant
and upcoming projects, Australia has the prospects of exporting up to given the extent of their decarbonization ambition and commitment.
500,000 tonnes of hydrogen to Japan and South Korea based on pre This creates an opportunity for Australia to establish new
dicted demand. These projects represent a massive opportunity for hydrogen-based trade arrangements with these countries [46,60]. Aus
Australia’s economy and for regional communities across Australia. tralia’s 2018–2025 action plans for hydrogen production, storage and
Fig. 7 shows Australia’s geographical distribution of hydrogen projects. distribution are presented in Fig. 8. This action plan is categorized into
Moreover, the Australian government recently announced funding policy/regulatory, social, commercial, and R&D.
initiatives to support the nation on its plan to build a hydrogen industry
that is globally competitive and achieve transition to net zero by 2050. 5.1. Major approaches to hydrogen production
The transition to a net zero emission will generate novel opportunities in
the evolving green industries and facilitate a decarbonized global The yearly production of hydrogen is projected to be around 55
economy [31]. Consequently, transforming Australia’s economy in the million tons while its consumption is growing by roughly 6% per year
direction of cleaner and cheaper forms of energy will be fundamentally [60]. Clean Energy Council [45] promotes renewable hydrogen as a
imperative in shaping its long-term growth. The large quantities of primary method of producing hydrogen in Australia due to its ability to
renewable energy resources in Australia could see the nation’s renew provide a clean, emissions-free alternative energy to natural gas and
able hydrogen production become more economically sustainable when other fossil fuels. According to Clean Energy Council [48], renewable
compared to other countries [54]. Recently, the Commonwealth gov hydrogen can be produced via an electrolyzer by running electrical
ernment declared that it will make available AUD$38.2 million over the current through water which separates it into hydrogen and oxygen.
next four years to speed up the advancement of Australia’s hydrogen Although, this method is an energy-consuming process and requires
industry, support clean energy industries, and assist Australia in con large amounts of electrical current, it can produce flexible, zero emis
necting to new supply chains worldwide [55]. sions energy source.
Australia’s initiative and contribution towards the global renewable In the power sector, renewable hydrogen can used for “electricity
generation, energy storage, distributed energy resource which forms
part of an off-grid system or as back-up power” [48]. Water electrolysis
has become one of the most essential industrial procedures for produc
ing hydrogen and is likely to be the prevailing approach in the pro
duction of future hydrogen [61]. Directly converting solar energy to
hydrogen as a “storable energy source” can be theoretically accom
plished through photoelectron-chemistry. Using “solar quantum and
thermal photons” is vital for advancing technologically especially in the
temperature thermochemical and photochemical fields requiring high
temperatures [59].
Though the process of splitting water to simultaneously generate
hydrogen and oxygen has been reported by utilizing solar energy, it is
not yet mature and considerable research still needs to be conducted
[61]. Of all the diverse approaches, photocatalysis has received the most
attention as a fundamental approach for photochemical conversion and
for storing solar energy [62]. Hydrogen production particularly for the
petrochemical and transportation industry are produced from natural
gas which is largely made of methane. Most of the hydrogen produced is
done via the “catalyzed steam reformation of methane”. However, the
“uncatalyzed partial oxidation of methane” for appropriate optimization
Fig. 7. Australia’s geographical distribution of hydrogen projects [22]. can also be adopted in the production of hydrogen in a cost-effective
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Fig. 8. Australia’s 2018–2025 action plans for hydrogen production, storage and distribution.
way with overall energy efficiency [59]. representation of Australia’s technologies for hydrogen production,
Some hydrogen production approaches [17,63] have attained the storage and distribution.
maturity stage for commercial exploitation: “(a) steam reforming of
natural gas, (b) catalytic decomposition of natural gas, (c) partial 5.2.1. Technologies for renewable hydrogen production
oxidation of heavy oils, (d) coal gasification, and (e) steam-iron coal Renewable hydrogen production from solar energy - Solar energy
gasification”. Other approaches/processes including “thermochemical, has been acknowledged as a primary renewable energy source engaged
photochemical, photo-electro-chemical and photo-biological processes” in the production of clean and sustainable hydrogen. The “solar ther
are in the exploratory/trial stage or already at the research and devel mal” energy source can be employed in producing hydrogen via “solar
opment stage. The major approaches in the production of production thermolysis, solar thermochemical cycle, solar gasification, solar
and their current stages of development are summarized in Table 3. cracking and electrolysis”. Photo-electrochemical techniques can be
utilized in producing hydrogen directly. The photovoltaic source pro
duces electrical energy which can be adopted in the electrolysis for
5.2. Technologies for renewable hydrogen production, storage and hydrogen production. The thermal energy obtained from the concen
distribution trated solar thermal energy source can also be used in producing
hydrogen via “solar gasification and solar ammonia reforming” [12].
Hydrogen energy has a strong prospect to aid in moderating the This energy source is found to be economically feasible and technically
intermittency involved in generating renewable energy, through the reliable [14].
conversion of excess renewable energy into hydrogen via a number of Renewable hydrogen production from wind energy - The technology
technologies [23]. The technologies that support the hydrogen value for generating electricity by means of wind creates wind energy. In this
chain can broadly be categorized as: “(a) production technological process, wind turbines are used in generating wind energy by rotating
pathways for generating hydrogen, and (b) storage and distribution the turbines. This rotation transforms “kinetic energy into mechanical
technologies that store and distribute hydrogen from the point of gen energy and the generator then converts the mechanical energy into
eration to end use” [22]. While the production of hydrogen can be done electrical energy”. The electrical energy generated from the wind energy
from traditional fossil fuels and renewable sources, for the purpose of source produces alternating currents (AC). In some scenarios, the tur
this study a brief description of renewable hydrogen production from bines convert the AC electricity into direct current (DC). An “AC/DC
“solar energy, wind energy, geothermal energy, ocean energy” and converter” is engaged to feed the DC electrical power into the electro
technologies based on biomass (e.g. pyrolysis, gasification and aqueous lyzer for producing hydrogen [64]. Thus, the technology works through
phase reforming) together with the water based hydrogen production “converting electrical energy from the wind energy source from AC to
from water (e.g. electrolysis, photo-electrolysis, and thermo-chemical DC “and then used in the electrolyzer which divides water into hydrogen
water splitting)” are briefly discussed along with technologies for and oxygen [65]. Renewable hydrogen based on wind energy can be
renewable hydrogen storage. Fig. 9 Presents an illustrative
1215
Table 3 extracted which is directly converted to electrical energy for hydrogen

