EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON DEVELOPING OF

PAVER BLOCKS USING INDUSTRIAL WASTE

A thesis
Submitted to department of civil engineering
In the partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the award of degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
CIVIL ENGINEERING
by
M. LAXMINARSU (18567T0019)
Under the guidance of

Mr. V. AMARENDER
Assistant professor(C)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

KU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY,

KAKATIYA UNIVERSITY CAMPUS, VIDYARANYAPURI
HANAMKONDA, 506009, INDIA
MAY 2024.

i
 KU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
KAKATIYA UNIVERSITY CAMPUS, VIDYARANYAPURI
HANAMKONDA-506009.
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Certificate

This is to certify that this entitled “AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON

DEVELOPING OF PAVER BLOCKS USING INDUSTRIAL WASTE” that
is being submitted by M. LAXMINARSU (18567T0019) in the partial fulfillment
for the award of Bachelor of technology in Civil Engineering to the
KAKATIYA UNIVERSITY is a record of the work carried out during the
academic year 2023-2024 under our guidance and supervision.

Supervisor project coordinator

(Mr.V.Amarender) (Mr.V.Amarender)

Head of the Department Principal

(Dr.Ch.Radhika) (Prof.M.Sadanandham)

Internal Examiner External Examiner

ii
 DECALARATION

I declare that this written submission represents our ideas in our own works
and where others ideas or words have been included, I have adequately cited and
referenced the original sources. I declare that the work presented in this project report
is original and carried out in the Department of Civil Engineering, KU College of
Engineering &Technology, Warangal, Telangana and have not been submitted
elsewhere for any graduate in part or in full.

M. LAXMINARSU (18567T0019)

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The successful completion of any project would be incomplete without the

mention of the people who made it possible through their constant guidance and
encouragement.

I wish to take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude and deep

sense of respective Prof. M.SADANANDHAM, principal, KAKATIYA
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,
Warangal, for providing me all the required assistance , support and inspiration
to carry out this project in the institute.

I extend ardent thanks to Head of the Department of Civil Engineering Dr.

Ch. Radhika, for her excellent cooperation and encouragement in doing this
project by giving the required moral support.

I express my heartful to my guide Mr.V.AMARENDER Faculty, for his

excellent support and encouragement. He has been a pillar of strength and tower
of motivation for my project.

I wish to thank our project coordinator Mr.V.AMARENDER,for his help

in completing the requirements for the project from beginning to the end .I also
thankful to all our faculty members of Civil Engineering Dept, , Mr. Rajan babu,
Mr. Satya shiva prasad, Mrs. M. Vennala, who were always ready with their
suggestions and help.

I also thankful to our lab assistants and all other non-teaching staff for
cooperating with their timely help.

Finally, I would like to thank my friends for their cooperation and support in
completion of this project.
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 ABSTARCT

The particular requirement to be specific pedestrian walkway design and parking areas
are the fundamental feature of paver block identification. The use of conventional
materials such as cement, aggregate, and sand is no longer such a priority. Under those
circumstances, the production of research-based pavers block has been done to ensure the
sustainability and usability of new building materials is expanded. Henceforth, this
research is conducted to study and investigate the potential of using waste materials as a
substitute for cement in producing Geopolymer Paver Blocks(GPB) .

The living planet earth has encountered global warming due to various issues. One of the
main reasons is construction industries since the foremost component of concrete is
cement, which has its own environmental problems. The cement industry is one of the
prime producers of carbon-di-oxide. It is estimated that about 7% of greenhouse i.e.
Carbon-di-oxide gas is being emitted into atmosphere on account of production of OPC
alone at global level. On other hand disposal of solid waste is a major problem. Coal
power plants produce solid waste called fly ash whose disposal is difficult. Therefore
urgent changes are required relating to emissions, production and application of
sustainable and eco-friendly materials. This led to concept of geopolymer concrete by
which cement can be entirely avoided in the concrete. This paper aims to develop geo-
polymer paver blocks using industrial waste materials such as Fly ash and GGBS. The
paver blocks developed are tested for their compressive strength and split tensile strength
as per Indian Standards 15658:2006.

KEYWORDS: Geopolymer Fly ash, GGBS, Sodium Hydroxide, Sodium Sillicate,

Compresive Strength, Split Tensile Strength, Sustainable Development,

v
v
 CONTENTS

Name of content Page No

CHAPTER 1
Introduction
1.1 Objective of the project……………………………………..2
1.2 Scope of the project…………………………………………3
CHAPTER 2
Literature review……………………………………………………4
CHAPTER 3
Paver blocks
3.1 Shape and size………………………………………………7
CHAPTER 4
Materials used and their properties
4.1 Chemical reactions of geopolymer.………………………....10
4.2 Applications of Geopolymer………………………………...11
4.3 Properties of Geopolymer…………………………………...13
4.4 Constituents of Geopolymer………………………………...13
4.5 Fly ash…………………………………………………….....14
4.5.1 chemical composition of fly ash…………………………….14
4.5.2 Physical properties of fly ash………………………………..15
4.5.3 Classification of fly ash……………..……...………………..16
4.6 GGBS………………………………………………………..16
4.7 Tests on fly ash and GGBS………………………………….18
4.8 Coarse aggregate…………………………………………….19
4.8.1 Tests on coarse aggregate……………………………………20
4.9 Fine aggregate………………………………………………..22
4.9.1 Tests on fine aggregate………………………………………22
4.10 Sodium Hydroxide…………………………………………...24
4.11 Sodium Silicate………………………………………………28
4.12 Super Plasticiser……………………………………………...30
CHAPTER 5
Experimentation and methodology
5.1 Mixture Proportions………………………………………....31
5.2 Mix calculation………………………………………………31
5.3 Mould dimensions..………………………………………….33
5.4 Design……...………………………………………………...33
5.5 Procedure…………………………………………………….36
5.5.1 Preparation of liquids…………………………………....…...36
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 5.5.2 Manufacture of fresh concrete and casting…….……………...37
CHAPTER 6
Tests conducted
6.1 Slump cone test………….…………………………………..39
6.2 Compressive strength….…………………………………….41
6.3 Split Tensile strength………………………………………...43
CHAPTER 7
Results and conclusion
7.1 Compressive strength results………………………………..44
7.2 Split Tensile strength results….……………………………..47
7.3 Conclusion…………………………………………………...50

LIST OF TABLES
Table No PageNo.

1. Chemical compositon of fly ash of different coals…………………..14

2. Typical Chemical composition……………………………………….17
3. Typical Physical composition………………………………………...17
4. Properties of fly ash………………………………………………….18
5. Properties of GGBS………………………………………………….19
6. Composition and physical properties of coarse aggregate..…………20
7. Result impact,crushing,specific gravity test…………………………20
8. Properties of fine aggregate………………………………………….21
9. Classification of zone of sand………………………………………..23
10. Tests results of fine aggregate………………………………………..24
11. Compressive strength for 14 days……………………………………44
12. Compressive strength for 28 days……………………………………44
13. Compressive strength for 14 days and 28 days………………………45
14. Split tensile strength for 14 days……………………………………..47
15. Split tensile strength for 28 days……………………………………..47
16. Split tensile strength for 14 days and 28 days………………………..48

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. PageNo
1.Shapes and Sizes of Paver Blocks………………………………………07
2.Conceptual process of polymerization………………………………….10
3. Chemical reaction of geo polymer…………..………………………….11

vii
4. Geopolymer concrete Applications………..…………………………..11
5. water tank made of geopolymer concrete……………………………..12
6. Geopolymer concrete Building………………………………………...12
7. Fly ash. (obtained from pulverized coal burning) ……………………....14
8. GGBS (by product of iron manufacturing) ……………...…………...…17
9. Coarse aggregate………………………………………………………29
10. Fine aggregate………………………………………………………..21
11. Pycnometer……………………………………………………………24
12. NaOH Chemical Formula…………………………………………….25
13. Sodium Hydroxide Pellets……………………………………………26
14. Sodium Silicate……………………………………………………….28
15. Sodium Silicate Chemical Formula…………………………………..29
16. mixing of materials…………………………………………………...37

17. casting the concrete in the moulds…………………………………….38

18. slump cone test………………………………………………………..39

19. types of slump………………………………………………………..40

20. After demoulding of moulds…………………………………………41

21. compression testing machine testing the specimen…………………..42

22. failure of the specimen………………………………………………..42

23. splitting test failure specimem………………………………………..43

24. compressive strength…………………………………………………45

25. Compressive strength ( 14 days)……………………………………...46

26. compressive strength (28 days)…………………………………….....46

27. split tensile strength for 14 days and 28 day…………………………..48

28. split tensile strength for 14 days………………………………………49

29. split tensile strength for 28 days……………………………………....49

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Interlocking Concrete Paving Blocks (ICPB) has been extensively used in a

number of countries for quite some time as a specialized problem-solving
technique for providing pavement in areas where conventional types of
construction are less durable due to many operational and environmental
constraints. Interlocking concrete paving block technology has been introduced in
India in construction, a decade ago, for specific requirement viz. footpaths,
parking areas, gardens ,etc.

