ENG241

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
FACULTY OF ARTS
COURSE CODE: ENG 241
COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY OF

ENGLISH
COURSE
GUIDE
ENG 241
INTRODUCTION TO PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY OF ENGLISH
Course Team Prof. David Eka (Developer/Writer) – UNI UYO

Prof. Iyabode. O. Nwabueze (Additional Unit) – NOUN
Prof. Francis Egbokhare (Editor) – UI
Prof. Iyabode. O. Nwabueze (Programme Leader) – NOUN
Dr. Theodore O. Iyere (Course Coordinator) – NOUN

National Open University of Nigeria
Headquarters
Plot 91, University Village
Jabi, Abuja
Lagos Office
14/16 Ahmadu Bello
Way Victoria Island
Lagos
e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.nig
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
First Printed: 2010
Reviewed 2020
ISBN
All Rights Reserved
Printed by NOUN Press
For
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. Course Aims
3. Course Objectives
4. Working Through the Course
5. Course Materials
6. Study Units
7. Set Books
8. Assessments
9. Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAS)
10. Course Marking Scheme
11. Course Overview
12. Final Examination and Grading
13. How to Get the Best from the Course
14. Tutors and Tutorials
15. Summary
Introduction
ENG 241: Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology is a first semester, 3 credit
hours course, for beginners in the study of General Phonetics and the Phonology of a
particular language. It is a language course for second year students of English but
students at similar levels in linguistics may also find the course adequate for their
needs.
The course consists of fourteen units which cover a general introduction to phonetics
and the phonology of English; the concept and nature of language, phonetics and
phonology, speech production and description as well as non-segmental features of
tone/intonation; accentuation/stress, syllable structure, rhythm.
This course guide informs you about the course generally and how to go about
achieving the best in it. You are advised to pay attention to every detail in what
follows.
Course Aims
The course aims at introducing second year university undergraduates to a systematic
study of the nature of language, the basic sound production processes and a
description of the basic sounds of a given language – the English language. In
addition, the course exposes the undergraduates concerned to appropriate non-
segmental features of English.
Course Objectives
On successful completion of the course, you should be able, among other things, to:
i) explain what language is;
ii) comment on the speculations about the origin of language;
iii) distinguish between natural and artificial language;
iv) identify language mediums and their features;
v) Identify branches of phonetics;
vi) explain the nature of speech sounds and distinguish them from letters of
the alphabet;
vii) explain the process of speech production/articulation;
viii) carry out a description of the basic sounds of English;
ix) undertake an analysis of syllable structure as well as rhythmic patterns
using intonation, accentuation/stress.
Working through the Course

To complete this course, you are expected to:
(i) study and understand all the units;
(ii) read recommended books and other sources which the National Open
University of Nigeria (NOUN) may recommend for you;
(iii) practice self-assessment exercise and submit Tutor-Marked Assignments
(TMAs) for assessment by your tutor;
(iv) practice pronunciation following the recordings on your audio tapes;
(v) revise the study units and the accompanying exercises;
(vi) sit for and pass the final examination on the course.
Course Materials
The main materials in this course are:
(i) study units;
(ii) text-books;
(iii) assignment file;
(iv) presentation schedule.
Study Units
There are fourteen units in this course, thus:
A Module 1: Introduction and Overview
Unit 1:Language: Nature, Origins and Mediums
Unit 2:Major Components of Language; Defining Phonetics and Phonology
B Module 2: Phonetics
Unit 3:Phonetics and its Branches
Unit 4:The Phoneme and the Allophone
Unit 5:Organs of Speech
Unit 6:Speech Sounds/Production Processes
Unit 7:The Basic Sounds of English
C Module 3: The Phonology of English

Unit 8:Sound Patterning in English: Consonants
Unit 9:Sound Patterning in English: Vowels
Unit 10:Phonological System and Structure
D Module 4: Non-segmental Features

Unit 11:Tone/Intonation
Unit 12:Syllable Structure/Juncture
Unit 13: Accentuation/Stress
Unit 14: Rhythmic Patterns
Details of the study units are shown under each module.
Set Books
Books and other publications are recommended at the end of each unit. It is in your
own interest to buy the recommended materials and to study them particularly the
sections specifically recommended.
Assessment
The self-assessment exercises are for your practice. The Tutor-marked Assignments
(TMAs) are to be assessed by your tutor for a continuous assessment score of 30 per
cent. The final examination on the course accounts for 60%. Your score in TMAs and
the final examination together will lead to your final score/grade in the course.
Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs)

At the end of every unit, there is a tutor-marked assignment which you are expected to
carry out. Your total score from the assignments will be as indicated above….30%.
When you complete an assignment, send it, together with your tutor-marked
assignment file, to your tutor. If for any reason you are unable to submit your
assignment in time, inform your tutor to arrange an extension of time.
Course Marking Scheme

The following Table indicates a break-down of the entire course marking scheme.
Table 1: Examination and Grading
Assessment Marks
Assignments 1-4 (the best three from Four assignments, marked out of 10%.
all the assignments submitted) The best three will be used to grade
you, making a total of 30%
Final examination 70%
Total 100% of course marks
Course Overview
Unit Title of Work Activity Assessment at end
Each Week of Unit
1. Language: Nature, Origins 1 Assignment 1
and Mediums
2. Major Components of 1 Assignment 2
Language; Defining
Phonetics and Phonology
3. Phonetics and its 1 Assignment 3
Branches
4. The Phoneme and the 1 Assignment 4
Allophone
5. Organs of Speech 1 Assignment 5
6. Speech 1 Assignment 6
Sounds/Production
Processes
7. The Basic Sounds of 1 Assignment 7
English
8. Sound Patterning in 1 Assignment 8
English: Consonants
9. Sound Patterning in 1 Assignment 9
English: Vowels
10. Phonological System and 1 Assignment 10
Structure
11. Tone/Intonation 1 Assignment 11
12. Syllable 1 Assignment 12
Structure/Juncture
13. Accentuation/Stress 1 Assignment 13
14. Rhythmic Patterns 1 Assignment 14
15. Revision 2
16.
17. Examination 1
Total 17
Final Examination and Grading

The final examination on course ENG 241 will be of three hours duration and, as
indicated already above, will be marked out of 70%. The questions in the examination
will be based strictly on the information in the study units and will relate to the self-
assessment exercises as well as the tutor-marked assignments. When you complete the
last unit, i.e. unit 14, revise the entire course. Also, take a second look at the
assignments to ensure your readiness for the final examination.
How to Get the Best from This Course
The National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) has provided an opportunity for
you to study through Distance Learning. This means that you have an opportunity to
receive university education which is not different in quality from that received
through face-to-face learning in a conventional university. You must, therefore, seize
every opportunity to concentrate fully on the study units knowing full well that they
are of the same quality as those in the many other universities we have. Full
concentration on the study units, on the text-books recommended at the end of each
unit, and full attention to the assignments will all help you to achieve excellence in
this enterprise.
Tutors and Tutorials

There are 8 hours of tutorials provided in support of this course. You will be informed
about the dates, times and locations of the tutorials. You will also get to know the
name and telephone number and e-mail address of your tutor.
Your tutor will mark your assignments and return them to you. When your
assignments get back to you, note the comments and ask questions if there are issues
you do not understand. Also ask your tutor questions if there are any parts of the study
units or self-assessment exercises you do not understand.
Ensure that you keep strictly to deadlines, attend tutorials in the group you will be
allocated and take a lively interest in all activities pertaining to your course.
Summary
ENG 241 is planned to make you knowledgeable in the most important starting points
in general phonetics and the phonology of English. On the completion of the course,
you will be well placed to appreciate some of the most essential issues for beginners
in the study of general phonetics and the phonology of English. You should, for
instance be in a position to understand the nature of language, sounds and their
production in natural languages as well as non-segmental features such as intonation,
accentuation/stress and rhythm.
You are welcome to the course!
ENG 241
INTRODUCTION TO PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY OF ENGLISH
Course Team Prof. David Eka (Developer) – UNIUYO
Prof. David Eka (Writer) – UNIUYO
Dr. I. Omolara Daniel (Additional Unit) – NOUN
Prof. Francis Egbokhare (Editor) – UI
Dr. I. Omolara Daniel (Programme Leader) – NOUN
Mr. Theodore O. Iyere (Course Coordinator) – NOUN

Headquarters
Plot 91, University Village
Jabi, Abuja
Lagos Office
14/16 Ahmadu Bello
Way Victoria Island
Lagos
e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.nig
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
First Printed: 2010
ISBN
All Rights Reserved
Printed by ………………………………….
For
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Module 1: Introduction and Overview
Unit 1: Language: Nature, Origins and Mediums
Unit 2: Major Components of Language
Unit 3: Defining Phonetics and Phonology
Unit 4: The Interface between Phonetics and Phonology
Module 2: Phonetics
Unit 1: Phonetics and its branches
Unit 2: Speech Sounds/Production Process
Unit 3: The Basic Sounds of English
Module 3: The Phonology of English
Unit 1: Sound Patterning in English: Consonants
Unit 2: Sound Patterning in English: Vowels
Unit 3: The Phoneme and Allophone
Unit 4: Phonological Processes 1
Unit 6: Minimal Pairs
Module 4: Non-segmental Features

Unit 1: Tone/Intonation
Unit 2: Defining Syllable
Unit 3: Syllable Structure/Juncture
MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

Unit 3: Defining Phonetics and Phonology
Unit 4: Interface between Phonetics and Phonology
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content?? Language:
Meaning and Origin
3.1 Language: Technical Definitions
3.2 Language: Its Mediums
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
7.0 References
1.0 INTRODUCTION
It is commonly known that studies in phonetics and phonology are based on natural
languages. Therefore, since language may be seen as the subject of phonetics and
phonology, it would appear that a good knowledge about language will be a necessary
background for an understanding of phonetics and phonology, especially at the
introductory stage. Also, since language is expressed through mediums, it is important
to understand the particular medium that concerns us in this unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to
i) explain what language is;
ii) discuss aspects of its origin;
iii) distinguish between natural and non human languages;
iv) identify language mediums; and
v) state how they are organised.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Language: Meaning and Origin