Summary of hydrogen production approaches and current status in Australia. production. Comparable to steam turbines, water turbines rely on the
Hydrogen production Feedstock Current status References impact of supply and the force between the blades that turn the turbines.
processes Different categories of turbines have been recognized and are used for to
Catalytic Hydrocarbons Already at a very [17,63] achieving enhanced performance in certain situations of water supply
decomposition of mature stage [70].
natural gas Renewable hydrogen from ocean thermal energy conversion - Ocean
Partial oxidation Hydrocarbons Already at a very [18,63] thermal energy conversion (OTEC) engenders electrical energy by using
mature stage
Coal gasification Hydrocarbons Already at a very [17,63]
“the temperature differences in cold ocean deep water and tropical
mature stage surface warm water” [70]. OTEC power plants use huge quantities of
Steam iron coal Hydrocarbons Already at a very [17,18] cold deep and surface seawater to drive the turbines that operates the
gasification mature stage OTEC cycle to generate electricity for hydrogen production [70]. The
Thermo-chemical Hydrocarbons Research and [18,63]
technology works on the principle of using warm seawater to generate
cycles (pure) development (R&D)
stage steam that acts as a working fluid to drive turbines. The cold water on
Thermo-chemical Hydrocarbons Research and [18,63] the other hand is used for condensing the vapour to enable the variations
cycles (hybrid) development (R&D) in vapour pressure drive the turbines [71]. OTEC technologies can be
stage distinguished based on the “working fluids” that can be used. Open cycle
Photo-chemical Water + solar Early stage of research [17,18]
processes and development
OTEC uses seawater as the “working fluid” while closed cycle OTEC
(R&D) often uses ammonia. A type of OTEC known as Kalina Cycle employs a
Photo-electrochemical Water + solar Early stage of research [18] combination of water and ammonia. Using ammonia as a working fluid
processes and development aids in reducing the turbines sizes and exchange of heat necessary. OTEC
(R&D)
technology provides electricity on a continuous basis for hydrogen
Water electrolysis Water + Already at a very [17,63]
electricity mature stage production and has a high efficiency factor of about 90%. OTEC tech
Photo electrolysis Water + solar Early stage of research [18] nology had been tested and is currently used on a commercial scale [70].
and development Biomass gasification - Biomass is next to hydropower as a principal
(R&D) source of energy amongst renewables. Biomass is a clean, renewable
Photo-biological Biomass Early stage of research [17,18]
energy resource which comes from the sun, as well as plants and animals
processes and development
(R&D) and can be grown in a very short period of time [50,72]. Biomass can be
Biomass gasification Biomass Already at a very [18,63] obtained from a variety of sources such as crops; algae/aquatic based
mature stage materials, municipal solid wastes, woody wastes, waste paper, food
Pyrolysis and Biomass Research and [18,63]
wastes, sawdust, forest residues and purpose grown grasses among
Copyrolysis development (R&D)
stage others. These biomass resources are constantly available and can be
Aqueous phase Carbohydrates Research and [17,18] sustainably managed [73]. In the coming years, it is expected that
reforming development (R&D) biomass will become a renewable organic substitute to fossil fuels.
stage Gasification which generally utilizes biomass materials as feedstock is a
Thermochemical water Water + heat Already at a very [18,63]
mature and commercial process [74]. It is different from pyrolysis and
splitting mature stage
therefore based on “partial oxidation of the feedstock material into a
mixture of hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and