Paver block has been used in construction for about thousands of years. Paver
block is nothing but an unreinforced solid block appropriate for outdoor
applications. The first concrete pavers were shaped just like a brick, 4” × 8” (10
cm × 20 cm) and they were called Holland Stones. These units turned out to be
cheap to produce and were exceptionally strong. In addition to being economical,
interlocking concrete pavers are also broadly obtainable in water-permeable
designs, which have additional ecological benefits. These paver blocks allowed
water to drain through their interlocks and prevent soil erosion or increase water
level in the neighboring land area. Production of ordinary Portland cement had
resulted in emission of greenhouse gas i.e. Carbon-di-oxide. As of 2010 the world
production of OPC was 3300 million tons annually. This accounts for

5% of man-made emission of carbon-di-oxide at global level. On other hand

clearance of solid waste is a major problem. Coal power plants produce solid
waste called fly ash whose disposal is difficult. As the intricacy of environmental
issues and solid waste management increases day by day it has become essential
to develop sustainable and eco-friendly materials. This led us to develop
geopolymer paver blocks of Hexagonal shaped paver blocks were produced and
tested for their properties. Geopolymers involves the activation of fly ash and
GGBS by alkaline solution which does not require water for curing.

Construction industry is one of the fastest-growing industries throughout the

world. Concrete is one of the widely used construction materials. The primary
binder used in concrete is Ordinary Portland Cement(OPC).The world wide
production of cement is high as 2.6 billion tons per year and generates nearly 7%

1
of Carbon dioxide which largely contributes to environmental pollution and
global warming.

Cement production also demands huge quantity of limestone which is seen

depleting. On the other hand, there is huge quantity of fly ash produced which is a
by-product produced during combustion of coal and large part of it is disposed in
the landfills which affect the ground water as well as surface sources of water.

1.1 Objective of the project

To use geo-polymer cement like GGBS and Fly-ash in different molarities
and alkaline solutions instead of using Portland cement and water respectively
and to evaluate the fresh and hardened properties of the concrete produced by fly-
ash or GGBS mixed for the preparation of paver blocks, with chemical activators
like sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate (Geo-polymer concrete). For these
mixes we define properties 14 days & 28 days by conducting different tests.

1.2 Scope of the project:

Geopolymer concrete is an innovative & eco-friendly construction material
& is an alternative to Portland cement concrete. Use of geopolymer reduces the
demand of Portland cement which is responsible for high carbon dioxide
emission. Geopolymer concrete is made from utilization of waste materials such
as fly ash, & GGBS (ground granulated blast furnace slag).

The production of specially designed paver products with a mixture of waste is

believed to further brighten the potential of product generation. Specifically, the
development of recycling technology can be considered as a sustainable method
for the development of paver products with practical production technology .For
the past few years, construction field industry is responding to the challenge of
incorporating sustainability in the production processes ,this was done through the
utilization of solid waste materials as aggregates in concrete or via searching for
more environmentally friendly raw materials using a cementitious material or
pozzolanic material activated with alkali activators, these are said to be
GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE . One of the possible solutions for GGBS is using
it in geopolymer concrete. This study designated the effect of different molarities
(8M,6M,4M,2M) in preparation of geopolymer concrete in place of conventional
2
concrete. Finally this results high compressive strength to the pavements.

The objective of this study was to analyze the compressive strength of

various molarities of gepolymer concrete with regular conventional concrete .It is
concluded that geo polymer concrete is a promising construction material due to
is

low carbon dioxide emissions. High early strength, low creep & shrinkage makes
it better in usage then OPC. Enhanced research along with acceptance required to
make it great advantage to the construction industry. Possesses excellent
properties in both acidic , alkaline environments.

As an alternative to aggregates, a variety of waste materials can be utilized

in the production of concrete. Block paver is a form of concrete brick that is used
for exterior flooring and road work instead of being utilized in walls. Although
some paving blocks have reversible surfaces, most concrete paver blocks have
one smooth and one rough face where both sides can be used. Paving blocks'
long-lasting performance makes them ideal for heavy-duty applications since they
can sustain large weights and resist shearing and braking pressures. Block of
pavers, also known as interlocking paver blocks, have been widely used for a long
time in a range of international as a specialized problem solving strategy for
offering pavement in locations at which classical paving systems might be less
sturdy due to a variety of technical and environmental limitations. A concrete
paver block was originally used to substitute paver bricks [6], which had grown
popular at the time due to its wide application.

3
 CHAPTER-2
Literature Review
The literature review deals with related project done by other researchers, the difficulties
they encountered, limitations and modifications that should be made, some of them are :

1)M. Mohd et al focused on the topic “ A review on fly-ash based geopolymer

concrete without Portland cement”. The study included various parameters such as
curing process, compressive strength, workability, resistance against aggressive
environment and behavior of geopolymer at elevated temperature. The study concluded
that fly ash based geopolymer concrete is better than normal concrete in many aspects
such as workability, exposure to aggressive environment, exposure to elevated
temperature and compressive strength.

2)Davidovits. J(1988b) Geopolymer chemistry and properties. This is presented at the

Geopolymer 88,First European Conference on soft Mineralurgy , Compine France. He is
the father of geo polymer.

3)Taha et al. (2003) For study and analysis they used different percentage of rubber
aggregates having the size from 5mm to 20mm respectively When 100% of aggregates
were replaced by the rubber aggregate, there is considerable decrease in compressive
strength was observed that is about 75%. While compressive testing specimen show
extreme lower values of compressive strength and fails easily.

4)Zeineddine Boudaoud, Miloud Beddar (2012) As early discussed, this paper also
concludes that when we use waste in concrete Although there is loss in compressive
strength but also consider this we can use it into the other concrete works such as
unimportant works such as for pavements, in non load taking members and many other
applications of it. It was noticed that formed concrete is cheap, ecological and light
weight than the conventional concrete.

5)Akinwonmi, Seckley et al. (2013) In this research paper they use both crumb rubber
as well as shredde separately for replacement of the natural aggregates After testing the
specimen which contained various percentages of the crumb rubber and others which
included the different percentage of shredded rubber, it was noticed that up to the
replacement level of 2.5% by shredded tyre, the compressive strength is increased in
small amount but when the replacement used greater than 2.5%, there is a huge decrease
in the compressive strength of

4
the concrete. On the other side replacement by crumb rubber totally showed bad results
and thus was not suggested.

6) Amjad A. Yasin et al. (2012) They partially replaced the natural aggregates with the
shredded aggregates. They said that the compressive strength gets significantly reduced as
compared to the compressive strength of the concrete with natural aggregate so, compressive
strength, tensile strength & flexural strength. He concluded that higher the rubber content in
the concrete mix, the huge decrease in compressive, tensile & flexural strengths hence it is not
recommended to use this replaced concrete in structural components where higher strength is
required but it can be used in other construction components like road barriers, pavements
sidewalks, other non-structural members, partition walls etc.

7)Topcu (1995) Investigated the consequences of pressure tests led on normal and rubber
treated concrete and watched that the compressive strength of standard cement gotten from
3D shape tests is higher than that acquired from barrel tests. In any case, the outcomes for
rubber treated cements out of the blue demonstrated the turn around15. This shows the
mechanical strength of rubber treated mixture is extraordinarily influenced by the size,
extent, and surface of rubber particles and the sort of concrete utilized as a part of such
mixture.

8)Fedroff et al (1996) Observed that the air content increased in Rubberized concrete
mixtures with increasing amounts of rubber aggregate. Although no air entraining agent
(AEA) was used in the Rubberized concrete mixtures, higher air contents were measured as
compared to control mixtures made with an AEA (Fedroff et al 1996). The higher air content
of Rubberized concrete mixtures may be due to the nonpolar nature of rubber aggregates and
their ability to entrap air in their jagged surface texture. This increase in air voids content
would certainly produce a reduction In concrete strength, as does the presence of air
voids in plain concrete (Benazzouk et al 2007).Since rubber has a specific gravity of 1.14, it
can be expected to sink rather than float in the fresh concrete mix. However, if air gets trapped
in the jagged surface of the rubber aggregates, it could cause them to float (Nagdi
1993). This segregation of rubber aggregate particles has been observed in practice. Goulias
et al (1998) conducted an experimental study incorporating crumb rubber, as fine
aggregate with Portland cement. Test results showed modifications in the brittle failure of
concrete, which indicates that rubber concrete specimens exhibited higher ductility
performance.