The simplest way to explain the term language is probably to say that it is a means of
communication. Such communication may take place between individuals, groups and
nations. Through language, people are able to live together to interact and to express
their thoughts and feelings. The entire world bubbles and remains alive as a result of
language. The world is, in a way, held together because people learn or acquire each
others’ languages thereby maintaining constant interaction and relationship. To use a
modern expression associated with wireless communication, language helps mankind
to “stay connected!” Try to imagine how difficult life would be in the world, if there
were no languages and mankind had to use gestures or other nonverbal expressions
only for communication.
It is, however, almost disappointing that in spite of the communicative and social roles of
language, nobody knows precisely how it originated. The matter has remained a
speculation. One such speculation is the Divine Source. According to this source, God
created Adam … and gave him the ability to speak … and whatsoever Adam called
every living creature that was the name thereof (Genesis 2:19). There are other
speculations such as the natural sounds source and the oral-gesture source (Yule 1996:
1-5). We have not gone beyond this point because the issue of language origin is not
of a primary concern for us in this course. But it is good to have a hint about it, as
done, so that those who are interested in finding out more about the topic can read it
up in other sources. For now, it is enough to say that all the speculations lead to one
direction: uncertainty about the origin of language.
Self-assessment Exercise 1
1. How does language enable us to “stay connected?”
2. State very briefly what you have learned about the origin of language.
3.1 3.2?? Language: Technical definitions

Even though the origin of language is not yet known, quite a few scholars have
provided technical definitions. The definitions are useful because they tend to bring
out the main features of language. Three of such definitions and their sources are cited
below:
(i) Sapir (1921: 18) sees language as:
…a purely human and non instinctive method of
communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of
a system of voluntarily produced symbols.
(ii) Gimson (1980: 4-5) describes language as:

…a system of conventional symbols used for
communication by a whole community, the pattern of
conventions covers a system of significant sound units,
the inflection and the arrangement of words and the
association of meaning with words.
(iii) Hall (1968: 158) says that language is:

…the institution whereby humans communicate and
interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-
auditory arbitrary symbols.
From the above definitions, we can isolate some features which are common to all
languages. The first of these features is that language is arbitrary and conventional.
This means that there is generally no necessary connection between a word and what
it stands for. For instance, the word school has no necessary link between the name
and what it stands for. If English people or those who provided their various sources
of borrowing had used the word farm to describe “an institution where learning (of all
sorts) takes place”, then by agreement and convention every speaker of English would
have used the word in that way. Here we notice that even onomatopoeic words …
words whose pronunciations suggest their meanings such as clean, sneeze, flush …
are still subject to the arbitrary and conventional reference.
Secondly, we observe from the definitions that language is non instinctive. This means
that it is an acquired or learned behaviour. A child born into a society acquires the
language of its environment, and does so effortlessly. Do you remember how you
acquired your first language? You hardly can! This is because the process of
acquisition is normally without any really conscious effort, hence the description
effortlessly! If the same child goes on to learn another language – a language different
from the one he has acquired – he learns with some amount of effort and
determination. The degree of success will depend upon a large number of factors, the
most important being perhaps the child’s innate ability at language learning, the
quality of the person he takes as his model and the suitability of the environment for
learning. You can see that while you acquired your first language effortlessly, you are
still struggling to learn the English language which is a second language in Nigeria.
Thirdly, all the definitions show that language is essentially used among human
beings. However, since it is commonly known that birds, animals and even machines
have their own language, we can say that the three explications relate to “natural”
languages i.e. languages used by human beings – languages into which human beings
are born. The other languages may be said to be “artificial” or “nonhuman.” Such
include animal and machine language. There are also artificial languages crafted from
existing natural language(s). These include Esperanto which was crafted in the late
19th century for international communication and the Nigerian Wazobia: “Wa-zo-bia”
coined from the word meaning come in the three languages spoken by the larger
ethnic groups in Nigeria (Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo) in an attempt to solve the problem of a
lingua franca in Nigeria. It is important to note that artificial languages are not
generally known to succeed, particularly when compared to natural languages which
are culturally transmitted, and hence their chances of continuity are assured.
Self-Assessment Exercise 2
(i) Briefly explain the traits which unite all natural languages.
(ii) Briefly distinguish between natural and other forms of language.
3.2 Language: Its Mediums

A further highlight from the three explications of language in the last section is that
languages are realized through symbols which are either oral-auditory (spoken) or
graphic (written). This means that languages are made up of symbols which are either
spoken or written. The majority of attempts to explain language state that it is made
up of phonic, vocal, oral-auditory conventional symbols. The majority of sources on
language indicate that speech is prior to writing. This means that practically all natural
languages are usually first spoken and later written, if necessary. This explains why it
is true that there are many languages in the world which are not written whereas all
are spoken. This is what is often described as the “primacy of speech.” Sapir (1949: 1)
summarises this primacy of speech thus:
Language is primarily a system of phonetic symbols for
the expression of communicable thought and feeling. In
other words, the symbols of language are differentiated
products of the vocal behaviour …
From the above, we have seen that natural languages are expressed through speech or
through writing. These are the two main language mediums. Spoken language consists
of sounds – organised sounds – which result from the action of the speech organs. The
organised sound is perceived via hearing. For this reason the spoken medium is often
called the aural medium. This is so because it is the sense of hearing that is utilised to
perceive spoken language. The written language is produced by use of symbols that
can be visually recognised by the reader, and is referred to as the visual medium. The
written language is also used by the visually impaired in the form of the braille and
similar systems. This consists of symbols that are identified through the sense of
‘touch’. It is referred to as the tactile medium because the sense of touch is utilised. It
is important to note that a medium is itself not language but a means through which
language can be comprehended. This means that language is expressed through
mediums. We shall return to the spoken and the written mediums in detail in the next
unit.
A common feature of the mediums is that they serve as a link between the sender of a
message and the receiver of it. What is normally perceived which affects the
communication is the outcome of the activity which may be sounds or shapes. It is
important to note that a language signal can be transferred from one medium to
another. Thus, it is possible to write down what has been spoken and to read aloud
what has been written.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have learned that human or natural languages can be distinguished by
the features that are common to them. The features make it possible for languages to
have organised sound systems and structure which is what you will learn in this
course.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has shown that human language differs from artificial or non human
language in that it has identifiable sounds and symbols that are organised. Three
mediums through which human language is expressed were discussed: the aural, the
visual, and the tactile. The relevance of the features of human language as the basis
for description of sound systems (phonetics) and structure (phonology) is the focus of
this course.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
In about 2 pages, discuss the following topic and submit your answer to your tutor for
assessment:
“The Things I now know about Language”.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Eka, D. & Udofot, I. (1996). Aspects of Spoken Language. Calabar: BON Universal
Ltd.
Gimson, A.C. (1980). An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English. London:

Edward Arnold.
Hall, R.A. (1968). An Essay on Language. Philadelphia and New York: Chilton
Books.
Sapir, E. (1991). Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech. New York:

Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Sapir, E. (1949). Culture, Language and Personality: Selected Essays. California:

California University Press.
Yule, G. (1996). The Study of Language: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Major Components: Sounds and Letters
3.2 Major Components: Speech and Writing
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
7.0 References
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A study of the major components of language may be approached through a
consideration of the following: (i) levels of language such as phonology, phonetics,
syntax, semantics; (ii) sounds and letters; (iii) speech and writing.
In order to have a balanced discussion, it is also important to consider overlaps
between speech and writing. We refer to this here as mixed medium. A consideration
of levels is important here also, but only two levels are discussed – phonetics and
phonology being the key levels in this course.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
(i) identify the major components of language;
(ii) distinguish between sounds and letters;
(iii) differentiate between speech and writing;
(iv) establish the relationship, other than differences between speech and
writing.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Major Components: Sounds and Letters
One simple way to explain the term speech sound is to see it as a unit of speech which
is produced by the human speech organs. In a way, it is the most important component
of language being the most frequently used in all languages including unwritten ones.
Sound is usually heard. Here we can compare speech sound to noise which is also
usually heard but whereas noise is a distraction and is also often meaningless, speech
sound is an organised realisation from a natural language. The International Phonetics
Alphabet (IPA) comprises the symbols that are used to represent speech sounds (see
charts in Module ).
For example, the symbol /i:/ represents the vowel sounds in the following words bee
/bi:/ tea /ti:/, and theme /θi:m/. So, while the point remains that speech sounds are
normally heard, it is equally true that they can be represented in writing. The number
of speech sounds that exist in a language is determined by the difference the sounds
make in meaning. For instance, the English vowels /ɔ, ε, υ, ɔ: / make a difference in
meaning in the following words: /pɔt/ /pεt/, /pυt/, and /pɔ:t/.
Sometimes the word ‘sound’ is confused with the word ‘syllable’. Such confusion
should be avoided. A syllable is made of up of speech sounds and is considered to be
the minimum speech unit. A syllable, as we shall see below, is sometimes the size of a
word or the size of a speech sound. For instance, the word bat /bæt/ has one syllable
which is one word; our /aυə/ has one syllable which is pronounced as one (speech)
sound (especially, if viewed as a triphthong; otherwise, it consists of two syllables
made up of /aυ + ə/) and Dav- /deiv-/ in the word David is one syllable (with three
speech sounds- d ei v). We have gone into these explanations and illustrations to
ensure that you understand the use of the word ‘sound’ or speech sound.
Ordinarily, however, when we write in a language, we make use of letters of the

alphabet. Letters are normally seen while, in comparison, (speech) sounds are
normally heard. However, sounds and letters are related in that letters are the symbols
with which speech sounds are represented on paper. Despite the above distinction, it is
interesting to note that sounds and letters sometimes are of equal value. This happens
in languages which are spoken the way the words are written. The majority of African
and Nigerian languages are of this group. Can you cite examples from your language?
For the English language, one to one sound-letter correspondence is an exception
rather than the rule. For example, while the alphabets ‘k, g, p, b, m, n, t,’ etc
correspond to the sounds they represent in words like
king [kiŋ]
go [gυə] əυ
pot [pɔt] ɒ
bomb [bɔm] ɒ
man [mæn]
name [neim] eɪ
type [taip] aɪ
but, the letter alphabet ‘a’ is used to represent different vowel sounds in English:
late [ei] [leit]

farther [a:] [fa:ð ə]
man [æ] [mæn]
again [ə] [əgein]
Similarly, the consonant sound /f/ is represented by the different letter alphabets:
f as in fine [fain]
ff as in off [ɔ:f]
fe as in life [laif]
ph as in physics [fɔziks]
gh as in cough [kɔf]
The letter ‘c’ of the English alphabet is pronounced as [s] in the words: city and cite,
[sɔtɔ] [sɪtɪ] and [sait] [saɪt] while the same sound is [k] in the words cup and cow:
[kɔp] [kɒp] and [kaυ].
USE EXACT/CORRECT PHONEME SYMBOLS AS SHOWN
Briefly distinguish between speech sounds and letters in natural language.
3.2 Major Components: Speech and Writing