employed in either static or movable vehicle fuel cells for generating nitrogen”, a process acknowledged as “producer gas” [50,75]. Although
electricity. The hydrogen produced can be stored to meet electricity an effective and mature process, the gasification process works with or
demand in periods of low wind speed. The technology for generating without a catalyst and often has low thermal efficiency because moisture
hydrogen using wind energy is viewed as clean, efficient and sustainable available in the biomass must be vaporized [17].
[59]. Pyrolysis and Copyrolysis - Pyrolysis and Copyrolysis are favourable
Renewable hydrogen production from geothermal energy - technologies for hydrogen production. In this process, “raw organic
Geothermal energy is the “heat generated inside the earth’s sub-surface” material is heated and gasified at a pressure of between 0.1 and 0.5
and is transferred to the surface of the earth via steam or hot water. Megapascal (MPa) and 500–900 Celsius (∘C) range” [63]. The whole
Geothermal energy has been used in various ways including cooling, process is performed in the absence of air and oxygen which prevents the
heating, or electricity generation. According to Farzanehkhameneh et al. dioxins being formed. Since water and air are absent in the process,
[66] and Soltani et al. [67], hydrogen production using geothermal carbon oxides (e.g. CO or CO2) are not generated which eradicates the
energy can be done in multiple ways such as (a) water electrolysis for necessity for secondary reactors such as “water gas shift (WGS)”. As a
hydrogen production, (b) geothermal heat pump systems, (c) result, pyrolysis and copyrolysis process offers flexibility, simplicity and
geothermal thermochemical hydrogen production, and (d) geothermal significant reduction of emissions [76].
hydrogen production using electrolyzer. These technologies require Water electrolysis - Electrolysis is another technology of producing
geothermal source with high temperature to enable lower cost hydrogen hydrogen which is primarily water electrolysis. It is a procedure that
production. The technology works based on the principle of engaging divides water into hydrogen and oxygen by means of electricity at room
geothermal power plants to “extract heat from deep inside of the earth’s temperature [62]. The chemical reaction takes place in an electrolyser
crust” which can be used for electricity generation. Geothermal heat and has an electrical efficiency of approximately 70–80%. Although
pumps are popularly used in heating water in industries and refineries water electrolysis is at a mature stage, currently, around 4% of hydrogen
and to provide heating to residential buildings [67]. is produced globally using this technology [59]. The electrolysis of water
Renewable hydrogen production from hydro energy - Hydropower is is a popular technology which has been commercially adopted since
the process of transforming the energy from flowing-water into elec 1890. The electrolysis process allows direct current to pass through “two
trical energy. Hydropower has been documented as a major renewable electrodes” in a water solution resulting in the separation of the chem
energy source since the water cycle is renewed uninterruptedly [68]. ical bonds which exists in water molecule into hydrogen and oxygen
Hydropower technology for electricity generation is considered one of [69]. Electrolysis of water results in producing hydrogen using elec
the earliest and most effective ways of generating electricity on a large tricity from renewable resources with no emission of carbon dioxide.
scale [69]. During the energy conversion process, kinetic energy is However, this process requires constant electricity supply which results
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Fig. 9. An illustrative representation of Australia’s technologies in hydrogen production, storage and distribution.
in high cost of energy and equipment [59]. range of feedstock [70].