9) Goulias et al (1998) conducted an experimental study incorporating crumb rubber, as

fine aggregate with Portland cement. Test results showed modifications in the brittle failure of
5
concrete, which indicates that rubber concrete specimens exhibited higher ductility
performance than normal concrete. Results showed large deformation without full
disintegration of concrete.

10)Neil eldin (1993) broke down the aftereffects of compressive and part rigid qualities
on rubber treated cement following 7 and 28 days curing and watched that there was
slightest change in the compressive and rubber qualities between the seventh and
twenty eighth day, when the coarse totals were supplanted by rubber chips by an
expansive volume i.e. for the examples containing 75% and 100% tire chips. Decrease of
up to 85% of compressive and half of rubberity was watched when the coarse total was
supplanted by rubber. A littler decrease was watched when sand was supplanted by piece
rubber. The examples showed high limit with regards to retaining plastic vitality under
both pressure and strain loadings.

11) Anil Kumble(1993) Investigated the consequences of pressure tests led on normal and
rubber treated concrete and watched that the compressive strength of standard cement
gotten from 3D shape tests is higher than that acquired from barrel tests. In any case, the
outcomes for rubber treated cements out of the blue demonstrated the turn around15. This
shows the mechanical strength of rubber treated mixture is extraordinarily influenced by
the size, extent, and surface of rubber particles and the sort of concrete utilized as a part of
such mixture.

12) Kommula Singakam (2016) They partially replaced the natural aggregates with the
shredded aggregates. They said that the compressive strength gets significantly reduced as
compared to the compressive strength of the concrete with natural aggregate so, compressive
strength, tensile strength & flexural strength. He concluded that higher the rubber content in
the concrete mix, the huge decrease in compressive, tensile & flexural strengths hence it is not
recommended to use this replaced concrete in structural components where higher strength is
required but it can be used in other construction components like road barriers, pavements
sidewalks, other non-structural members, partition walls etc.

6
 CHAPTER-3

PAVER BLOCKS
3.1 SHAPE AND SIZE
Paver blocks are rectangular and have a size that is similar to that of bricks. The paver
block and block form have progressively changed over the last five decades, from non
interlocking to partially interlocking to completely interlocking to multiple interlocking
designs. Concrete paving is made up of small, solid, unreinforced pre-cast concrete paver
blocks that are laid on a thin, compacted bedding material that is 10 International Journal
of built over a properly designed base course and secured with edge restraints/curbstones.

Figure:1 shapes and sizes of paver blocks

Paver blocks, sometimes referred to as brick paving, are a popular decorative option for
laying pavement. They are used mostly in parking areas, street roads, pavements
Walkways, Shopping centers, Pedestrian Plazas, Landscapes, Monuments Premises,
Premises, Public Gardens/Parks, Commercial Centres, Bus Stations Parking Areas, and
Railway Platforms are all examples of this sort of block.

7
We have seen that there are different types of paver blocks shapes and in which we are
considering the shape of hexagonal for the comparision of the results between the

conventional concrete and the geopolymer concrete of different molarities

(8M,6M,4M,2M)

In this project we have used the hexagonal mould of internal side dimension of 3
inch(76mm) and the height of the mould is 4inch(100mm) with a plate thickness of 3mm

the benefits of hexagonal shape paver blocks:

1. Interlocking Efficiency:

Hexagonal shape paver blocks offer excellent interlocking efficiency due to their
multiple contact points between adjacent blocks. This interlocking design enhances
stability and load distribution, resulting in a more robust paved surface that resists
shifting and displacement.

2. Enhanced Load Distribution:

The unique geometry of hexagonal paver blocks allows for more efficient distribution of
loads compared to other shapes. The six sides evenly distribute pressure, reducing the
risk of localized stress concentrations and potential damage to the paved surface.

3. Versatility in Design:

Hexagonal shape paver blocks provide versatility in design, allowing for creative and
attractive patterns to be created. Whether used alone or in combination with other shapes,
hexagonal blocks offer flexibility in design options, enhancing the aesthetic appeal of
paved areas.

4. Increased Stability on Uneven Surfaces:

The interlocking nature of hexagonal paver blocks makes them well-suited for
installation on uneven surfaces or slopes. Their ability to conform to the terrain provides
stability and reduces the need for extensive site preparation, making them ideal for
landscaping projects or areas with irregular topography.

5. Ease of Installation: Hexagonal paver blocks are relatively easy to install due to their
uniform shape and interlocking design. Contractors can quickly lay them out in various
patterns, resulting in efficient installation and reduced labor costs.

8
6. Reduced Cutting Waste:

Hexagonal paver blocks can be arranged with minimal cutting waste compared to some
other shapes, optimizing material usage during installation. This not only reduces
material waste but also contributes to cost savings and environmental sustainability.

7. Enhanced Visual Appeal:

The hexagonal shape adds visual interest to paved surfaces, creating dynamic patterns
that enhance the overall aesthetic appeal of landscapes, driveways, walkways, and patios.
The geometric symmetry of hexagonal blocks can complement various architectural
styles and enhance curb appeal.

8. Durability and Longevity:

Hexagonal paver blocks are durable and long-lasting, capable of withstanding heavy
traffic, freeze-thaw cycles, and other environmental factors Made from high-quality
materials, such as concrete or natural stone, hexagonal blocks retain their structural
integrity and aesthetic beauty over time, requiring minimal maintenance.

9
 CHAPTER-4

GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE

4.1 Chemical reaction of concrete

The term geo-polymer was introduced by Davidovits to represent the mineral
polymers resulting from geochemistry. The polymerization process involves a
chemical reaction under highly alkaline conditions on Al-Siminerals , yielding
polymeric Si-O-AlO bonds, as described by Mn [– (Si – O2) zAl– O] n. wH2O(2)

Where M is the alkaline element, the symbol – indicates the presence of a Bond, z
is 1,2, or3, and n is the degree of polymerization. The polymerization is shown
below fig 2

Figure:2.Conceptual process of polymerization

Exact mechanism by which geo-polymer setting and hardening occur is not
yet clear and is under research. The reaction of fly-ash with an aqueous solution

10
contains NaOH and Na2SiO3 in their mass ratio ,results in a material with 3D
polymeric chain and ring structure consisting of Si-O-Al-Obonds.The polysialate-
siloxo Geopolymerization involves the chemical reaction of alumino-silicate
oxides (SiO2,AL3O2) with alkal

polysilicates yielding polymeric Si–O–Al bonds, the chemical reaction is observed

in the given fig3.Themost common alkalinepolysialates used in the geo-
polymerization is the combination ofSodium hydroxide/Potassium hydroxide and
Sodium silicate/ Potassium silicate.

Figure:3.Chemical reaction of Geo polymer

4.2 Applications of Geo-polymer Concrete

The application is same as cement concrete. However, this material has used for
various applications.

Figure:4.Geopolymer concrete applications(precast beams)

This concrete has been used for construction of pavements, retaining walls, water
tanks, precast, bridge decks, road barriers, pavements sidewalks, other non-
structural members, partition walls etc. and also used in non load taking members

11
and many other applications of it.

It was noticed that formed concrete is cheap, ecological and light weight than the
conventional concrete. The geo polymer concrete applications are shown in fig4,
fig 5 and fig 6.

Figure:5.watertanks made of Geopolymer concrete

Recently world’s first Structural Building. The University of Queensland’s Global

Change Institute(GCI) has been constructed with the use of geo-polymer concrete.

Itisa four storey high building for public use

12
 Figure:6.First building with geopolymer concrete

4.3 Properties of geopolymer

 Hardened cementitious paste made of flyash and GGBS.

 Sets at room temperature, dry curing is done.

 The setting is depends on the polymerization.

 Long working life before stiffening.

 Combines waste products in touseful product.

 High compressive strength, bond strength.

 Higher resistance to heat and resist all inorganic solvents. The study concluded
that fly ash based geopolymer concrete is better than normal concrete in many
aspects such as workability, exposure to aggressive environment, exposure to
elevated temperature and compressive strength.

4.4 Constituents of Geopolymer

Geo-polymeric source materials (GSMs) are rich in silica and alumina, which could
be natural minerals (such as kaolinite, clays, etc.) or industrial by-products ( such as
fly ash, silica fume, rice husk ash etc..)

 Fly ash

 GGBS

 Alkaline solutions

 Coarse aggregate, Fine aggregate

 Superplasticizers

Alkaline Solutions

Alkaline Activator Solution (AAS) based on alkali metals (commonly Sodium

or Potassium) based. The most common AAS is a combination of alkali hydroxide
(NaOH, KOH) and alkalisilicate(Sodium silicate) minerals containing reactive
oxides of silicon and aluminium can be activated by suitably formulated highly
alkaline liquid to obtain inorganic polymeric binding material.