Spoken and written language display many important differences. The most obvious
of the differences is that speech uses the medium of phonic units produced by
movements of the vocal organs while writing uses the medium of graphic units, with
symbols.
Apart from these physical differences there are other differences:

1. In speech, the focus is on clarity; therefore we tend to use simple words. This
saves the listener the trouble of having to look up meanings of words from a
dictionary. In writing emphasis is on appropriateness of usage. Even when an
appropriate difficult or technical word is used in writing, the reader has every
opportunity to confirm its meaning and usage from a dictionary.
2. In speech, there seems to be always a greater degree of repetition and the use of
softeners such as ‘you see, you know, what I mean is….’ than in writing. This
is because in speech, one does not have an enormous amount of time to think
out new facts or illustrations especially if the speech is impromptu (delivered
without previous preparation). In writing, the writer has the opportunity to
choose between alternatives, thereby avoiding repetition.
3. Speech is made of sounds and is produced for the ears. Writing is made up of
symbols and is produced for the eyes.
4. Speech is time-bound and dynamic. It is often in a situation of interaction

between the speaker and his audience. Writing is space-bound and static. Your
audience may be separated from you in space and in time.
5. Meaning in speech can be made clear through such extra linguistic cues like
facial expression, gestures or applauding. Writing does not easily lend itself to
these or other extra linguistic cues. In writing therefore, there is need to clearly
state what you mean very graphically to make your communication intentions
self-evident
Briefly distinguish between speech and writing. Which of these is of greater concern
for you in this course?
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we can conclude that speech sounds and letters as well as speech and
writing are very important components of natural language. However, we have also
seen that there are illustrative cases in which both sounds and letters have the same
linguistic value and that speech and writing sometimes overlap.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we learned about the nature of (speech) sounds as well as letters as
components of natural languages. We also learned about the differences between them
as well as the exceptions to the general occurrences.

Discuss in detail the view that sounds and letters as well as speech and writing are not
always different in natural languages.
Abercrombie, D. (1975). Elements of General Phonetics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh

University Press.
Akpan, E. (1987). “Expressive Communication as a Responsive Behaviour”. In:

Unoh, S. O. (ed), Topical Issues in Communication Arts, Vol. 1. Uyo: Modern
Business Press Limited, pp. 294-308.
Crystal, D. (2001). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language.

Edinburgh: Cambridge University Press, pp. 290-297.
Eka, D. & Udofot, I. (1996). Aspects of Spoken Language. Calabar: BON Universal
Ltd.
Unit 3: DEFINING PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Defining Phonetics and Phonology- Merge as one section.
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The dual function of language makes it possible for one to study human language at
any linguistic level. In the language hierarchy, ‘Phonetics’ comes first and it is
followed by ‘Phonology’. Phonetics constitutes the study of the smallest unit of
speech and it provides the raw materials for phonology to build on. As such, without
phonetics there would be no phonology. The aim of this unit is to help you understand
the basics of linguistic study, especially as it relates to phonetic/phonological study.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
define Phonetics and Phonology
explain the relationship between Phonetics and Phonology
distinguish Phonetics from Phonology
identify the different aspects of Phonetics and Phonology
explain their functions in natural language
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Defining Phonetics and Phonology
3.1.1 Phonetics
Phonetics is concerned with the study of the sounds of natural languages…languages
into which human beings are born. You are able to recognise the difference and
distinguish between sounds of the English language. The approach to phonetics is
scientific in the sense that its analysis of the subject matter is accurate and verifiable.
You will also be able to identify the restrictions in the occurrence of English
consonants and vowels. For example, the string of consonants *zbf is not permitted in
English, but [str-] is, as in [streit].
Phonetics is the study of production of sounds as produced by the organs of speech. It
deals with the analysis of the sounds of languages in terms of articulation,
transmission and perception. Phonetics seeks to identify sounds that constitute speech
units which are distinct from all other possible human sounds.
There are three major branches in the study of phonetics, namely acoustic
Phonetics, articulatory Phonetics, and auditory Phonetics.
Acoustic Phonetics.
This deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air (sound waves).
Different instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.
Articulatory Phonetics.
Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech sounds are produced. Sounds are
classified according to the place of articulation in terms of the organs of speech used
in their production (bilabial, alveolar, palatal), and according to manner of
articulation in terms of how airflow from the lungs is obstructed in their production
e.g. stops, fricatives, affricates, etc.
Auditory Phonetics.
Hearing, or audition, is one of the traditional five senses, and refers to the ability to
detect sounds. In human beings hearing is performed traditionally by the ears which
also perform a function of maintaining balance. A common rule of thumb used to
describe human hearing is that human hearing is sensitive in the range of sound
wave or frequency of 20 decibel or Hertz to 20 kHz. Auditory phonetics studies how
the human hearing organ perceives sound.
The above statement implies that phonetics is approached by first determining the
basic sounds (vowels and consonants) of natural languages. In a phonetic study,
square brackets [ ] are used to enclose phonetic symbols. For instance to indicate the
consonant sounds of the following English words: boy, saw, too, square brackets are
used by convention:
[b] as in boy: [bɔɪ]

[s] as in saw: [sɔ:]
[t] as in too: [tu:]
Phonemes, which are the distinguished sounds in human languages, constitute the
basic unit of study in Phonetics.
3.2 3.1.2??Phonology
Phonology, on the other hand deals with the organisation, grouping, patterning and
distribution of the basic sounds of natural languages (vowels and consonants). It
studies the restrictions and regular patterns of sound combinations. The syllable is the
basic unit of study. Symbols which are used to indicate the pronunciation of sounds,
syllables or words are written within slanting lines / /, sometimes called slashes or
oblique slashes, following phonological convention.
When the differences in sound combinations are as a result of non-segmental

phenomena like tone, intonation, rhythm and accentuation, it is referred to as
suprasegmental or prosodic phonology. For example, when the first syllable in the
word import is stressed, it constitutes a difference in meaning in that it functions as a
noun, but as a verb if the stress is on the second syllable.
In phonology, distinctive features of speech sounds (otherwise called phonemes) are

determined and used to describe, compare and contrast phonemes. The distinctive
features of a speech sound refer to the group or bundle of features which differentiate
a sound from other sounds. The features are derived from the parameters for
classification of sounds. Consonants are classified according to the parameters of
place and manner of articulation, and voicing. Vowels are classified according to the
parameters of tongue height, rounding of the lips, and length of production, among
others. Note pls: Generative phonology recognizes speech sounds, NOT phonemes.
Below is the distinctive feature chart for consonants and vowels in English:
For example, /iɔ/? and /uɔ/? are distinctive in English because of the bundle of
features that mark each sound out as shown below:
/
/i /
/u
+ High + High
- Low - Low
- Back + Back
- Round + Round
Phonological studies or analysis is also concerned with how sound patterns are
conditioned in the context of other sounds. For example, plural formation occurs in
English by adding a suffix ‘-s’ to a noun root morpheme. The suffix, ‘- s’ has three
variants known as allomorphs /-s/, /-z/ and /ɪz/ and their occurrence is conditioned
by a phonological rule.
3.3 3.2??Phonetics and Phonology

The relationship between phonetics and phonology is such that human speech is the
subject matter. However, Phonetics is the starting point while phonology takes off
from where phonetics ends. The example of aspiration in English will illustrate this
relationship. Through phonetic analysis, the consonant /p/ is a distinct speech sound in
English in terms of the parameters of classification, place and manner of articulation.
Through phonological analysis, /p/ is a distinct phoneme because it constitutes a
difference in meaning when in combination with other sounds in a syllable. Also, /p/
is produced with a puff of air when it occurs in word initial position and before a
vowel as in people [pi:pl]. This production of /p/ is a variant called an allophone. It is
aspirated and represented as [ph]. The second /p/ in people does not meet the
conditions of occurrence and so is not aspirated. Note however, that the aspirated [ph]
is not a distinct sound nor is it a distinct phoneme of English. In other words, its
occurrence in words in contrast to unaspirated [p] does not constitute a difference in
meaning.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Phonetics is the starting point in any language as it deals with how sounds are
produced (articulated), sent across (transmitted) and perceived (reception). In other
words, phonetics accounts for how human beings generate speech sounds, the physical
properties of the sounds and how they are received by the hearers, while Phonology
focuses on speech sounds as well, but in a different way. It deals with how the sounds
of a language are identified, classified and organised to function in that language.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we have discussed the concepts phonetics and phonology. The study of
human speech begins with phonetic analysis and is followed by phonological analysis.
Phonetics has to do with the physical realisation of sounds as produced by the organs
of speech. Phonological studies/analysis takes off where Phonetic studies/analysis
ends.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Define Phonetics and discuss its various components.
2. What is Phonology?
3. Explain the relationship between phonetics and phonology.
7.0 REFERENCES
Adetugbo, A. (1993). English Phonetics: A Course Text. Lagos: University of Lagos
Press
Richard, J.C, John, P & Heidi, W. (1985). Longman Dictionary of Applied
Linguistics. Great Britain: Longman Group Ltd.
Yule, George (2002): The Study of Language. United Kingdom: Cambridge
University Press.
UNIT 4: INTERFACE BETWEEN PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1Interface between Phonetics and Phonology-just 1 sub-section?? Merge.
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Interface between phonetics and phonology refers to the relationship between the two
levels of language studies. One of the characteristics or designed features of human
language is its duality. This feature makes it possible for one to study human
language from any if its strata. Every language can be studied from the level of
phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics, among others.
Each language level is related to each other and the level of relationship depends on
how beneficial is one level to the other. It is this level of relationship we want to find
out between Phonetics and Phonology in this unit.
2.0. OBJECTIVES
The aim of this unit is:

• To establish the relationship between Phonetics and Phonology as levels in
language study.
• To find out the extent of the relationship.
• To find out whether the relationship is mutual
• To know whether the relationship extends to other levels as well.
• To know the essence of this relationship in language study.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 INTERFACE BETWEEN PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY
The dual nature of human languages makes it possible for languages to be broken
down into various units so that it is possible to be learnt. Language can be studied at
different linguistic levels such as the Phonetics (sounds), Phonology (structuring of
sounds), Morphology (words), Syntax (sentence) and Semantics (meaning),
Pragmatics (level larger than meaning- meaning in context). In linguistics the study
of sounds is in phonetics and phonology. The words are studied in morphology (and
lexis) while sentences are studied under syntax (or grammar). All these help in the
development of the complex nature of human languages.
Phonetics and phonology are so closely related that they can hardly be separated.
However, they are studied at different levels of linguistic analysis, because they
constitute different levels of language structure. As earlier said, the dual nature
of human language makes this a reality.
Phonetics as a level of language study deals with the physical realization of sounds as
produced by the organs of speech. It deals with the study and analysis of the speech
sounds of languages in terms of articulation, transmission and perception. Thus,
phonetics has three major components, which are acoustic phonetics (the physics or
instrumental production of sounds), articulatory phonetics (production of sounds with
the speech organs), and auditory phonetics (perception of sounds with the ears).
Details deriving from these branches (of phonetics) facilitate the development of
writing systems, that is, orthographies. Without phonetics, it will be extremely
difficult to study phonology as it produces the basic raw materials or building blocks
for phonology to build on.
Human beings produce a whole lot of sounds ranging from the non-linguistics
(belching, grunting, and hissing) to the linguistics (consonants and vowels; stress and
tones/tunes). Out of all the sounds produced some of them are not linguistically
relevant. So, phonetics deals with the production of the relevant sounds for speech in
human languages.
These sounds in phonetics do not belong to any particular language, they are universal
sounds. Phonetics basically deals with all possible speech sounds by human beings,
the useful and the seemingly useless sounds. Human beings can produce even the
novelty sounds, which nobody had ever produced or heard.
These phonetic and non-phonetic segments which are universal sounds constitute the
raw material for phonology to build on. Without some output from phonetics there
will be no input for phonology. It is where phonetics leaves off that phonology starts.
N It is enough to say that there would not have been any phonology if there was no
Phonetics.
Phonology is a branch of linguistics that deals with useful sounds of a specific

language. It studies the ways sounds of a language are organized into systems. At the
phonetics level a wide range of sounds, which are not phonemic, are produced; only a
very small number of these sounds are contrastive or significant for meaning (i.e.
phonemic). It is these significant speech sounds that phonology is concerned about.
Adetugbo (1992:103) says, “phonology takes phonetic facts…but goes further to study
speech sounds as constituting a system in any language” Among the possible sounds
capable of being produced by human beings, only a minute number of them can be
combined to bring about meaningful utterances in a language. Atolagbe (2000:11)
defines phonology as the sound system of a language, the speech sounds that are
combined into meaningful and acceptable patterns for communication purposes, in a
specific language.
Phonology is particular to a language. Several languages may share the same or

similar sound segments, but structure these sounds differently to suit the system of
that language; for example English and Yoruba have the sound /p/. This sound is
structured differently by each language based on phonological rules of each language
(grammar is basically rule governed). Thus, we have Yoruba phonology, Igbo
phonology, Hausa phonology and English phonology.
After phonetics has produced the useful and the “useless’’ sounds it stops its work. It
is here that phonology comes in to pick and select the sounds and the non-sounds from
the phonetic sound repertoire. Remember, we have said that ‘Phonology is specific to
a particular language’. No two languages share exactly the same rules in their
organization of sounds. So, each language after selecting the sounds that are useful to
it now structures these sounds to suit the rules of that language. It builds on the raw
material produced at the phonetic level.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Phonetics is the science of language that deals with the study and analysis of the
speech sounds of languages in terms of articulation, transmission and perception,
while Phonology is a branch of linguistics that deals with useful sounds of a specific
language. It studies the ways sounds of a language are organized into systems. The
two are closely related in that without one the other cannot exist. They are used in
language development, mostly in the development of a language orthography,
transcription and establishment of contrastive units in languages.
5.0 SUMMARY
Interface between phonetics and phonology refers to the relationship between the two
levels of language studies. There is a very close relationship between Phonetics and
Phonology. Phonetics is the minimum level in language in the hierarchy of language
analysis. It is general in that no language can lay claims to it. It contains the useful and
the seemingly useless sounds of languages. It is these useful and useless sounds of the
language that constitute the raw materials which Phonology needs to build on. Thus,
Phonology is a branch of linguistics that deals with useful sounds of a specific
language. It studies the ways sounds of a language are organized into systems.
The relationship between Phonetics and Phonology is that in the hierarchy of language
studies, Phonetics comes first and it is followed by Phonology. Secondly, Phonetics
produces the raw materials which phonology builds on. Without Phonetics there will
be no phonology, phonology cannot be studied without phonetics.
1. Phonetics produces the raw material which Phonology builds on. Discuss.
2. In your opinion, can phonetics be studied without phonology?
3. What is the level of relationship between Phonetics and Phonology?
4. Phonetics is general while Phonology is specific. Discuss these claims with corpus
or data.
Adetugbo, A.A. (1993) English Phonetics: A Course Text. Lagos: University

of Lagos Press.
Atolagbe,A.A. (2000) Elementary Phonological Analysis: A Course Text for
Tertiary Schools. Lagos: Jehovah Shammah Printers.
Clark,C. and C. Yallop (1990) An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology.
USA: Basil Blackwell Ltd.
Ogbulogo, C (2001) The Phonology of English. In The English
Compendium. Vols.3 & 4 (Eds.) Fakoya, A. and S. Ogunpitan. Lagos:
Dept. of English Lagos State University.
Oyebade, F. (1998) A Course in Phonology. Ilorin: Shebiotimo Publications
MODULE TWO: PHONETICS
Unit 1: Phonetics and its branches

Unit 2: Speech Sounds/Production Process
Unit 1: Phonetics and its Branches
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Phonetics: Meaning/Procedure
3.1 Phonetics: Branches
3.1.1 Phonetics: Articulatory
3.1.2 Phonetics: Auditory
3.1.3 Phonetics: Acoustic
3.1.4 Relationship of the Branches
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 3
7.0 References
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will be introduced to the meaning of, and the procedure for, studying
phonetics. You will also be exposed to the different branches of phonetics, how they
differ from each other as well as what they share in common.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
i) do phonetic analysis;
ii) identify the different branches of the subject; and
iii) show how the branches relate to each other.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Phonetics: Meaning and Procedure- Compare with Table of contents above!
In Module 1, you were introduced briefly to the study of phonetics. Phonetics is the
scientific study of human speech sounds. The study provides methods for the
identification, description, classification, and transcription of human speech sounds.
Definitions of Phonetics
1) Identification of human sounds
2) Description of ??
3) Classification of ??
4) Transcription of ??
3.2 Phonetics: Branches –Match heading titles/numbers with those in table of
content above (and throughout pls)
3.1.1 Phonetics: Articulatory
Articulatory phonetics refers to the approach to the phonetic medium that seeks to
explain and classify speech sounds in terms of the variations in the production of the
speech sounds.
It is about the most highly developed and longest established branch of phonetics. It
sees speech as an activity of the speaker and concentrates attention on the human
speech organs and how these organs function singly and in combination with each
other to modify exhaled air from the lungs into speech sounds.
In articulatory phonetics speech sounds are described in terms of the organs which
produce them and how these organs behave during their production. For instance a
description of the sound [p] will include the fact that the two lips come together and
momentarily completely block the passage of air coming from the lungs and then a
sudden release of the air or a sudden parting of the lips occurs resulting in some kind
of explosion. It is for this reason that the phonetic description of [p] includes the
terms “bilabial plosive”. In this course we are mainly concerned with this aspect of
phonetics – Articulatory Phonetics. Unit 5 of this Module provides essential
information on the organs of speech.
3.2.1 Phonetics: Auditory

This branch of phonetics sees speech mainly as an activity of the hearer: how the
hearer perceives and interprets speech sounds. This branch of phonetics is also
sometimes said to be perceptual. In addition to being concerned with the basic sounds
of natural languages, it deals with such properties of sounds as pitch, accentuation and
loudness – non segmental issues which affect sound perception.
Generally, the hearer does not listen to a sound for its own sake; he listens in order to
get meaning. This means he listens for sounds in association with other sounds. As
you become mature in your phonetic training, you will be able to listen to sounds
analytically – listening in order to appreciate specific sound features. The person who
has not received phonetic training should, other things being equal, be different from
you. He would be one only capable of listening naturally – more concerned with
meaning than with the sound features which produce the meanings.
Self-assessment Exercise
(a) Why is auditory phonetics sometimes said to be perceptual?
(b) Distinguish between listening analytically and listening naturally.
3.2.3. Phonetics: Acoustic

This branch of phonetics concentrates attention on studying the physical properties of
the sound waves generated when the speech organs go into activity. It also seeks to
explain how sound is transmitted through the air from the speaker to the hearer.
Recently this branch has made a lot of progress and has helped to clarify a lot of
information relating to articulatory phonetics. Acoustic phonetics has emphasized the
fact that speech is a continuous flow of speech sounds. It utilizes machines such as the
spectograph and the oscillomink to measure sound waves particularly the frequency
and the amplitude of sound wave. Engineers, builders and construction experts
frequently make use of acoustic information. For the purpose of ensuring accuracy of
information, machines and other instruments used for acoustic measurement must be
properly maintained by qualified engineers. Laboratory instruments which are well
maintained will hardly ever have “bad days.” i.e. days during which they break down
or produce wrong information.
3.2.4 Relationship of the Branches