Photo-electrolysis - It is a technology adopted for the production of Thermo-chemical water splitting - Thermo-chemical cycles were
renewable hydrogen which exhibits efficiency and low costs and is developed as far back as the 1970’s and 1980’s when the search for new
currently in its phase of experimental development. When compared to hydrogen production alternatives was undertaken during the energy
other technologies, photo-electrolysis is inexpensive, and the most emergencies [77]. In thermo-chemical water splitting, also known as
efficient technology of hydrogen production based on renewable re thermolysis, only heat is used to disassociate water into hydrogen and
sources [70]. In photo-electrolysis, hydrogen is produced from water oxygen [78]. The process uses high temperatures usually from concen
using specialized semiconductors called photo-electrochemical mate trated solar power or heat from nuclear power reactions to produce
rials and sunlight. The semiconductors use energy from the sun to hydrogen. Currently, the overall hydrogen production efficiencies of
directly disconnect water molecules into hydrogens and oxygen. approximately 50% can be achieved. Thermo-chemical water splitting is
Photo-electrolysis employs a photo-electrochemical light collection at a mature stage with very low potential or no greenhouse emissions
system for energizing the electrolysis of water. It is a long-term hydrogen [63].
production technology pathway and has the potential for low or no
emission of greenhouse gas [50]. 5.2.2. Technologies for renewable hydrogen storage and distribution in
Aqueous phase reforming - Aqueous phase reforming (APR) tech Australia
nology is currently under the developmental phase to process Hydrogen storage and distribution is regarded as a crucial aspect in
“oxygenated hydrocarbons or carbohydrates from renewable biomass the advancement, growth and sustainability of renewable hydrogen
resources” to produce hydrogen [62]. The APR technology takes place at [79]. Hydrogen can be stockpiled and distributed in “gaseous, liquid and
considerably high pressures and lower temperatures of between 220 and solid states”, and can remain in these states over time when not utilized.
270∘C when compared to conventional alkane steam reforming. The This outstanding characteristic makes hydrogen an excellent choice for
reduced temperatures at which aqueous-phase reforming reactions takes generating critical energy for consumption [80]. Technologies adopted
place reduces detrimental decomposition reactions frequently faced for storing hydrogen can be categorized into “physical or material
when heating carbohydrates at high temperatures [19,70]. The advan based”. For the “physical category”, hydrogen is often stored in a liquid
tages of APR are: (a) requires less energy to produce hydrogen and (b) or gaseous state while in the “material based” category, hydrogen is
hydrogen is produced at high concentration. However, the APR process simply stored in a solid form. The existing and accessible technologies
accommodates only a limited number of biomass derived materials that for hydrogen storage are explained below.
is highly soluble in water which prevents APR application to a wide
1217
5.2.2.1. Physical-based technology. This type of technology is catego specified temperature. The material-based technology for storing
rized into “(a) compressed gas, (b) liquid hydrogen, and (c) cold/cryo- hydrogen is regarded as a safer technology for storing hydrogen in large
compressed gas”. quantities under ambient temperatures and low pressures. This tech
Compressed gas – In this scenario, hydrogen is stockpiled and nology is most suitable for on-board application and for stationary/static
distributed in a gaseous state under high pressure to reduce its volume, usage [82]. The material-based technology is divided into “(a): phys
which is roughly “four times larger than natural gas”. Storing hydrogen isorption and (b) chemisorption”.
in a gaseous state is categorized into three and is based on the type of Physisorption technology - Physisorption, sometimes referred to as
vessel [81]. Each type of vessel works with a well-defined requirement physical adsorption, is a technology that conserves the electronic
and application. Type I vessel has substantial weight because it consists structure of an atom or molecule through the process of adsorption [84].
of metal and steel, while type II is “a metal liner hoop-wrapped com Hydrogen storage in physisorption based technology can be categorized
posite cylinder”. In type I, the storage of hydrogen is usually at a pres based on two characteristics: firstly by assigning “hydrogen molecules or
sure of 17.5–20 MPa while in type II it is stored at 26.3–30 MPa. Both hydrogen atoms” to the solid surface by a process called adsorption, and
type I and type II vessels are suitable for use in industries and refineries, secondly, through “dissociation of hydrogen molecules or hydrogen
however they are not right for vehicle applications. In type III, the atoms” incorporated into the solid surface through dissociative ab
vessels have a “fully wrapped composite cylinder with a metal liner that sorption. As a form of chemical compound, hydrogen is strongly
avails as the hydrogen penetration fence”. Type III issues relating to attached within molecular structures containing the hydrogen atom
hydrogen induced-cracking is resolved since the metal liner is made [82]. The technology uses materials that have distinct properties, such
from aluminium. The composite overwrap works as the load bearing as high “volumetric and gravimetric capacities, easy processing, low
element. Type III vessels can be used and are appropriate for vehicle cost, and rapid hydrogen absorption/desorption kinetics”. In the phys
applications because they are 25%–75% lighter when compared to types isorption technology, the materials utilized often has “high surface area,