13
 This network provides the strength and durability characteristic of geopolymer
concrete. The concentration and type of alkali used in the activator solution can
significantly influence the properties of the resulting concrete, including its strength,
workability, and setting time.

14
Materials used and their properties

4.5 Fly-ash
It is a by-product derived from combustion of coal in thermal power plants with rich
silica and alumina content when used in concrete will help reduce the adverse effect on
environment as a replacement of cement. The figure 7 shows the fly ash which is
extracted from industrial waste

Figure:7.Flyash(Obtained frompulverized coal burning)

4.5.1 Chemical composition of flyash

The chemical composition of fly ash depends upon the type of coal used and the
methods used for combustion of coal.

TableNo:1.Chemical composition of flyash of different coals.

Component BituminousCoal Subbituminous LigniteCoal

Coal
SiO2(%) 20-60 40-60 15-45
Al2O3(%) 5-35 20-30 20-25
Fe2O3(%) 10-40 4-10 4-15
CaO (%) 1-12 5-30 15-40
LOI(%) 0-15 0-3 0-5

Other elements such as titanium dioxide (TiO2), sodium oxide (Na2O), potassium
oxide (K2O), and trace elements may also be present in fly ash, but in smaller
quantities.It's important to note that the chemical composition of fly ash can vary
widely depending on factors such as the type of coal, combustion conditions.

15
4.5.2 Physical Properties of Fly Ash
1. Fineness of Fly Ash
As per ASTM, the fineness of the fly ash is to be checked in both dry n wet
sieving. The fly ash sample is sieved in 45 micron sieve and the percentage of
retained on the 45 micron sieve is calculated. Further fineness is also measured by
Lechatelier method and Blaine Specific Surface method.

2. Specific Gravity of Fly Ash

The specific gravity of fly ash ranges from a low value of 1.90 for a sub
bituminous ash to a high value of 2.96 for an iron-rich bituminous ash.

3. Size and Shape of FlyAsh

As fly ash is a very fine material, the particle size ranges in between 10 to 100
microns. The shape of the fly ash is usually spherical glassy shaped.
4. Colour
The colour of the fly ash depends up on the chemical and mineral constituents.
Lime content in the fly ash give standard light colours where as brownish colour
is imparted by the presence of iron content. A dark grey to black colour is
typically attributed to an elevated un-burned content.

5.Density

The density of fly ash varies depending on its composition, with typical values
ranging from 1.9 to 2.6 g/cm³.

6.Porosity

Fly ash typically contains a significant amount of porosity, which can affect its
ability to absorb water and influence its behavior in concrete mixtures.

7.Surface Area

Fly ash has a relatively high surface area due to its fine particle size, which
enhances its reactivity when used as a supplementary cementitious
material in concrete.

8.Texture

Fly ash has a powdery texture and is typically dry when collected from power
plants, although it may contain some moisture content depending on storage and
handling conditions.

16
4.5.3 Classification of Fly Ash
The classification of fly ash is done differently as per codes used. They are
1. Type of Fly Ash as per IS Codes (IS3812-1981)
Grade I: This grade of Fly ash is derived from bituminous coal having fractions
SiO2+Al2O3 +Fe2O3greater than 70 %.

Grade II: This grade of Fly ash derived from lignite coal having
fractions SiO2+Al2O3 +Fe2O3greater than 50 %.

2. Type of Fly Ash as per American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTMC618)
Fly ash is classified into two classes
 Class F
 Class C
The difference between two classes is amount of calcium ,silica, alumina and iron
content present in ash.

Burning bituminous coal produces class F fly ash. The class F fly ash has less
than 7% of lime possessing pozzalanic properties, when it reacts with chemical
activator sodium silicate it can form geo-polymer.

Class C Fly ash produced from the burning of younger lignite or subbituminous
coal, in addition to having pozzolanic properties, also has some self-cementing
properties

4.6 GGBS (Ground Granulated Blast furnace Slag) :

GGBS (Ground Granulated Blast-furnace Slag) is a cementitious material whose

main use is in concrete and is a by product from the blast-furnaces used to make
iron. Blast furnaces operate at temperatures of about 1,500°C and are fed with a
carefully controlled mixture of ironore, coke and limestone. The ironore is
reduced to iron and the remaining materials form a slag that floats on top of the
iron. A byproduct from the blast furnaces used to make iron.

This slag is periodically tapped off as a molten liquid and if it is to be used for the
manufacture of GGBS (in fig 8) it has to be rapidly quenched in large volumes of
water. The quenching analysis the cementitious properties and produces granules
similar to coarse sand.

17
 Figure:8.GGBS (Byproduct of iron manufacturing)

This ‘granulated’ slag is then dried and ground to a fine powder. Although
normally designated as ‘GGBS’ in the UK, it can also be referred to as ‘GGBFS’
or ‘slag cement’.

Table:2 Typical chemical composition

Name Percentage

Calcium oxide 40%

Silica 35%

Alumina 13%

Magnesia 8%

Table:3 Typical physical composition

Name Property

Colour Off-white

Specific gravity 2.9

Bulk density 1000-1100kg/m3(loose)

1200-1300kg/m3(vibrated)

Fineness >350m2/kg

18
4.7 Tests on Fly ash and GGBS
Fineness Test
Fineness of material is property of material that indicates particle size of material
and specific surface area and indirectly effect heat of hydration.

Apparatus:90 Micron IS sieve (The sieve has mesh opening of 0.087mm)

Procedure:
 The sample is selected so that it should be free from air set lumps and any other
foreign material.

 Weight 100g sample accurately in a plate.

 Clean the test sieve with brush and place it on the collecting pan.

 Sample is transferred into the sieve and displaced over the sieve.

 Holding the arrangement with both the hands, start sieving with gentle wrist
motion for 15minutes until most of the fine material passed through the sieve and
the residue left on the sieve looks clean

 Holding with one hand, the sieve is tapped with other hand and using wire brush
the underside of the sieve is cleaned.

 The residue left on the sieve is weighed.

Specific gravity Test: Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of mass of material to the
mass of the same volume of water at the stated temperature stated temperature was
conducted as per IS 2386-1963.

Specific gravity = {(W2-W1)/(W2-W1)-(W3-W4)}*0.79

Apparatus : Specific gravity bottle, Kerosene free from
water Procedure:

 Weight the empty dry specific gravity bottle(W1)

 Fill half of the bottle and weigh it (W2).

 Fill the bottle with kerosene and sample then weight(W3).
 Fill the bottle with kerosene to the top and weight (W4)
TableNo:4 Properties of flyash
S.no Description Result

1. Fine ness 4%

2. Specific Gravity 2.46

19
 TableNo:5 Properties of GGBS

S.no Description Result

1. Fineness 7.3%

2 Specific gravity 2.46

4.8 Coarse aggregate

coarse Aggregates which are irregular in shape, broken stones, or naturally occurring
round gravels that are used to make concrete aggregates for structural concrete contain
broken stones of hard rock like granite & limestone or river gravels are called coarse
aggregates.

Figure:9. Coarse aggregate

Particulates of Coarse Aggregate is shown in fig 9 and it have a size greater than
4.75mm.The usual size of coarse aggregates ranges between 9.5mm and 37.5mm
india. We use upto a nominal size of 10mm to 12.5mm, Number of tests is
recommended in the specifications to judge the properties of the aggregates, e.g.,
strength, hardness, toughness, durability, angularity, shape factors, clay content,
adhesion to binder etc.

Angularity ensues adequate hear strength due to aggregate interlocking,

and limiting flakiness ensures that aggregates will not break during compaction
and handling. The following properties are to be fulfilled by the aggregates proper
interlocking of aggregates.

20
 TableNo:6 Composition and properties of coarse aggregate

Physical property Composition

Fineness modulus 3.19

Specific gravity 2.77
Moisture content 2.04%
Silt content 0.89
4.8.1 TESTS ON COARSEAGGREGATE
Specific gravity
W1=0.635
W2=1.353
W3=2.045
W4=1.586
Specific gravity of coarse aggregate=[(W2-W1)/(W2-W1)-(W3-W4)]*1=2.77
Aggregate Impact test
The toughness of the aggregates against sudden impact loads acting on
is considered the impact value of the aggregates. Less is the impact value higher
is the strength of the aggregates.