The different branches of phonetics may be taken to represent separable approaches to
the study of the subject. Any of the approaches may be adopted because of the
investigator’s purpose or convenience. For instance, an architect who has to design a
sound–proof studio, theatre or auditorium would find acoustics very useful. A big hall
in which people find difficulty in hearing an address from a central position, may be
said to have poor acoustics. A well constructed language laboratory is normally said to
possess good acoustics. On the other hand a linguists, particularly an expert in general
phonetics and the phonology of a particular language, finds articulatory phonetics –
the realization of sounds of natural languages – very important. Equally, such an
expert finds auditory phonetics – the perceptual aspect of sounds – very relevant to his
interest.
In some respects, however, the three branches are interconnected. For instance, if we
pay attention to realization (pronunciation) and perception (hearing) of the sounds [p]
and [b], which are both bilabial plosives, all the three branches would be seen to be
relevant: articulatory phonetics would add the dimension of vibration of the vocal
chords or folds to bring about voicing in the case of [b] and the absence of vibration of
the vocal chords in the case of [p].
Auditory phonetics would supply information that differentiates voiceless [p] from
voiced [b] in terms of the voicing heard for [b]. In a third way, the differences would
feature more prominently in an acoustic analysis of the same sounds where evidence
of voicelessness would be available in the sound wave for [p] and evidence of voicing
would be available in the sound wave for [b].
So, while the three branches of phonetics: articulatory, auditory and acoustic are
separate (and separable) all the three are, as we have seen above, also united in their
functions. The three branches also underlie the study of phonology.
4.0 CONCLUSION
From this unit, we have seen that phonetics is separable into three branches –
articulatory, auditory and acoustic. We have seen that each branch is important and
that also the three are also interconnected. Also, they all relate to the study of
phonology.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied three branches of phonetics – articulatory, auditory and
acoustic – and the main concern of each branch. You have also studied the branches
which are the main concern of the phonetician (articulatory and the auditory) and the
one which, apart from being of technical importance to the phonetician, is also of use
to people in other walks of life such as architecture and building engineering. You are
now adequately prepared to begin a study in which your knowledge of articulatory
phonetics in particular will come in handy.

In about 2 pages of your answer paper, discuss the branches of phonetics,
making certain that in your discussion you indicate how the three branches are
related. Submit your answer to your tutor for assessment.

Eka, D. and Inyang Udofot (1996): Aspects of Spoken Language. Calabar, BON
Universal Ltd.
Gimson, A.C. (1980): An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English. London:

Edward Arnold.
Lyons,John (1990): Language and Linguistics: An Introduction. Cambridge:

University Press.
Unit 2: Speech Sounds/Production Processes
Table of Contents
This unit introduces you to processes for sound production. The unit is arranged thus:
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Nature of Speech Sounds: Revisited
3.2 Speech Production: The Focus
3.3 Speech Production Process
3.3.1 Respiratory and Phonatory Stages
3.3.2 Articulatory Stages
3.4 Sound Articulation: Specific Issues
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you are going to be exposed to speech production processes in natural
languages. Before then you will revisit the nature of speech sounds. You will also be
exposed to a technical matter: articulation of sounds.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
(i) explain the nature of speech sounds;
(ii) isolate the focus of speech production;
(iii) explain the main processes of speech production
(iv) discuss articulation of sounds in natural languages
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Nature of Speech Sounds: Revisited
One way to describe speech is to see it as a medium of transmission for language. It is
the phonic substance of language, as compared to writing, the graphic substance. That
it constitutes the phonic substance presupposes that the spoken medium (as opposed to
the written medium) is made up of sounds. To be more specific we relate sounds to
speech and refer to them as speech sounds.
This implies that a speaker utters sounds which combine to form syllables (syllables,
if they are not of word status) are combined to form words while words are combined
to form groups and longer stretches of utterances with which human beings
communicate. The whole process of production and perception of speech which we
are concerned with in this course is known as speech processing.
3.2 Speech Production: The Focus

Normal people speak very many times each day: to members of their families, to those
in their communities and to others in the larger society. Particularly in a situation of
first language acquisition, the effortless nature of the acquisition of the speaking skill
makes it understandable that some speakers hardly ever ask: What is speech? How is
it produced?
For those who study linguistics (particularly those whose interest is mainly in the
branch called phonetics), and for those who study the way languages operate, it is
important to understand what speech is and how it is produced. These are our
concerns here.
3.3 Speech Production Process [involves Initiation, Phonation and Articulation]

3.3.1 Respiratory and Phonatory Stages [vocal folds/chords preferred to vocal lips pls]
When air leaves the lungs (where it is normally stored), it moves through the trachea
to the larynx which covers and encloses the vocal bands (vocal cords or vocal folds).
At the centre of the vocal folds, there is space (the glottis). When this space is closed,
the vocal folds are brought together through the action of the elastic membranes which
stretch from the front to the back, across the larynx. This closure of the vocal folds
naturally leads to a building up of air pressure below them. The air so built up forces
itself through the vocal folds in periodic puffs. The vocal folds will then open under
this pressure, first from the bottom and then upwards creating a kind of rippling
action. The combined effects of the forced opening and closing results in a vibration
of the vocal folds. A sound that comes with the vibration is normally voiced. Voice
may, therefore, be seen as a technical term that refers to phonation – a pre articulatory
output from the vibration of the vocal folds. All voiced sounds in all natural languages
are produced when the vocal folds are in a closed position – a position that prepares
the way for vibration.
But the vocal folds do not always remain in a closed position: sometimes they are
partially open and at other times they may be fully open. When they are partially open,
the air that passes through them results in a whisper. When they are fully open, air
passes through them without vibration and that results in the ensuing sounds being
voiceless. Thus, the vocal folds help us to distinguish between voiced and voiceless
sounds and when they assume a posture of intermediate opening, they help us to
identify whisper. Perhaps more importantly, the vocal folds help us to distinguish
between vowels and consonants: in the realization of vowels, in practically all natural
languages, there is a vibration of the vocal folds. This follows the fact that all vowels
in all natural languages are normally voiced. On the contrary, consonant sounds in all
natural languages are either voiced or voiceless. These statements do not exclude the
issue of devoicing which is possible in all cases.
3.3.2 Articulatory Stages

From the vocal folds, the air passes through the pharynx. At this point, the brain
carries out a quick, sharp action, directing the soft palate (also called the velum)
particularly the uvula (the pendulous end of the velum), on what to do: the uvula will
either be lowered to block the oral cavity or raised to the back wall of the throat to
block the nasal cavity.
The blocking of the oral cavity takes place when nasal or nasalized sounds are to be
realized. The blocking of the nasal cavity takes place when oral sounds are to be
produced. It should however, be noted that in practice that almost any sound can be
nasalized to demonstrate organ control although speech defect can also lead to it.
The entire production process can be seen at a glance in Figures 4a/4b below:
Figure 4a: The Speech Production Process in the Upper Vocal Tract
Adapted from courses Washington.edu
Figure 4b: Arrows Showing Airstream from the Lungs to the Trachea
Figs. 4a & 4b. Diagrams showing speech production process.
Self-assessment exercise 2
Attempt a brief discussion of the process of sound production
3.4 Sound Articulation: Specific Issues

We have seen in this course that the terms sound production and sound articulation
refer to precisely the same events. So, practically everything we have discussed in this
course so far can come under the heading: sound articulation. In this section therefore,
we shall tidy up a lot of the things we have so far discussed in this course, but will
also place appropriate emphasis on issues which may be more gainfully discussed
under the heading sound articulation.
First, we can refer to the organs of speech as the articulators. In that case the
articulators may be seen as belonging to two groups – those which are relatively fixed
and those which are relatively movable. The fixed articulators are generally said to be
passive ones; the movable articulators are generally said to be active ones.
This is accurate from a physical/anatomical viewpoint: a fixed organ is inactive and

thus passive from the standpoint of mobility; a movable organ is agile and thus active
from the same standpoint of mobility. In phonetic terms however, a passive articulator
is not necessarily fixed in the physical or traditional sense: it is simply the articulator
that remains motionless, waiting (so to say), for the movable one to get to it for the
purpose of a particular sound articulation. The active articulator on the other hand is
phonetically the one that ensures or sparks off the articulation of a particular sound.
An illustration will make this clear: even though the upper/lower lips are generally
classified among the movable organs yet in the realization of sounds the upper lips are
(sometimes) the passive articulators while the lower lips are the active articulators, for
example in the realization of labio-dental sounds. Also, if in the articulation of a
sound, the uvula is made to play rapidly against the back of the tongue, the uvula thus
remains as the active articulator while the back of the tongue becomes the passive
articulator…It is important to note that articulatory movements are largely upward
movements (cf, Abercrombie, 1975:43), i.e. the active articulators which are largely
located on the lower side of the vocal tract tend to move upward to meet the passive
articulators which tend to be on the upper side of the vocal tract. So it is more accurate
to say that while the great majority of the so called fixed organs of speech are passive
articulators and the great majority of the so called active articulators are the movable
organs, it is the specific role of a given organ at a given instance, that determines
passivity or activity.
4.0 CONCLUSION
You have studied in this unit that speech production is a very important event in both
phonetics and phonology. From this unit, you are also in a position to appreciate the
roles played by specific human organs as well as the stages in the production of
speech.
5.0 SUMMARY
From this unit, you have:
(i) revisited the nature of speech sounds;
(ii) studied speech production processes;
(iii) identified stages of speech production _ INITIATION WAS LEFT OUT!.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSESSMENT

6. Briefly state how you would trace the journey of any given sound from the time it
leaves the lungs to the time it is produced. Specify the language.
Abercrombie, D. (1975): Elements of General Phonetics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh

University Press.
Clark, J and C. Yallop (1990): An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology; Oxford;
Basil Blackwell.
Eka, D. (1993). Timing in Educated Spoken Nigerian English. Journal of Humanities
3; 1-11
Ward, Ida C. (1972). The Phonetics of English; (5th Edition); Cambridge; Cambridge
University Press.
Table of Contents
This unit introduces you to a formal description of the basic sounds of a given
language – English. The unit is arranged thus:
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Preliminary Steps to a Description of English Vowel and Consonant
Sounds
3.2 Formal Description of the Consonant Sounds of English
3.3 Formal Description of the Vowel Sounds of English
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit introduces you to various preliminary issues involved in the description of
the basic sounds (of English) and then a formal description of such sounds.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
(i) explain the term basic sounds;
(ii) identify the full range of basic sounds in English;
(iii) explain the key matters involved in the description of the sounds;
(iv) carry out a formal description of the consonant as well as the vowel sounds of
English
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Preliminary Steps to a Description of Vowels and Consonants
We have made the point in this course that sounds are better referred to by the use of
symbols. That is precisely our targets in this section: to use symbols to represent
sounds. Meanwhile, it is important to note that speech sounds in natural languages are
traditionally known to fall into two groups: vowels and consonants. The vowels are
those sounds which are generally produced (or realized) without any definite
obstruction to the outflowing airstream used in their production. The realization of
consonant sounds, on the other hand, always involves some definite form of
obstruction which could be partial or total.
At this stage in your study, you are exposed to the basic sounds of one language
(English) with appropriate illustrations. You are instructed to apply the same
principles in the determination of basic sounds in your language. At the next section of
this unit, you will be in a position to learn to describe each basic sound as a way of
ensuring your greater mastery of the subject. The issue of speech organs is also very
important. Turn to unit 5 of this Module and familiarize yourself with specific organs
which produce specific sounds. After that, study the following full list of vowels and
consonants as preparatory steps to their description.
(a) Vowels -DO NOT ITALICIZE SYMBOLS/SQUARE BRACKETS PLS

1. [i:] as in eat, beam, fee.
2. [ɪ ] as in it, sit, city.
3. [e]as in egg, bed, fed.
4. æ] as in atmosphere, pan, tan.
5. [a:] as in ark, part, bar.
6. [ɒ] as in on, pot, dot.
7. [ ɔ:] as in order, port, war.
8. [ʊ] as in took, full, pull.
9. [u:] as in ooze, pool, too.
10 ʌ ] as in up, bud, cut.
11. [ɜ:] as in early, girl, stir.
12. [ə] as in ago, forward, after
These twelve are generally referred to as the pure vowels or the monophhongs.
Beyond these, there are 8 sounds, each of double symbols – the first one marks the
starting point in the realization and the second one marks the direction of
movement. These are called diphthongs. The 8 diphthongs are:
13 [еɪ] as in age, maid, say.
14 [aɪ] as in eye, tied, thy.
15 [ɔɪ ] as in oil, toil, boy.
16 [əu] as in ago, home, so.
17 [au] as in now, pound, how.
18 [ɪә] as in ear, here, fear.
19 [eə] as in pair, chair, hair.
20 [uə] as in poor, tour, sure.
As can be observed, each vowel in the 8 diphthongs, had already been listed, so the
diphthongs are made up of selections from the pure vowels; a diphthong is a single
vowel with two elements.
Still under the vowels, English has 5 triphthongs. Triphthongs are three sounds in one,
usually with a diphthong followed by [ə]. The triphthongs are:
21 [ei+ ə; eiə] as in player.
22 [ai + ə; aiə] as in fire.
23 [ɔɪ + ə; iə]as in lawyer.
24 [əu + ə; əuə] as in lower.
25 [au + ə; auə] as in hour
(b) Consonants
We have shown in section 3.0 that consonants constitute the second set of basic
sounds in a set of basic sounds in natural languages, in this case English. In line with
our approach, we list below the consonant sounds of English with appropriate
illustrations for the obvious reason that we shall revisit them for the purpose of
description.
The consonants of English are: -ITALICS REMOVED HERE PLS

[p] as in pin, tipper, leap.
[b] as in boy, baby, babe
[t] as in tin, sitting, dart.
[d] as in do, divider, did.
[k] as in king, market, kick.
[ց ] as in good, plugging, mug.
[f] as in fire, fifty, life.
[v] as in voice, reviving, survive.
[θ] as in thigh, thought, path.
[ð] as in th is, breathing, bathe.
[s] as in sing, past, brass
[ ʃ ] as in shoe, washing, push.

[z] as in zoo, losing, booze.
[ ʒ] as in measure, treasure, vision.
[ ʧ] as in change, preaching, teach.

[h] as in hide, rehearse.
[ʤ] as in John, enjoy, judge.

[m] as in man, naming, comb.
[n] as in know, burning, none.
[ŋ] as in bring, singing.
[l] as in love, lulled, pull.
[r] as in rice, price.
[w] as in war, bewitch
[j] as in young, yes, mayor.
3.2 Formal Description of the Consonant Sounds of English

You are now in a position to combine your knowledge of the speech organs and of the
consonant sounds of English to make sense of the following descriptions of English
consonant sounds:
[p] voiceless bilabial plosive.
[b] voiced bilabial plosive.
[t] voiceless alveolar plosive.
[d] voiced alveolar plosive.
[k] voiceless velar plosive.
[g] voiced velar plosive.
[f] voiceless labio-dental fricative.
[v] voiced labio-dental fricative.
[θ] voiceless dental fricative.
[ð] voiced dental fricative.
[s] voiceless alveolar fricative.
[z] voiced alveolar fricative.
[ ʃ] voiceless palato-alveolar fricative.
[ʒ ] voiced palato-alveolar fricative.
[h] voiceless glottal fricative.
[ʧ ] voiceless palato-alveolar affricate.
[ʤ] voiced palato-alveolar affricate.
[m] voiced bilabial nasal.
[n] voiced alveolar nasal.
[ŋ] voiced velar nasal.
[l] voiced alveolar liquid (lateral).
[r] voiced alveolar liquid (rolled).
[w] voiced bilabial semi-vowel.
[j] voiced palatal semi-vowel.
Below is the English Consonants Chart

Bilabia Labio Denta Alveola Palato- Palata Vela Glotta
l - l R Alveola l r l
dental r
Plosive pb td kg
Nasal m n ŋ
Liquid
(lateral) L
Liquid R
(rolled)
Fricative fv θð s z ɔɔ H
s correct pls
Affricate ɔɔ
s correct pls
Semi w j
vowels
Fig. 5 English Consonant Chart
Self-Assessment Exercise
(a) Attempt a clear description of the following consonant sounds: [r, d, z, ?, m]
(b) Briefly distinguish between vowels and consonants from the viewpoint of
production.
3.3 Formal Description of the Vowel Sounds of English

Just as you have done in the case of consonants, you are now in a position to describe
the vowel sounds of English.
The twelve English vowels which qualify as pure vowels or monophthongs have
conventionally been assigned numbers. These are PLS DESCRIBE CORRECTLY!!
1. [i:] close, front, unrounded, long.

2. [ ] between close and half-close, front, somewhat retracted,
unrounded, short.= half-close, front, unrounded, short..
3. [e] between half-close and half-open, front, unrounded, short.
4. [æ ] between half-open and open, front, unrounded, short.
5. [a:] open, almost back, unrounded, long.
6. [ ] nearly open, back, rounded, short.
7. [ :] between half-open and half-close, back rounded, long.
8. [u] between close and half-close, back, rounded, short.
9. [u:] close, back, rounded, long.
10 [ʌ ] half-open, central,unrounded, short.
11. [ɜ:] between half-close and half-open, central, unrounded, long.
12. [ə] between half-open and half-close, central, unrounded, very short.
The other vowels of English are combinations which result in either diphthongs or
triphthongs, as we can see later in this section.
Below is the English Pure Vowels Chart- ENLARGE THE SYMBOLS PLS
Fig. 6 Diagram illustrating the formation of the pure vowels of English
4.0 CONCLUSION - NO EXPLANATIONS ON THESE PARAMETERS FOR

DESCRIBING THESE SOUNDS, VOWELS IN PARTICULAR- why so called?!!
You have in this unit seen the differences between the vowels and the
consonants and have learnt the formal description of each set of basic sounds. You can
listen to the realization of the vowels and consonants as recorded on your enclosed
audio tapes.
5.0 SUMMARY
From this unit, you have been exposed to the conditions which help you to
understand the formal description of the vowels and consonants of English. You are
also now in a position to appreciate the formal description of the basic sounds of
English.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSESSMENT

Select any 5 vowels and any 5 consonants of English and attempt a formal
description of them. Do not include any entries from the self-assessment exercise of
this unit.
Eka, D. & Inyang Udofot (1996): Aspects of Spoken Language: Calabar, BON
Universal Ltd.
Eka, D. (ed.) 1993: Fundamentals of Communication in English: Calabar, BON

Universals Ltd.
Gimson, A. C. (1980): An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English, London:

Edward Arnold.
MODULE THREE: PHONOLOGY

Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Consonants: Grouping Generally
3.1 Sound Patterning in English: A Summary of Consonant Grouping
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Recommended Texts
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last module, you were introduced to the phonetic description of English; this
module introduces you to the phonological description of English sounds. This first
unit brings to your attention the sound patterning: grouping and organization of
English sounds. In this unit, you are going to study the patterning of sounds in
English, with particular focus on consonants. The issues concerned relate to
manner/place of articulation as well as the state of the glottis at the time of production.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
(i) identify the consonant sounds of English;
(ii) describe the production process of the English consonants;
(iii) determine the consonant sounds according to the states of the glottis and the
position of the vocal folds/cords.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Consonants
The previous module introduced you to consonants and vowels as the basic sounds of
English. However, there are many more features of consonants which we need to be
familiar with if our mastery of this set of basic sounds is to be adequate.
In their production, consonants show greater constriction of the vocal tract and are less
sonorous, less prominent than their counterpart – the vowels. In a majority of the
world’s languages, a vowel can serve as a syllable or a word, but a consonant cannot,
except it is accompanied with a vowel. Although we can produce certain sequences
like mm, mmn, sh, shr, zsr, etc. (all made up of consonants), such sequences cannot
rightly be claimed to belong to any particular language, they are simply identifiable
human sounds which may express some kinds of emotion in certain situations. In a
majority of the world languages also, the consonants are marginal or peripheral in the
structure of words while the vowels are central in such structural patterning.
In the production of sounds generally, there are three operative terms which all
students of the subject should be firmly knowledgeable about. These are the terms
plosive, fricative and nasal. Practically all natural languages have plosive consonants,
fricative consonants and nasal consonants, in varying numbers and in varying
distributional patterns.
In the realization of a plosive consonant, four stages described here in sporting terms
are notable:
(i) Two articulators come together – the articulators may be the lips coming
together; the tongue moving up to be in contact with the teeth ridge
(alveolar ridge) or the back part of the tongue being in contact with the soft
palate. We may refer to this as the preparatory or the “on-your-marks”
phase.
(ii) The air from the lungs is now held completely in check; the united organs
prevent it from escaping. We can call this the ‘get -set’ phase.
(iii) There follows a sudden parting of the organs, a process which allows the
imprisoned air to escape. This is the ‘go’ or the ‘ plosion’ phase.
(iv) What follows immediately in the wake of the plosion may be voicing or
voicelessness depending on the action of the vocal chords: vibration or
absence of it. We may call this the post-plosion (the “pp” stage).
These four stages are applicable to the articulation of plosive consonants in practically
all natural languages. From these four stages we can also appreciate why plosive
consonants are sometimes referred to as stop consonants.
With respect to English, six consonant sounds /p, b, t, d, k, g/ are often realized
following the four stages outlined above. Of these six, /b,d,g/ are generally said to be
voiced (even if they are not equally vigorously voiced in all word positions), while /p,
t, k/ are generally said to be voiceless. It has also generally been claimed that the
voiceless plosives are produced with a great exertion of energy and so the consonants
are said to be strong or fortis.
On the other hand, it is generally claimed that the realization of the voiced plosives
/b,d,g/ takes a comparatively less exertion of energy in their realization and so the
plosives are said to be weak or lenis. The terms fortis and lenis are however not
restricted to English alone. Indeed, any language in which the dichotomy of energy
exertion is observable may employ the terms for the description of plosive or any
other consonant sounds for that matter.
The next term in our preliminary discussion of consonant is fricative. Fricative

consonants are realized when articulating organs get near to each other, leaving a
small space between them. Because of the narrowed space, the air that passes through
makes some kind of hissing sound. Such consonants are often said to be continuant
consonants, and this is because of the fact that the fricative sounds can be continued
almost indefinitely so long as the speaker has enough air to continue the pronunciation
at any given time.
The last of our operative terms is nasal. Nasal consonants are those which are realized
through the nose. For this to happen, the soft palate must be lowered to cover the
mouth cavity and this allows the nasal cavity free for the air to pass through. In all
natural languages, consonants of this class exist and are explicable in terms of this
kind of lowering of the soft palate. This possibility of lowering the soft palate during
sound production presupposes that even oral sounds can be nasalized, (for illustration
or for any other reasons).
The process of “nasalized’’ is a very crucial one in sound production because it makes
the important difference between two sets of sounds – oral and nasal. Ordinarily, all
vowels and all consonants produced without a lowering of the soft palate belong to
one class – oral sounds. All other sounds which pass through the nose cavity are nasal
sounds. In a majority of the world’s languages, all nasals are voiced. So, in a detailed
description of a nasal, it is superfluous to say something like. Voiced velar nasal for
/Ν/. It is enough to say: velar nasal. It’s here and now you can do away with voiced N
3.1 A Summary of Consonant Patterning

Consonants in English may be patterned according to place of articulation. Here, from
the view point of:
(i) place of articulation, English has four bilabial consonants – those sounds
realized between the two lips: /p,b,m,w/
(ii) two labio-dental consonants – those sounds realized with the lower lip and
the upper front teeth: /f,v/
(i) two interdental (or dental) consonants – those sounds realized with the tip
of the tongue between the two rows of teeth: /θ,ð/
(ii) seven alveolar consonants – those sounds realized with the tip of the tongue
at the teeth ridge (alveolar ridge): /t,d,l,n,r,s,z/
(iii) Four palato-alveolar consonants – those sounds realized with the tip of the
tongue simultaneously against the hard palate and the teeth ridge: /ɔ,ɔ,ɔ,ɔ/
(iv) one palatal consonant – the sound realized with the tongue touching the
hard palate /j/
(v) three velar consonants – those sounds realized with the tongue touching the
soft palate: /k,g,ŋ/
(vi) one glottal consonant – the sound realized in the g lottis: /h/
This grouping of consonants according to place of articulation can be brought together

thus:
⇒ Bilabial: /p,b,m,w/
⇒ Labio-dental: /f,v/
⇒ Dental or interdental: /θ,ð/
⇒ Alveolar: /t, d, s, z, l, n, r/
⇒ Palato-alveolar: /ɔ,ɔ,ɔ,ɔ/
⇒ Velar: /k,g,ŋ/
⇒ Glottal: /h/
From the viewpoint of manner of articulation, English has the following consonants:
(i) six plosive (stop) consonants – those sounds realized through the bringing
together of the articulating organs and a sudden release of the sounds (or a
sudden parting of the organs): /p,b,t,d,k,g/
(ii) nine fricative consonants – those sounds realized through a narrowing of the
resulting in some kind of hissing: /t,v,θ,ð,s,z, ɔ,ɔ,h/

space between the articulating organs and a filtering through of the sound,
(iii) two affricate consonants – those sounds realized through the bringing
together of the articulating organs – similar to the plosives, the difference
being a gradual release of the sounds afterwards: / ɔ,ɔ/
(iv) three nasals /m,n,ŋ/ - those with air passing through the nose at the time of
production, following a lowering of the velum;
(v) two liquids /l,r/ - the various kinds of /l/ and /r/ sounds in various
environments. During the production of the liquid lateral /l/ in particular,
one or both sides of the tongue are lowered while the middle is raised,
causing the air to flow out from the sides of the mouth as against the centre
of the oral cavity.
(vi) two semi-vowels /j,w/ - realized sometimes like vowels, sometimes like
consonants.
Information on this grouping may be seen at a glance thus:

⇒ Plosives: /p,b,t,d,k,g/
⇒ Fricatives: /f,v,θ,ð,s,z, ɔ,ɔ,h/
⇒ Affricates: / ɔ,ɔ /
⇒ Nasals:/m,n,ŋ/
⇒ Liquids:/l,r/
⇒ Semi-vowels: /j,w/
3.2 Consonants may be grouped from the viewpoint of observed state of the glottis –
whether there is or there is no vibration of the vocal chords at the time of production
of the sound. As already known, vibration of the vocal chords leads to the production
of voiced consonants; absence of vibration of the vocal chords leads to voicelessness.
The voiced consonants from the broad indications are:
/b,d,g,v,z,ð, ɔ,ɔ,m,n,ŋ,l,r,j,w/ the voiceless consonants are: /p,t,k,f,θ,s,ɔ,h, ɔ/
Distinguish between plosives and fricatives
4.0 CONCLUSION
???
In this unit we have used our exposure to the concept of phonemes and sounds to
group the consonants of English. We have done so according to manner of
articulation, place of articulation and state of the glottis at the time of speech
production.
5.0 SUMMARY
You have in this unit, specified the grouping (patterning) of the consonant sounds
according to the following criteria.
(i) voicing and vibration of the vocal folds/cords;
(ii) the manner of articulation;
(iii) the place of articulation
We are now ready to go on to the patterning/grouping of the vowel/phonemes.

Mention the criteria and then group the consonants of English.

University Press.
Eka, D. (1996). Phonological Foundations 1: English: Uyo: Scholars Press.
Clark, J & C. Yallop (1990): An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology; Oxford;

Basil Blackwell.
Table of Contents
This unit introduces you to sound patterning, grouping and organisation. The language
of illustration is English. The unit is arranged thus:
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 A brief Reference to English Vowels
3.2 Sound Patterning in English: Vowel
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you are exposed to the patterning, grouping and organisation of the vowel
sounds according to their relative duration; according to the part of the tongue raised
or lowered and according to the extent of the raising of the tongue towards the roof of
the mouth.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
i) separate vowels from the standpoint of their relative duration;
ii) identify the vowels according to the part of the tongue raised;
iii) organise the vowels according to the extent of the raising of the tongue towards the
roof of the mouth.
iv) identify vowels based on the lip posture
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

The English language has a total of twenty vowels: twelve pure vowels and eight
diphthongs. Pure vowels, also called monophthongs, are those vowels which are
produced by the movement of the tongue in one direction only. Pure vowels are also
described as simple vocalic sounds that are said to have ‘a steady state articulation’,
implying that the tongue, lips and jaw achieve, however briefly, a stable configuration,
commonly called Target Configuration, if produced in isolation (Clark & Yallop,
1990:73). It is common knowledge that the tongue and lips undergo transitions in
anticipation of a sound that follows or was produced before another sound but these
transitions notwithstanding, a vowel sound which appears to have a stable auditory
quality qualifies to be called a pure vowel.
The diphthongs are often characterised by a glide from one vowel position to another. In
such vocalic sounds, according to Clark & Yallop, (1990: 73), ‘the glide component is so
prominent even though it is still heard as a single sound.’ Unlike the pure vowels, they
are not tied to conventional numbers. The word diphthong comes from Greek. It means
‘double sound.’ The first vowel in a diphthong marks the starting point while the
second sound marks the direction of tongue movement. The first vowel is often longer
and louder than the second. Diphthongs are often transcribed, using diagraphs made
up of two vowel symbols, which represent the starting point and the direction of
movement of the tongue during articulation. The eight English diphthongs are thus:
[ei] as in day, make, great, late

[ai] as in time, light, try, buy
[ɔi] as in boy, noise, joy, buoy
[əu] as in both, soap, know, sold
[au] as in sound, town, owl, cow
[iə] as in dear, idea, hero, here
[uə] as in poor, sure, tour, truant
[eə] as in share, pair, wear, Mary
In addition to eight diphthongs, we also have five triphthongs. In careful and slow
pronunciation, it is often possible to distinguish three vowel sounds articulated
together. These are called triphthongs. For example, a careful pronunciation of the
vowel in the word ‘tower’ shows three vowels in one sound thus: [tɔuə].
In English, there are five triphthongs made up of the five closing diphthongs with
schwa [ə] added to them. Thus we have: PLS CORRECT ALL PHONEME
SYMBOLS, USING MY PREVIOUS CORRECTIONS EARLIER.
[ei] + [ə] – [ei ə] as in player, layer