I and II [82]. Type IV vessels are the lightest categories and is made of a low temperatures and high pressures” which are needed for acquiring
totally covered composite cylinder with a plastic liner, and this works as extraordinary capacity for hydrogen. This is buttressed by the fact that
penetration fence. They are distinguished by their high robustness the capturing “energy for the physisorption of hydrogen” is evaluated to
against recurrent charging, easy to manufacture and lengthier lifespan be just a few kJ/mo/H2. The materials surface area controls the amount
when matched with other types of vessel. Similar to type III, type IV of hydrogen absorbed by physisorption. Generally, a surge in tempera
vessels are equally suitable for vehicle applications and can endure high ture or a decline of hydrogen pressure is important in releasing physi
pressures up to 1000 bar. The main weaknesses of these vessel types are osorbed hydrogen. This method requires a high-pressure cylinder as well
the high cost and low volumetric density, which ranges “between 24 g/L as a cooling system [87].
and 40 g/L for compressed hydrogen at 350 and 700 bar”, respectively, Chemisorption technology - The materials used are “metallic and
at room temperature [83]. In addition, there are safety issues owing to chemical hydrides, ammonia and liquid organic hydrogen carriers”. A
the fact that “hydrogen is a light gas”, and this enables hydrogen to key benefit of this technology lies in its volumetric density, which is the
leakage out of the vessels when under intense pressure. maximum when likened to other technologies used for storing hydrogen
Liquid hydrogen - Storing hydrogen in its liquid form provides a [60]. A limitation if this technology is that it needs elevated operating
“more secure storage and compact method” for hydrogen storage. This temperatures and can be costly. Metal hydride is a process of storing
storage method addresses the drawbacks associated with storing hydrogen in its solid form through merging “a binary hydrogen atom
hydrogen when compressed. This technology requires hydrogen to be with metal”, where hydrogen reacts with other transition metals such as
liquefied at − 253 ◦ C which is thereafter constrained into vessels that are chromium, copper, nickel, platinum, manganese, cobalt, iron and gold.
pressurized to 250–350 atm [82]. This technique increases the volu Another favourable choice for storing hydrogen is by using ammonia.
metric density which reaches 70 g/L at the boiling point of hydrogen Ammonia is composed of around 17.65% of hydrogen and “the volu
(− 253 ◦ C) and atmospheric pressure [84]. Liquid hydrogen is often metric density of hydrogen from ammonia is 4.5 times larger than the
preserved in open systems because when in liquid state hydrogen should liquid hydrogen density” [82]. In this technology, elevated energy
not surpass the precarious temperature and needs to be kept in outflow is required in the discharge process of hydrogen making it an
super-insulated cryogenic pressure tanks to decrease the heat loss and expensive process. Ammonia is a poisonous gas and needs to be carefully
boost the vessel storage performance. The storage tanks can either be and securely stored. In many cases, traces of ammonia could be found in
spherical or cylindrical, but larger tanks are typically spherical to the hydrogen after decomposition [60]. Table 4 shows a comparison of
decrease the surface area. The main challenges associated with this the various storage and distribution technologies for hydrogen.
storage method are in the “energy-efficient liquefaction process and the
thermal insulation of the cryogenic storage vessel” used to minimize the 5.3. Opportunities and challenges of hydrogen production & storage
boil-off of hydrogen [85].
Cryo-compressed hydrogen - This technology was introduced to deal Presently, hydrogen is extensively used in some industries, although
with issues relating to “large volumes and high pressures” required in its potential to support clean energy transition has not yet been realized
the compressed hydrogen technology and the inevitable boiloff losses [52]. According to IEA [8], now is the best time to upgrade technologies
associated with the cryogenic hydrogen technology [83]. Using this and reduce the costs of hydrogen to make it widely available. Ambitious
technology requires the vessel to be insulated and can tolerate “high and targeted action is required to accelerate hydrogen demand, build on
pressures and cryogenic temperatures”. This technology permits volu existing industries, infrastructure, and policies. To achieve this, short
metric hydrogen storage capacity to attain 70 g/L and 87 g/L at 1 bar and long term action is needed to tap into opportunities that hydrogen
and 240 bar, respectively, by constricting liquefied hydrogen at 20 K provides and to overcome challenges. An analysis of the opportunities
[86]. Since the insulated vessel can endure high pressures, an upsurge in and challenges of hydrogen production and storage are discussed below.
pressure inside the tank is permitted, and the latency period is length
ened, allowing improvement in storage density and decreasing boil-off 5.3.1. Opportunities
losses [83]. Hydrogen offers various ways to decarbonize different sectors
particularly the transportation, oil and gas, chemical, iron and steel
5.2.2.2. Materials-based (chemical) technology. Hydrogen storage in sectors which has proven problematic to reduce emissions. Further, it
solid materials must be reliable and cost effective and be contingent on could assist in improving the quality of air in the environment, reinforce
the precise surface area of the material and the adsorption capacity at a energy security and promote flexibility in energy systems [8,88].
Hydrogen can be produced from renewable sources. Renewable
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Table 4 be more extensively used worldwide and meaningfully contribute to