Impact value=Weightofsievepassingthrough2.36IS sieve/weight of sample taken

=18.92%
Aggregate Crushing test
The aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to
crushing under gradually applied loads. To achieve high quality of a concrete.
Aggregates possessing high resistance to crushing are used

Crushing value=Weight of sieve passing through 2.36 IS sieve/weight of sample

taken.
TableNo:7 Results of impact, crushing, specific gravity test

S. No Test Results

1. Specific gravity 2.77

2. Impact test 18.92%

21
3. Crushing test 26.06%

22
4.9 FINEAGGREGATES

Fine aggregate is naturally occurring granular material composed of finely

divided rock and mineral particles. It is defined by size being finer than gravel and
coarser than silt, Fine aggregate canals ore fertoatextural class of soil or soil type.

Figure:10. Fine aggregate

The composition of fine aggregate varies depending on the local rock source and
conditions but the most common constituent of fine aggregate in inland contential
settings and non – tropical coastal settings is Silica. Usually in the form of quartz.

The second most common type of fine aggregate is calcium carbonate. Aragonite
has mostly been created over the past half billion years by various forms of like
coral and shellfish. It is the primary form of sand apparent in areas where the eco
– system for millions of years like the Caribbean. The fine aggregate is divided
into four zones. They are Zone – I, Zone – II, Zone – III, Zone – IV. This can be
decided by the sieve analysis test.

TableNo:8 Properties of fine aggregate

Properties Fine aggregate

Fineness modulus 5.5-8

Specific gravity 2.7

Moisture content 1.37%

Silt content 0.25%

23
 4.9.1 TESTS ON FINE AGGREGATE
Some important tests are conducted on fine aggregate to find its zone and the
possibility of the sample to be used is checked.

 Sieve Analysis & Fineness modulus

 Specific gravity
 Bulking of sand
Sieve analysis
On the basis of particle size, fine aggregate is graded into four zones.
Where the grading falls outside the limits of any particular grading zone of sieves,
other than600 micron IS sieve, by a total amount not exceeding 5 percent.

Sieve analysis of fine aggregate is a crucial process in determining the

particle size distribution and grading of the material, essential for ensuring the
quality and performance of concrete. The process involves passing a sample of
the fine aggregate through a series of sieves with progressively smaller openings,
typically ranging from coarse to fine. Each sieve retains particles within a certain
size range, and the material retained on each sieve is weighed. The results are
then plotted on a grading curve to visualize the distribution of particle sizes. This
analysis helps in assessing the suitability of the aggregate for specific
applications, such as determining the optimal mix proportions in concrete mixes.
Additionally, it aids in identifying any deficiencies in the aggregate, such as an
excess of fine particles or a lack of uniformity, which can impact the workability,
strength, and durability of the concrete. Overall, sieve analysis plays a critical role
in quality control and assurance in construction projects.

Fineness modulus
Fineness modulus of the fine aggregate are obtained using the sieve analysis the
fineness modulus is obtained calculating as algebraic sum percentage weights of
the aggregate Passing /100.Type of sand is fine (which varies the value from 2.2-
2.6)

Fineness modulus = (1.45+7.85+15.9+54.6+59.85+96.65)/100=2.36

Bulking of sand
Fine aggregate, when dry or saturated, has almost the same volume but

24
dampness causes increase in volume. In case fine aggregate is damp at the time of
proportioning the ingredients for mortar or concrete, its quantity shall be
increased suitably to allow for bulking.

Bulking of sand is the phenomenon where the volume of damp sand increases
significantly compared to its dry state due to the presence of moisture film around
the particles, leading to decreased bulk density and increased void content. This
effect occurs because water molecules coat the surface of sand grains, causing
them to repel each other and occupy a larger volume. During the mixing of damp
sand with cement and water in concrete, this increased volume can lead to
inaccuracies in proportioning, potentially resulting in a weaker and more porous
concrete mix. To mitigate bulking effects, adjustments are made to the mix design
by accounting for the increase in volume and adjusting the water-cement ratio
accordingly. Additionally, proper storage and handling practices are implemented
to minimize moisture absorption by the sand, ensuring consistency and reliability
in concrete production.

25
TableNo:9 Classification of zone of sand

Sieve Size % of Cumulative % of % Zone of

weight weight Cumulative Passing of sand
retained retained weight 1 2 3 4

4.75 29 29 1.45 98.55

2.36 128 157 7.85 92.15 - -

1.18 161 138 15.9 84.1 -

600mi 774 1092 54.6 45.4 -

40.15
300mi 105 1197 59.85 - - -

150mi 736 1933 96.65 3.35 -

90mi 61 1994 99.7 0.3

75mi 6 2000 100 0

26
Specific gravity
Apparatus:
 A Pycnometer of about 1 litre capacity having a metal conical screw
top with holeatits apex. The screw top shall be water tight.

 A means supplying a current warm air.

 An air tight container large enough to take the sample.

 Filter paper sand funnel.

Fig:11.
Pycnometer
Procedure:
 Weigh the dry empty pycno-meter (W1).

 Fill the pycno-meter with fine aggregate by discharging from a weight of not
extending 5 cm above the top (W2).

 Pour water slowly into the pycno-meter completely and weight it (W3).

 Empty the pycno-meter and clean it, fill with water and weight it (W4).

Calculation
W1=0.549
W2=1.356
W3=1.889
W4=1.378

Specific gravity of fine aggregate =[(W2-W1)/(W2-W1)-(W3-W4)]*1= 2.72

TableNo:10 Test results of fine aggregate

S.No Test Result

1 Specific gravity 2.726

2 Fineness modulus 2.36

3 Zone of sand Zone2(fine sand)

4.10 SODIUM HYDROXIDE

Sodium hydroxide, also known as lye and caustic soda, is an inorganic
compound with the formula NaOH. It is a white solid ionic compound consisting
of sodium cations Na+ and hydroxide anions OH−. The chemical structure sodium
27
 Figure:12. Chemical structure of NaOH

Sodium hydroxide is a highly caustic base and alkali that decomposes proteins at
ordinary ambient temperatures and may cause severe chemical burns. It is highly
soluble in water and readily absorbs moisture and carbondioxide from the air. It
forms a series of hydrates NaoH·nH2O. The monohydrate NaOH·H2O crystallizes
from water solutions between 12.3 and 61.8 °C. The commercially available "sodium
hydroxide" is often this monohydrate, and published data may refer to it instead of the
anhydrous compound. As one of the simplest hydroxides, sodium hydroxide is
frequently used alongside neutral water and acidic hydrochloric acid to demonstrate
the pH scale to chemistry students.

Sodium hydroxide is used in many industries: in the manufacture of pulp and paper,
textiles drinking water, soaps and detergents as a drain cleaner Worldwide production
in 2004 was approximately 60 million tons, while demand was 51 million tons.

Physical Properties of Sodium Hydroxide:

 Sodium Hydroxide in its pure form is a white crystalline solid.

 It is odour less.

 It is soluble in water, glycerol and ethanol. When solid sodium hydroxide is

mixed with water it results in a highly exothermic reaction.

 Has a higher viscosity than water about78 MPa.

 It can form several hydrates. Some of the known hydrates are Heptahydrate,
Pentahydrate, Tetrahydrate, Tetrahydrate, Tri hemi hydrate, Tri hydrate, Dihydrate
and Monohydrate.

 NaOH and its mono hydrate can form orthorhombic crystals with the space
groups such as Cm(OS8)

 It can rapidly absorb carbon dioxide and water from the air.

 It can also exist in the form of a liquid.

Other properties such as:

28
1)State: Sodium hydroxide is typically found in the form of solid flakes, pellets, or
granules. It can also be dissolved in water to form a highly alkaline solution.Melting
2)Point: The melting point of sodium hydroxide is approximately 318°C (604°F). At this
temperature, it undergoes a phase change from a solid to a liquid.

3)Boiling Point: Sodium hydroxide does not have a distinct boiling point because it
undergoes decomposition before reaching a boiling point. Upon heating, it decomposes
into sodium oxide (Na2O) and water (H2O).

3)Density: The density of solid sodium hydroxide is around 2.13 g/cm³. However, the
density of its aqueous solution varies depending on the concentration.

4)Solubility: Sodium hydroxide is highly soluble in water, with a solubility of

approximately 111 g/100 mL at room temperature. The solubility increases
with temperature.

5) Corrosiveness: Sodium hydroxide is highly corrosive to organic materials, metals, and

human tissue. It can cause severe burns upon contact with skin or eyes and can corrode
metals such as aluminum and zinc.

Chemical Properties of Sodium Hydroxide

1. It has an ionic bond between the Na(+1) ion and OH(-1) ion.

2. It can react with protic acids to form water and salts.

3. It has high acidity of 13.

4. Sodium hydroxide is a popular base that issued for leaching amphoteric

hydroxides or oxides.

5. There is a covalent bond, between Oxygen and Hydrogen in the hydroxide.

Figure:13.Sodium Hydroxide pellets

29
Reactions of Sodium Hydroxide
With Acids
NaOH(aq)+HCl(aq)→NaCl(aq)+ H2O(l)
When sodium hydroxide is reacted with an acid (protic acid) it forms pure water and
salts
With Metals and Oxides
Sodium hydroxide can react with metals at high temperatures to form metal
oxides. At temperatures above 500°C, iron can react endothermically with
sodium hydroxide to form iron (III) oxide, sodium metal, and hydrogen gas.
4 Fe+6 NaOH→ 2 Fe2O3+6 Na+3 H2
However, some transition metals tend to react vigorously with NaOH. For example
Aluminium, can be used to precipitate transition metal hydroxides.

With Acidic Oxides

Sodium hydroxide canals react with acidic oxides. In such reactions, harmful acidic
gases are purified. For example, the reaction with sulfur dioxide is given below.

Sodium Hydroxide Uses

NaOH is a chemical compound that is used in many instances. Some of its common
uses are listed below.

 Production of soaps.

 Pulp for paper.

 Is an important laboratory chemical.

 Used in the production of various other chemicals.

 Textile industry.

 Water treatment (converting hard to soft water).

 Making of glass.

 Sodium hydroxide is used to precipitate transition metal hydroxides.

 Sodium hydroxide is also used for the base-driven hydrolysis of esters(as in

saponification), amides and alkyl halides.

30
4.11 SODIUM SILICATE (WATER GLASS)

Sodium metasilicate or sodium silicate, as it is primarily called, a flaked,

inorganic, powdered and solid substance or sodium salt. It consists of silicate in
the form of a counter ion. The other name for this solution is Waterglass. This
solid powdered substance is water soluble, and when dissolved in water it
produces alkaline solutions. .The sodium silicate is shown in fig.14 .

The solution consists of the polymeric anion tends to be completely stable in

neutral and alkaline solutions. However, the case is entirely different when it is
about using sodium silicate in varied acidic solutions. In that case, the hydrogen
ions react with the silicate ions, thus giving rise to silicic acids.

Figure:14. Sodium silicate solution

These acids further get broken into hydrated silicon. When heated further,
the solution g℃ets rid of water and results in the production of silica which is a
hard and translucent substance. This substance is used on an extensive scale in the
form of a desiccant. It has the potential of withstanding temperatures up to
1100℃.

31
 Sodium Silicate properties
Sodium silicate is a crystalline and colourless glassy solid. The chemical
structure of Na2SiO3 is shown in fig 15. It can even be defined as a white powder.
Sodium silicates that are high in their content of silicon can easily dissolve in
water. Some of the most specific chemical and physical properties of sodium
silicate include:

 Count of hydrogen bond acceptors: 3

 Molar mass or molecular weight:122.062g/mol

 Count of the covalent bonds: 3

 Complexity:18.8

Figure:15.Chemical structure of sodiumsilicate

The Sodiumsilicate chemical formula is Na 2SiO3. It is generic name and formula
given to the majority of the chemical solutions.

Other properties include:

1)Alkalinity: Sodium silicate is highly alkaline, which is essential for activating the
aluminosilicate materials in geopolymer concrete. Its alkalinity initiates the
geopolymerization process by reacting with the precursor materials, such as fly ash or
slag, to form the geopolymer gel.

2)Solubility: Sodium silicate is soluble in water, allowing it to be easily mixed with

other ingredients to form the activator solution for geopolymer concrete. This
solubility facilitates the dispersion and reaction of sodium silicate with the
aluminosilicate materials.

3)Reactivity: Sodium silicate exhibits high reactivity with aluminosilicate materials,

promoting the formation of strong geopolymer bonds. Its reactivity contributes to the
development of the geopolymer gel, which provides the binding strength in the
concrete matrix.

32
4) Reactivity: Sodium silicate exhibits high reactivity with aluminosilicate materials,
promoting the formation of strong geopolymer bonds. Its reactivity contributes to the
development of the geopolymer gel, which provides the binding strength in the
concrete matrix.

5)Viscosity: The viscosity of sodium silicate solutions can be adjusted by controlling

the concentration and ratio of sodium silicate to water. This viscosity control can
influence the workability and flow properties of the geopolymer concrete mix,
affecting its placement and consolidation during construction.

6)Durability Enhancement: Geopolymer concrete activated with sodium silicate often

demonstrates enhanced durability properties, including resistance to chemical attack,
sulfate attack, and chloride penetration. The formation of a dense and stable
geopolymer gel contributes to the improved durability of the concrete.

7) Compatibility with Aluminosilicates: Sodium silicate is compatible with a wide

range of aluminosilicate materials commonly used in geopolymer concrete, such as
fly ash, slag, and metakaolin. This compatibility allows for the utilization of various
industrial byproducts as raw materials in concrete production, contributing to
sustainability efforts.

4.12 SUPER PLASTICIZER (SP-430)

Conplast SP430 is a chloride free, superplastic slag admixture based on selected the
sulphonated naphthalene polymers. It is supplied as a brown solution which instantly
disperses in water. Conplast SP430 disperses the fine particles in the concrete mix,
enabling the water content of the concrete to perform more effectively. The very high
levels of water reduction possible allow major increases in strength to be obtained .
Conplast SP430 is water based and non-flammable. It is mainly used to :

 To provide excellent acceleration of strength gain at early ages and major

increases in strength at all ages by significantly reducing water demand in a
concrete mix.

 Particularly suitable for precast concrete and other high early strength
requirements.

 To significantly improve the workability of site mixed and precast concrete

without increasing water demand.

 To provide improved durability by increasing ultimate strength sand reducing

concrete permeability.
33
 CHAPTER-5

EXPERIMENTATION AND METHODOLOGY

The physical and chemical properties of materials, mixture proportions, the mixing
process and the curing conditions of geopolymer.

5.1 MIXTURE PROPORTIONS

As in the case of Portland cement concrete, the coarse and fine aggregates occupy
about 75 to 80% of the mass of geopolymer concrete. The performance criteria of
a geopolymer concrete depend on the application. The compressive strength of
hardened concrete and the workability of fresh concrete are selected as the
performance criteria. In order to meet the performance criteria, the alkaline liquid
to binder ratio by mass, water to geopolymer solids ratio by mass, the heat curing
temperature and the heat curing time are selected as parameters.

5.2 MIX CALCULATIONS FOR CONCRETE PAVER BLOCK (M50 design)

Volume of
cube=1m3 Wet
volume =1m3

Dry volume=1.54*wet volume

=1+.54

=1.54m3

Consider the density of cement=1440kg

Consider the density of fine
aggregate=1450kg Consider the
density of coarse aggregate=1500kg

GRADE OF CONCRETE M50

Target mean strength

F’ck=fck+1.65*s

Fck=characteristic compressive strength,

F'ck=target average compressive strength at 28days, S=standard deviatio

From table2 of IS10262-2019, standard

deviation(s)=5N/mm2

34
 F’ck = 50+1.65(5)

=58.25N/mm2

Selection of water- cement ratio

Consider the condition is moderate water cement ratio is 0.4

Selection of water content

As per given concrete of slump is 50mm

• For 50mm slump water content= 186 litres

As per plasticiser used it can reduce upto 20% that is 186-(186*20/100)=148.8 litres
approximately=150 litres

Calculation of cement content

1) from table for moderate condition minimum concrete required

2) water/ cement=0.4, cement =water/0.4=148.8/0.4=372kg/ m3

240<372 kg/m3.

372+372*10/100=409.2kg/m3

Cement content =409.kg/m3 is ok

Proportion of volume of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate

As fine aggregate used is confirming to zone=2

Fir 2mm size of water cement ratio of 0.5

Then for water cement ratio=0.4

It is reduced to 0.02 for every increase of 0.1% so ,0.4- 0.62

Volume of fine aggregate= 1-0.62= 0.38

Mix calculation

a)volume of concrete=1m3

b) volume of cement=mass cement/specific gravity of cement*1/1000

= 410/3.15*1/1000

=0.130m3

c) volume of water=mass of water/ specific gravity of water*1/1000

150 /1 *1/1000=0.150m3

f) mass of coarse aggregate= 0.713*volume of coarse aggregate * specific gravity of

35
coarse aggregate*1000

=0.713*0.62*2.74*1000

=1211.244 kg

g) mass fine aggregate= 0.713x volume of fine aggregate*specific gravity of fine

aggregate*1000

=0.713*0.38*2.74*1000

= 742.37 kg =744bkg

Mix ratio

For 1m3

Mass of cement= 410kg

Mass Of water= 150 litres

Mass of fine aggregate=743kg

Mass of coarse aggregate=1212kg

Mass of water:mass of cement: mass of F.A: mass of C.A

150:410:743:1212

•0.366 : 1 : 1.812 : 2.956

5.3 Mould Dimensions:

We have choosen hexagonal shaped moulds of edge length 76mm and height 100mm.