A comparison of the various storage and distribution technologies for hydrogen. renewable energy transitions, it must be adopted in those sectors where
Storage Benefits Limitations References it is virtually absent at the moment. These sectors include the trans
technologies portation, buildings and electricity generation [33].
Compressed - Commercialized and - Requires high [36,84] Hydrogen production and storage technologies currently available
hydrogen an efficient method pressure today can be used in the generation, storage, distribution and energy-use
for transportation and - Have safety issues in diverse ways [64]. Various fuel types have the capability to produce
distribution of - Storage time is limited hydrogen, including renewable sources, oil, natural gas and coal.
hydrogen energy - Has low volumetric
storage capacity
Hydrogen from these sources can be transported in gaseous forms via
- Requires special pipelines or in liquid form via special trucks and ships similar liquefied
transportation natural gas (LNG). It can be converted into electricity and methane to
configuration power homes, industries, refineries, and used as fuels for vehicles,
Liquid - Commercialized and - Have safety issues [36,87]
trucks, ships and airplanes [8]. Thus, hydrogen provides high utilization
hydrogen an efficient method - Existence of boil-off
for transportation and effect efficiency when converted into various forms of energy and it is the
distribution of - Requires special safest fuel in relation to toxicity and fire hazards [80].
hydrogen energy transportation In the past, there have been inefficient start-ups for hydrogen, but in
- Storage capacity is configuration recent years there are new research and developments indicating better
increased by - Possibility of
approximately 16–17 hydrogen leakage
options. The current accomplishments with solar, wind, batteries and
times than - Requires high electric vehicles demonstrates that innovations based on strategic pol
compressed hydrogen liquefaction energy icies and technology around hydrogen production and storage have the
(cryogenic ability to build a global clean energy future [35]. With the instability in
temperature of
the energy sector worldwide, hydrogen is becoming more versatile and
− 253 ◦ C)
Cryo- - Storage capacity is - Requires high energy [84,87] is attracting stronger interest from various governments and organiza
compressed increased by for compression and tions. Funding and support is available from “governments, import and
hydrogen approximately 16–17 liquefaction export energy regulators, renewable electricity suppliers, industrial gas
times than - Accessibility of producers, electricity and gas utilities companies, automakers, oil and
compressed hydrogen infrastructure is low
gas companies, major engineering firms, and cities” [8]. Investments in
- Storage time is - Charges and cost of
unlimited infrastructure is high renewable hydrogen are anticipated to foster new technological and
- Increased storage - Necessitates low industrial development in many economies, build global clean energy
density, lightweight, temperature or high around the world and create skilled jobs. To overcome the current
cycle stability, pressure for storage
environmental issues including “global warming, climate change,
superior reversibility, and higher pressures
forms material with to discharge hydrogen greenhouse gas emissions and carbon emission taxes”, a global transi
physisorption, for materials with tion from traditional fossil fuel to renewable energy sources is necessary
increased charging physisorption for a secure sound and environmentally safe energy future [35].
and discharging rate
Ammonia - Storage capacity for - Existence of toxicity [36,87]
5.3.2. Challenges
hydrogen is high and safety issues
- Auto ignition - Requires high energy Presently, majority of the hydrogen produced comes from natural gas
temperature is high at input and coal and is already deployed on a large scale worldwide. However,
650 ◦ C hydrogen production from these traditional sources is responsible for
Solid carrier - Storage time is - Has poor sorption [36,85,
majority of the environmental issues and carbon dioxide emissions.
unlimited kinetics, there is 87]
- There is reversibility, irreversible reaction
Hydrogen production from low-carbon energy at the moment is costly.
elevated volumetric for materials with On the other hand, the costs of producing hydrogen from renewable
density with chemosorption sources are falling rapidly. Harnessing this existing production scale to a
materials using - New infrastructure is renewable energy future necessitates capturing of carbon dioxide from
chemisorption needed
hydrogen produced using fossil fuels and then increasing the supply of
- Very immature
technology and not hydrogen from renewable sources [30]. According to IEA [31], the cost
yet commercialized of producing hydrogen from renewable electricity is likely to fall to
Liquid - No safety issues - Hydrogenation and [36,87] around 30% by 2030 owing to the decreasing costs of renewables and
organic - Requires high dehydrogenation
the surge in of hydrogen production.
hydrogen volumetric and require elevated
carrier gravimetric storage temperatures
Currently, majority of the hydrogen produced are mostly used in oil
capacity - Experience is limited refining and for manufacturing ammonia. It is therefore important to
- Storage time is investigate how renewable hydrogen can be used to contribute into
unlimited various sectors where it is virtually or totally lacking, such as power
generation, transportation and buildings and residential [31].
hydrogen has the potential to resolve the intermittent and erratic output The charges on hydrogen for consumers are strongly reliant on the
from renewable sources, particularly with solar and wind [89]. number of refilling stations that are accessible, frequencies of usage, and
Hydrogen is a major choice for storing energy generated from renewable the amounts of hydrogen produced and distributed daily. Addressing
sources and is expected to become an option with the lowest cost for these concerns needs suitable forecasting, planning and harmonization
storing huge amounts of electricity over long periods of time. “Hydrogen that focus on national, regional, industry and investors [30].
and hydrogen-based fuels” can be used to transport energy from Governments, regulators and industry experts must collaborate to
renewable sources for long distances and from countries that have make sure that prevailing policies and regulations are not an obstacle to