The volume of the hexagonal cylinder is V = (3√3/2) s2 × h, where 's' is base edge
length and 'h' is the height of a cylinder.

Here, s=76mm & h=100mm

Surface area=15085.57mm2

volume=1508557mm3

Volume in m3=0.0015m3

Total number of specimens are 6 Hexagonals

Volume of 6 hexagonals=0.009m3

5.4 DESIGN

for conventional concrete(1m3) in kg

 cement-512 kg/m3

 fine aggregate-669 kg/m3

36
  coarse aggregate-1091 kg/m3

 water-186 kg/m3

 admiture-10.2 kg/m3

for geopolymer concrete(1m3) in kg

 GGBS-180 kg/m3

 flyash-180 kg/m3

 NaOH-72 kg/m3

 Na2Sio2-180 kg/m3

 fine aggregate-811.91 kg/m3

 coarse aggregate-964.69 kg/m3

Sample-1: CONVENTIONAL CONCRETE(for 6 hexagonals specimens)

 Mass of cement= 512*0.009=4.6kg

 Mass of fine aggregate=669*0.009=6.021kg

 Mass of coarse aggregate=1091*0.009=9.819kg

 Mass of water=186*0.009=1.67 litres

Sample-2: 8M-Molarity( for 6 hexagonals specimens)

 8Molarity:(1Molarity=40grams of sodium pellets dissolved in 1litre of

water) for 8M, 320 grams of sodium hydroxide pellets are dissolved in 1litre
of water

 50% of fly as h& 50% of GGBS

 Coarse aggregate= 964.69*0.009=8.6821kg

 Fine aggregate=811.91*0.009=7.3071 kgs

 Sodium silicate= 180*0.009=1.62kg

 Sodium hydroxide=72*0.009=0.648

 Fly ash = 180*0.009=1.62kgs & GGBS =180*0.009=1.62kgs

Sample-3: 6M-Molarity( for 6 hexagonals specimens)

 6Molarity:(1Molarity=40grams of sodium pellets dissolved in1litre of

water) for 6M ,240 grams of sodium hydroxide pellets are dissolved in 1litre
of water
37
  50% of fly ash & 50% of GGBS

 Coarse aggregate= 964.69*0.009=8.6821kg

 Fine aggregate=811.91*0.009=7.3071 kgs

 Sodium silicate= 180*0.009=1.62kg

 Sodium hydroxide=72*0.009=0.648

 Fly ash = 180*0.009=1.62kgs

 GGBS =180*0.009=1.62kg

Sample-4: 4M-Molarity( for 6 hexagonals specimens)

 4Molarity:(1Molarity=40grams of sodium pellets dissolved in1litre of

water) for 4M ,160 grams of sodium hydroxide pellets are dissolved in 1litre
of water

 50% of fly ash & 50% of GGBS

 Coarse aggregate= 964.69*0.009=8.6821kg

 Fine aggregate=811.91*0.009=7.3071 kgs

 Sodium silicate= 180*0.009=1.62kg

 Sodium hydroxide=72*0.009=0.648

 Fly ash = 180*0.009=1.62kgs

 GGBS =180*0.009=1.62kgs

Sample-5: 2M-Molarity( for 6 hexagonals specimens)

 2Molarity:(1Molarity=40grams of sodium pellets dissolved in1litre of

water) for 2M ,80grams of sodium hydroxide pellets are dissolved in 1litre of
water

 50% of fly ash & 50% of GGBS

 Coarse aggregate= 964.69*0.009=8.6821kg

 Fine aggregate=811.91*0.009=7.3071 kgs

 Sodium silicate= 180*0.009=1.62kg

 Sodium hydroxide=72*0.009=0.648 kgs

 Fly ash = 180*0.009=1.62kgs

 GGBS =180*0.009=1.62kgs

38
5.5 Procedure:
 Concrete paver blocks(6 hexagonals) and geopolymer paver blocks(6 hexagonals
each of 8M,6M,4M,2M) are casted The conventional method of making normal
concrete is adopted in the preparation geopolymer paver blocks.

 For this, the sodium silicate solution and the sodium hydroxide solution were
mixed together at least one day prior to use to prepare the alkaline liquid. On the
day of casting of the specimens, the alkaline liquid was mixed together with the
super plasticizer. And the extra water(if any) to prepare the liquid component of
the mixture.

 Fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, flyash, GGBS and alkaline solutions are mixed
together.

 Mixing is done for effective bonding of all the materials, with the help of
vibrating machine, the voids are removed.

 Applying the oil to the moulds and the mix is placing into the moulds.

 After 24 hours the moulds are demoulded and left outside for 14days and 28 days.

 Finally, the specimens are tested with respective of days and the results are
compared.

5.5.1 Preparation of Liquids

The sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solids were dissolved in water to make the solution.
The mass of NaOH solids in a solution varied depending on the concentration of the
solution expressed in terms of molar, M. For instance, NaOH solution with a
concentration of 8M consisted of 8x40 = 320 grams of NaOH solids (in flake or pellet
form) per liter of the solution, where 40 is the molecular weight of NaOH. The mass
of NaOH solids was measured as 262 grams per kg of NaOH solution of 8M
concentration. Note that the mass of NaOH solids was only a fraction of the mass of
the NaOH solution, and water was the major component. The sodium silicate solution
and the sodium hydroxide solution were mixed together atleast one day prior to use to
prepare the alkaline liquid. On the day of casting of the specimens, the alkaline liquid
was mixed together with the super plasticizer and the extra water (if any) to prepare
the liquid component of the mixture.

39
 Figure:16 Mixing of materials

5.5.2 Manufacture of Fresh Concrete and Casting

Geopolymer concrete can be manufactured by adopting the conventional techniques
used in the manufacture of Portland cement concrete. In the laboratory, the fly ash
and the aggregates were first mixed together all constituents via hand mix. The
aggregates were prepared in saturated surface dry condition. The alkaline solution
was then added to the dry materials and the mixing continued for further about 4
minutes to manufacture the fresh concrete
The fresh concrete could behand led upto120 minutes without any sign of setting and
without any degradation in the compressive strength. The fresh concrete was shown in
Figure16.

The fresh concrete was cast into the moulds immediately after mixing, in three layers
for cubical specimens of size100mmx100mmx100mm. The figure16 shows, For
compaction of the specimens, each layer was given 25 manual strokes using a rod.
The tamping should bed one perfectly to avoid the voids in the cubes. If voids are
present the strength is decreases. With the help of vibrator also voids are removed.

40
 Figure:17.Placing the mix into moulds and tamping

The mix are placed in moulds as shown in fig 17, then they are kept aside for
drying, after 24 hours they are demoulded carefully without disturbing the shape
of the cube. These are tested in compression testing machine 14days and 28 days.

41
 CHAPTER-6

TESTS CONDUCTED ON CONCRETE:-

6.1 Slump test

The concrete slump test or slump cone test is the most common test for
workability Of freshly mixed concrete which can be performed either at the
working site/field or in the Laboratory. To maintain the workability and quality of
fresh concrete, it is necessary to Check batch by batch inspection of the concrete
slump. This can be easily done with the Concrete slump test. The slump test is the
simplest test to determine workability of concrete That involves low cost and
provides immediate results.

Apparatus:
slump cone, non porous base plate, measuring scale, tamping rod. The mould for
the test is in the form of the frustum of a cone having height 30 cm, bottom
diameter 20 cm and top diameter 10 cm. The tamping rod is of steel 16 mm
diameter and 60cm long and rounded at one end.

Test procedure:

Figure:18 slump cone test

42
  Clean the internal surface of the mould and apply oil.

 Place the mould on a smooth horizontal non-porous base plate.

 Fill the mould with prepared concrete mix in 4 approximately equal layers.

 Tamp each layer with 25 strokes of the rounded end of the tamping rod in a
Uniform cross section of the mould.

 For the subsequent layers, The tamping should penetrate into the underlying
layer.

 Remove the excess concrete and level the surface with a trowel. Clean away the
Mortar or water leaked out between the mould and the base plate.

 Raise the mould from the concrete immediately and slowly in vertical direction.

 Measure the slump as the difference between the height of the mould and that
plain of failure height point of the specimen being tested.

Based on the slump height we can decide the type of the slump. If the concrete is does
not loss its shape after removing the frustum then its true slump. The figure and
description of the slump the given in figure 18.