abundant renewable energy sources such as Australia to countries with investment in renewable hydrogen. Renewable hydrogen exports will
less renewable sources a few kilometres away [33,89]. profit from the implementation of shared international standards and
Currently, hydrogen is generally used for industrial operations, oil values for security in the transportation and distribution of large vol
refineries and for the manufacture of fertilizers. In order for hydrogen to umes of hydrogen and for tracing the impact of diverse hydrogen sup
plies on the environmental [31,90].
1219
In next few years, the demand for hydrogen is anticipated to surge at levels more commercially sustainable in Australia when compared to
more than five folds owing to adoption of hydrogen or hydrogen-derived other countries. Additionally, Australia’s recently announced hydrogen
products in transportation, industrial, steel and power sectors [34]. The projects represent approximately 40% of the entire global renewable
goal of the hydrogen economy is transporting and storing hydrogen in hydrogen project announcements, and emphasis on Australia’s pros
both gaseous and liquid forms. Some practical hydrogen economy pects to lead the world in renewable hydrogen production [46].
challenges include “(a) reducing the hydrogen production and storage As Australia speedily scales-up its capabilities for renewable
costs, (b) achieving an ecologically sound and “carbon-free” renewable hydrogen production and exports to progress the nation’s climate goals
hydrogen production system, (c) development of an efficient infra and achievement of net zero emissions by 2050, it is necessary to reflect
structure for hydrogen delivery and distribution, (d) efficient hydrogen on how these technologies impacted on the environment. Australia’s
storage systems for industrial and vehicular applications, and (e) radical ARENA, the Clean Energy Council of Australia and CSIRO” together
price drop and considerable progress in the stability of fuel-cells” [30]. plays a leading role the development of new technologies and proced
ures that help moderate the environmental impacts of hydrogen. From
6. The future of renewable hydrogen in Australia an optimistic perspective, main benefits/paybacks linked to the utili
zation of renewable hydrogen-based technologies are primarily focused
Australia’s considerable renewable energy resources provide an op on reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and potential for climate
portunity to take advantage of the increasing demand for renewable change mitigation [98,99]. Renewable hydrogen could help reduce
hydrogen as a substitute to coal and natural gas [91]. Australia has a fossil fuel use, enhance air quality, improve economic growth and gross
strong position in the global renewable hydrogen future which is domestic product, lower energy prices especially electricity and gas and
recognized both nationally and internationally [23]. IEA [31] identified deliver job opportunities for Australians.
Australia as a potential powerhouse for hydrogen production. As Aus From an adverse perspective, hydrogen energy from fossil fuel has
tralia’s economy transitions to a renewable energy future to support substantial undesirable impact such as water pollution, air pollution,
net-zero emissions realization by 2050, the demand for and use of public health risk, wildlife and habitat loss, global warming emissions,
hydrogen will radically increase in the industrial and transportation climate change, flooding, wildfires, water use and land use when
sectors, power generation and as a substitute and replacement for nat compared to energy from renewable sources such as renewable
ural gas and coal. With the existing relationships with “resource-con hydrogen [100]. The nature and extent of environmental impacts from
strained trading partners”, including Japan and South Korea, Australia fossil fuel and renewable sources varies according to the precise tech
will substantially benefit in its efforts to capitalize on its emerging nology adopted, the topographical location, landscape and other factors.
renewable hydrogen export market. ARENA [92] predicts that Austral A strong understanding the current and potential concerns associated
ia’s export market could be worth approximately AUD$10 billion yearly with the environmental when using renewable energy sources can help
by 2040, with Australia producing about 3 million tonnes of renewable in taking the needed steps to successfully reduce these impacts [27].
hydrogen annually. According to Deloitte [93], if Australia secures the Assessment of the environmental impact of hydrogen production from
same market share globally as it currently has with LNG, the renewable traditional based fossil fuel resources has been studied by several re
hydrogen sector is forecasted to surge Australia’s GDP by up to AUD$26 searchers in the areas of global warming and climate change [101],
billion and generate about 16,900 jobs by 2050. human toxicity [102], land use [103], acidification and ozone layer
Australia’s renewable hydrogen is anticipated to be exported in the depletion [104], metal depletion [105], formation of photochemical
form of ammonia in its initial stages because it is cheaper and easier to oxidant [106], and freshwater ecotoxicity [107]. However, renewable
store and transport [94]. Presently, ammonia can be used in many ways sources have impacts on the environment some of which can be sub
including “manufacturing fertilizers, pharmaceuticals and explosives”, stantial. For example, power generation from the wind is acknowledged
with a strong potential to be used as a “future shipping fuel”. According to be among the cleanest, viable and sustainable ways of generating
to the Clean Energy Council [48], the production of renewable ammonia electricity and creates no CO2, toxic gases or other global warming
from renewable hydrogen is anticipated to demonstrate between 30 and emissions [98,108]. Regardless of its numerous benefits, a number of
55% of the entire energy utilized by the shipping industry worldwide by environmental impacts are connected with wind power generation
2050. Within Australia’s states and territories, hydrogen is regularly including land use issues and harm to wildlife and natural habitat. As
used as a fuel source in the transportation sector (for hydrogen fuel cell with wind energy, sunlight is a remarkable resource for generating
vehicles), as a substitute to natural gas for domestic cooking and heat renewable and sustainable power. Some of the impacts on the envi
ing, for use in the industrial and building sectors and for electricity ronmental linked with solar power emanate from water use, land use
generation [95]. Given the renewable hydrogen funding initiatives issues, natural habitation loss and the risks associated with using haz
recently announced by the Commonwealth government, “it is an ardous materials during power generation. Thus, the nature of the
appropriate time to reflect on Australia journey to building a globally impact is determined by the scale of the system and the technologies
competitive renewable hydrogen industry for achieving net-zero emis adopted such as “photovoltaic solar cells or concentrating solar thermal
sion” [96]. The transformation to a net-zero emission is expected to plants” [98,109].
generate novel opportunities in the evolving renewable industry and Most geothermal plants are usually “located near geologic hot spots
will support a decarbonized global economy. Australia’s future pros where hot molten rock is close to the earth’s crust” which produces hot
perity and success in renewable hydrogen will depends on how fast and water. Geothermal plants can be differentiated in terms of the type of
how well the economy adjusts to these changes and modifications. technology that is used to transform the resource into electricity. Envi
Deferral will likely escalate the transformation cost and reduce the ronmental impacts relating to geothermal energy depend on the con
attractiveness and competitiveness of major key sectors especially due to version and technology adopted. There are diverse biomass sources for
the extent of direct investment in renewable energy technology in other generating electricity [110]. The type of feedstock and the way it is
jurisdictions [97]. Thus, the transition of Australia’s economy to cleaner developed and harvested can substantially create land use issues as well
and inexpensive forms of renewable hydrogen will be fundamentally as global warming emissions impacts during power generation from
significant to its competitiveness in the long-term global competitive biomass. The environmental impact from hydrokinetic energy such as
ness. Australia is equipped and well-positioned to be a strategic player in wave and tidal power using various technologies are still in the early
renewable hydrogen production, storage and distribution technologies stages of research [111]. While environmental impacts resulting from
across the supply chain owing to its endowment in renewable resources renewable sources used in large scale energy generation are not yet a
and low-cost clean energy [92]. The abundance of renewable energy concern, an array of possible impacts can be projected. Notwithstanding
resources is anticipated to surge the generation of renewable hydrogen these reported environmental impacts, renewable energy technologies
1220
are tremendously favourable when compared to fossil fuels, and it is two databases for conducting the systematic review. A few more data
projected to continue to be a core aspect of the journey towards global bases such as IEEE and Wiley should be included for the future study.
renewable energy transition and a fundamental solution to climate Second, the study was conducted using qualitative data from existing
change [112,113]. studies. Future research should use a quantitative data to study further
Based on the outcomes of this review, the following actionable rec developments in Australia’s hydrogen energy technologies, opportu
ommendations are made to government and industry to support the nities, challenges and environmental impacts.
growing momentum and help Australia take full advantage of its
abundant renewable energy sources. Data availability
Renewable hydrogen technologies for production, storage and dis
tribution are available but high costs continue to remain a challenge It is a literature review paper.
[114]. Strategies and policies that support workable and sustainable
markets for renewable hydrogen, and “reduce emissions from fossil CRediT authorship contribution statement
fuel-based hydrogen”, are desirable to reinforce investments by sup
pliers, organizations, distributors and users. By increasing supply chains, Lynda Andeobu: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Conceptu
investments in renewable hydrogen can drive reductions in cost; enable alization. Santoso Wibowo: Writing – review & editing, Validation,
improved production, utilization and storage. Supervision. Srimannarayana Grandhi: Writing – review & editing,
Engaging in R&D is crucial in lowering costs and enhancing perfor Validation, Supervision.
mance of “hydrogen-based fuels” and the electrolyzers used to generate
hydrogen from water [115]. The activities of government and industry Declaration of competing interest
as well as the utilization of operational funds are crucial in supporting
research programs, manage risks and attract private investment and The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
innovation. interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
Strong global collaboration and co-operation is needed to track the work reported in this paper.
progress across the board particularly with regards to standards, ex
change of ideas and sharing of good practices and cross-border infra Acknowledgement
structure will enhance renewable hydrogen production and widespread
distribution and usage. Hydrogen production and storage should be This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
monitored and communicated regularly to keep-track of progress to agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sector.
achieve short and long-term goals.
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International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 87 (2024) 1207–1223

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Hydrogen Energy

Renewable hydrogen for the energy transition in Australia - Current trends,

hydrogen”, “blue hydrogen” and “green hydrogen” [22]. While grey

Fig. 2. PRISMA diagram for conducting the study.

Fig. 3. A chronology of the historical development of hydrogen [24,30,32,33].

hydrogen export projects, along with renewable hydrogen technologies,

2025 Pace 2030 Pace 2025 Pace 2030 Pace

Investment Progressing Speedily Progressing Progressing Progressing

Table 3 extracted which is directly converted to electrical energy for hydrogen

in high cost of energy and equipment [59]. range of feedstock [70].

Table 4 be more extensively used worldwide and meaningfully contribute to

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