True Slump – True slump is the only slump that can be measured in the test. The
measurementistakenbetweenthetopoftheconeandthetopoftheconcreteafterthe cone has
been removed as shown in figure-19.

Zero Slump – Zero slump is the indication of very low water-cement ratio, which
results in dry mixes. These type of concrete is generally used for road construction.

Collapsed Slump – This is an indication that the water-cement ratio is too high,i.e. c
oncrete mix is too wet or it is a high workability mix.

Figure:19. Types of slump

43
RESULT: Zero Slump

6.2COMPRESSIVE STREGNTH TEST

The compressive strength test on hardened fly ash based geopolymer concrete
was performed on standard compression testing machine of 2000kN Capacity, as
per IS: 15658:2006. Hexagonal specimens of edge length 76mm and height
100mm was casted and tested for the compressive strength at the age of 14days
and 28days.

Figure:20 After demoulding of moulds

To know the ductile failures of material, plasticflow behaviour , the

moulds are filled with the mix and applying the oil before and after demoulding is
necessary to get absolute shape.

44
 Figure:21 Compression testing machine testing the specimen

The specimens are demoulded carefully, and placing the cubes where the sunlight
is present for dry curing. It may takes 24 hours for curing.This is suitable for
water scarcity areas. The specimen was tested under compression loads, upto the
cracks appears on the specimen. At the failure load it is automatically turned off.
The reading should be recorded.

Figure:22 failure of specimen

45
6.3 SPLIT-TENSILE TEST
The hexagonal specimens of size, edge length 76mm and height 100mm is subjected to
the action of the compressive force along two Opposite edges(in case of hexagonal
specimen the splitting section shall be choosen in such a way that it is the shortest length
passing through the centre of the plain area),by applying the force in this manner. The
specimen is subjected to compression near the loaded region and the length of the
specimen is subjected to uniform tensile stress. It is indirect method of determining
tensile strength. The specimen is placed longitudinally and applying compressive
strength on the specimen, then it shows the tensile strength value on compressing testing
machine.

Figure:23 Splitting failure

46
 CHAPTER-7

RESULTS AND GRAPHS

7.1 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST
The compressive strength of paver blocks has been measured by compression
testing machine as per IS:15658:2006. The geopolymer paver blocks and concrete
paver blocks both are tested and results are compared. The results are listed below
table no 6.1 these are tested for 14 days and 28 days.

Compressive Strength=ultimate load/Area

Area=surface area of hexagonal specimen

=15085.57mm

Table:11 Compressive strength for 14days

Sample Ultimate Load (in Compressive strength for

KN) 14days(N/mm2)
Conventional 662 44.11

8M 750 49.97

6M 702.1 46.78

4M 478.1 31.85

2M 415.2 27.66

Table No:12 Compressive Strength for 28days

Sample Ultimate load(in KN) Compressive Strength

for 28days(N/mm2)
CONVENTIONAL 679.2 45.02

8M 809.8 53.68

6M 713.1 47.27

4M 597.1 39.58

2M 465.9 30.88

47
Table No:13 Compressive Strength for 14days and 28days

Sample Compressive Compressive

Strength for 14 Strength for
days(N/mm2) 28days(N/mm2)

Conventional concrete 44.11 45.02

8M 49.97 53.68

6M 46.78 47.27

4M 31.85 39.58

2M 27.66 30.88

The above tables shows the information about the Compressive strength of
conventional and geopolymer paver blocks for 14days and 28days.For the above
tabular information graph is plotted between conventional and geopolymer paver
blocks as shown in fig 24, fig 25 & fig 26.

60 GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE
compresive strength(N/mm2)

50

40

30

20

10

0
8M 6M 4M 2M
14 DAYS STRENGTH 28 DAYS STRENGTH
Figure:24. compressive strength

The above graph shows the comparision of compressive strength of Geopolymer

paver blocks for 14 days and 28 days.

48
 GEOPOLYMER V/S CONVENTIONAL(14 DAYS)
60
compressive strength(n/mm2)
50

40

30

20

10

0
8M 6M 4M 2M

GEOPOLYMER CONVENTIONAL
Figure:25.compressive strength(14days)
The above graph shows the comparision of compressive strength of Conventional
concrete paver blocks and Geopolymer paver blocks for 14 days of curing.

60
GEOPOLYMER V/s CONVENTIONAL(28days)
compressive strength(N/mm2)

50

40

30

20
CONVENTIONAL GEOPOLYMER

10

0
8M 6M 4M 2M

Figure:26. Compressive Strength(28days)

The above graph represents the comparisons of compressive strength of Conventional
concrete and Geopolymer paver blocks for 28 days of curing.

49
7.2 SPLIT TENSILE TEST

Split tensile strength of paver blocks has been measured by compression testing machine
as per IS 15658:2006. The tensile strength of the geopolymer paver blocks increases as
the molarity increases. And the split tensile strength of of geopolymer paver blocks is
more compared to conventional paver blocks.The results are shown in below in the table-
14,

Splitting tensile strength=0.637× K ×(P ÷ S)

Where,K=1;S=l×t &l=70mm;t=100mm

Table:14 Split tensile strength for 14days

SAMPLE ULTIMATE LOAD(KN) STRENGTH(N/mm2)

CONVENTIONAL 150.8 13.72

8M 200.0 18.2

6M 169.0 15.37

4M 143.0 13.01

2M 138.0 12.55

Table:15 Split tensile strength for 28days

SAMPLE ULTIMATE LOAD(KN) STRENGTH(N/mm2)

CONVENTIONAL 260.1 23.6
8M 250.5 22.76
6M 226.1 20.57
4M 181.5 16.51
2M 150.5 14.15

50
Table:16 Split tensile strength for 14days and 28 days

SAMPLE STRENGTH STRENGTH

14DAYS(N/mm2) 28DAYS(N/mm2)
CONVENTIONAL 13.72 23.6
8M 18.2 22.76
6M 15.37 20.57
4M 13.01 16.51
2M 12.55 14.15

The above tables shows the information about the Splitting Tensile strength of
conventional and geopolymer paver blocks for 14days and 28days.For the above
tabular information graph is plotted between conventional and geopolymer paver
blocks as shown in fig 27, fig 28 & fig 29.

GEOPOLYMER
45
split tensile strength(N/mm2)

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
8M 6M 4M 2M

14 DAYS STRENGTH 28 DAYS STRENGTH

Figure:27. Split tensile strength for 14 days and 28days

The above graph shows the splitting tensile strength of Geopolymer paver blocks for
14days and 28 days of curing

51
 20 GEOPOLYMER V/S CONVENTIONAL

18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
8M GEOPOLYMER6M 4M
CONVENTIONAL 2M

Figure:28. Split tensile strength for 14 days

The above graph shows the split tensile strength of conventional conctre paver blocks
and geopolymer paver blocks for 14 days of curing.

GEOPOLYMER V/S CONVENTIONAL

25

20
split tensile strength(N/mm2)

15 CONVENTIONAL
GEOPOLYMER
10

0
8M 6M 4M 2M
Figure:29. Split tensile strength for 28 days
The above graph shows the comparision of split tensile strength of conventional and
geopolymer paver blocks after days of curing.

52
7.3 CONCLUSION

From this study the following conclusion can be drawn:

 Geopolymer concrete is an excellent alternative to Portland cement concrete.

Based on this experimental study conducted geopolymer concrete can be
effectively used for manufacture of precast concrete paver blocks.

 The Geopolymer paver block attained higher strength at 28days than the OPC
pavers at 28 days. So it can be concluded that the Geopolymer paver attain More
strength than OPC pavers.

 Higher compressive strength was achieved in Geopolymer paver blocks when

Molarity-8M is used than Molarities 6M,4M and 2M.

 The (50:50)% replacement of the cement by Fly ash : GGBS and 8M molarity
gives the highest compressive strength which was recorded to be 53.68 N/mm 2 at
28 days for a test specimen which was higher than the normal
concrete paver block.

 The characteristic tensile splitting strength are seems to be satisfactory.

 All the samples satisfies the requirement given in IS 15658: 2006 for concrete
paving blocks to be used in non traffic, light traffic and medium-
heavy traffic areas.

 There is a saving in cost of cement if cement is replaced by fly ash and GGBS.
The

percentage of saving is highly beneficial for mass production of paving blocks.

This also

reduces the burden of dumping fly ash and waste glass on earth which is eco-
friendly.

 No need of water curing for geopolymer paver, this can save a lot of curing time
and space at manufacturing unit. Moreover the precious water used for curing in
conventional concrete can saved. This makes the use of these pavers a sustainable
practice.

 Therefore , we can develop the pavement blocks using the industrial waste to
reuse the waste , to control pollution , to reduce co2 emissions with no
compromise in strength and durability parameters.
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56