[ai] + [ə] – [ aiə] as in fire, tyre
[ɔi] + [ə] – [ ɔiə] as in royal, loyal
[əu] + [ə] – [ əuə] as in sower, lower
[au] + [ə] – [ auə] as in flower, tower
In each case, the glide is from the first sound to the second and to the third. As already
noted, it is only the slow and careful English speaker whose speech can feature these
complex vowels. In rapid or normal speech, triphthongs are often reduced to long
vowels and diphthongs with the middle vowel heard only slightly or not at all. The
grouping of these vowels can be seen at a glance in Section 3.1 below.
3.1 Grouping of the Vowel Sounds of English

The vowel sounds of English may be grouped, first, following the relative duration of
the sounds. Here, four subgroups are generally recognised. These are:
i) Long monothongs (pure vowels): [i:, ɔ:, ɔ:, u:, ə:]
ii) Diphthongs (glides): [ei, ɔi, ɔi, əu, ɔu, iə, eə, uə]
iii) Trigpthongs [eiə, ɔiə, ɔiə, əuə, ɔuə]
As you already know, the above are all long vowels.

iv) Short monophthongs (pure vowels): [ɪ, ʌ, e, æ, ɒ, u, ə]
Secondly, the vowel phonemes of English may be grouped according to the part of the
tongue raised. There are three subgroups of vowels here:
[i:, ɪ, e, æ]
[ɒ, ɔ:, u, u:]
i) Front
ii) Back
iii) Central[ʌ, ə, ɜ:]
There is a vowel that does not neatly fit into any of these three subgroups. It is [ɔ:]
[a:]?? usually grouped as nearer back than front. CLASSIFY CORRECTLY!!
Thirdly, the vowel phonemes of English may be grouped according to the extent of
raising of the tongue towards the roof of the mouth. Six subgroups are generally
noted here:
i) Close [i:, u:]

ii) Half-close[ɪ, u]
iii) Half-open[ɔ] [e]??
iv) Between ii) and iii) [e, ə:, ə]??
v) Open [ɔ:] [a:]??
vi) Between iii) and v) [æ]??
The close vowels [i:, u:] may, alternatively, be grouped as high vowels; the half-close
and half-open [ɔ, u, ɔ] may be said to be mid vowels while the open vowel [ɔ:] may
be said to be low vowels.
With regard to the position of the lips at the time of pronunciation,
i) [u:, ɔ:]- USE ROUNDED VS UNROUNDED

ii) [u, ɔ]- OR ROUNDED, NEUTRAL, SPREAD.
iii) [i:, ɔ, e, æ, ɔ, ə:, ə, ɔ:] are realised with spread or neutral lips.
Self Assessment Exercise

How are diphthongs and triphthongs similar to long monophthongs?
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have studied four main groups in relation to the vowel sounds of
English. You have also seen that the vowels of English are quite complex and can
pose problems of organisation, patterning or grouping. However, the different formats
of patterning based on the duration of pronunciation, the extent to which the tongue is
raised, and lip rounding were all used as the parametric determinants of the vowels of
English. Parameters tense/lax (fortis/lenis), oral/nasal not necessary for English
vowels but need mentioning don’t you think?
5.0 SUMMARY
From this unit, you have learnt the grouping of vowels according to:
i) their relative duration;
ii) the part of the tongue raised towards the roof of the mouth;
iii) the extent of raising of the tongue; and
iv) according to the position/shape of the lips.
6.0 TUTOMARKED ASSIGNMENT
Attempt a brief grouping of vowels sounds of English according to the part of
the tongue raised to the roof of the mouth and the extent of such a raising.

Abercrombie, D. (1975). Elements of general phonetics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press.
Eka, D. & Inyang, U. (1996). Aspects of spoken language. Calabar: BON
Universal
Eka, D. (1996). Phonological foundations of English. Uyo: Scholars Press
(Nig.) Ltd.
Table of Contents
This unit introduces you to two very important issues in your course. The issues are
the phoneme and the allophone. The unit is arranged thus:
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 The Phoneme
4.0 The Allophone
5.0 Conclusion
6.0 Summary
8.0 References
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This fourth unit takes you into another very important set of issues in your course –
the phoneme and the allophone. You are taught the meaning of both terms and the
relationship which holds between them.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
(i) explain the terms phoneme and allophone;
(ii) show the relationship between the two;
(iii) illustrate how one symbol could be used to indicate both the phoneme and
the allophone.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Phoneme
We saw in Unit 2 of Module 1, that of the major components of language, sounds
stand out as easily the most important. We also noted that a sound segment which is
capable of changing meaning when replaced by another segment is said to be
significant, contrastive or distinctive. A significant sound segment may be said to
represent a phoneme, but it is very important to note that the phoneme itself is an
abstraction – something which exists in our thought! A phoneme manifests itself in
the form of a significant sound, so it is our realization of the segments which is
particularly important in natural language, not the isolation of the abstraction.
If we consider the phonological rank scale which has the tone group, the foot, the
syllable and the phoneme, we can say that the phoneme is the smallest meaningful unit
within a phonological rank scale. Hyman (1975:59) defines the phoneme in a way
similar to the above popular definition: “a minimal unit of sound capable of
distinguishing words of different meanings.” Thus, the sounds / r / and / l / are
phonemes realized in English and shown to be responsible for the difference in
meaning between the English words read /ri:d/ and lead /li:d/.
A traditional way of arriving at significant sounds in all natural languages (and hence
phonemes in them), is through the construction of minimal pairs. If we take two words
which appear to be the same (morphologically) except in one respect, the different
sound which causes a change in meaning is a phoneme. For instance:
(i) pen, ten /pen/, /ten/
(ii) right, fight /raɪt/, /faɪt/
(iii) sing, king /sɪŋ/, /kɪŋ/
The first sound in each group - /p, t, r, f, s, k/ is a phoneme.
(i) in setting up minimal pairs, we should be careful to note that even though the initial
sounds in each pair are important in signalling differences in meaning, the remaining
sounds in each pair are also representative of phonemes because a change in any of
them will bring about a change of meaning.
Self Assessment Exercise

Briefly distinguish between the terms sound and phoneme.
3.2 The Allophone

A single phoneme can be realized (pronounced) in different ways depending on where
the sound occurs in the word. For instance, the English sound / p / may be aspirated
word initially as shown in Unit 2, Module 1, and would be shown thus [ph]. The same
sound /p/ in the middle of a word will most likely be unaspirated [p], at the end of a
word the same /p/ sound may be unreleased [ p ]. These three “different” /p/ sounds
realized as [ph, p, p ] are all allophones of the same phoneme /p/. If we take Jones’
(1931:74) definition of the term phoneme as “a family of sounds made up of an
important sound and various realizations of that sound” we can come to the conclusion
that in the words park, spark, and wrap the phoneme /p/ is the important sound and
[ph] and [p] and [p] are members of the family representing three different
realizations: word initially [ph], word medially [p] and word finally [ p ]. We shall
revisit the phoneme and the allophone in Module 3, Unit 11 – when we shall be
dealing with phonological system and structure.
4.0 CONCLUSION
From this unit, we have seen that the phoneme is the smallest meaningful
phonological unit of analysis while the allophones are varied forms of the phoneme.
We have also shown that both the phoneme and the allophone play important roles in
the analysis of the sounds of any natural language.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit you have studied two separate but related issues in the analysis of sounds
in natural languages. You have noted why it is generally said that a phoneme is a
family of sounds while the allophones can be said to be members of the family of a
phoneme. You are therefore in a position to appreciate the next topic: organs of
speech.

Briefly distinguish between phonemes and allophones.
7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING
Abercrombie, David (1975). Elements of General Phonetics; Edinburgh, Edinburgh

University Press.
Eka, D. and Inyang Udofot (1996): Aspects of Spoken Language; Calabar, BON
Universal Ltd.
Gimson, A.C. (1980): An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English, London:

Edward Arnold.
Hyman, L. M. (1975). Phonology: Theory and Analysis. New York; Holt, Rinehart
and Winston.
This unit introduces you to two important issues in phonology: phonological system
and phonological structure. The unit is arranged thus:
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Phonological Study: The Coverage
3.2 Phonological System
3.3 Phonological Structure
3.3.1 Complementary Distribution
3.3.2 Free Variation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References
1.0 INTRODUCTION
We saw in Unit 2, the meaning of, and procedure in, phonology. In this unit, you are
taught the coverage of phonology, its system and its structure.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
(i) explain the coverage of phonology;
(ii) distinguish between phonological system and structure;
(iii) discuss freely key issues in phonological structure.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Phonological Study: The Coverage
We have already known that when we talk about phonology, we are concerned with
the way the sound system of a particular language is organized. We have also known
that when we talk about the sound system of a given language we usually mean the
number of phonemes or distinctive and significant sounds as well as the variations of
sounds which may be occasioned by the phonological environment in which the
sounds of such a language occur. This issue of variations is sometimes simplified to
mean the position in which a given sound occurs in a word: whether word initially,
word medially or word finally. All of the above may be referred to as the segmental
phonology of a particular language.
In addition to the above, phonological studies are also concerned with features such as
those of accentuation or rhythm, pitch, intonation or nasalization(-delete, not a
suprasegment in English) which extend to more than one segment in an utterance.
When this happens the phonological study is said to be concerned with nonsegmental
phonology. The term suprasegmental or prosodic is also used in some sources,
particularly the early ones… to describe what happens in relation to nonsegmental
phonology. The prefix –supra – suggests that the features are simply attached to the
segments, whereas they run over a segment. So the term nonsegmental is apparently
more descriptive of the functions of features such as intonation and rhythm. Module 4
of your course is devoted to aspects of nonsegmental phonology of English.
Self-assessment Exercise
Briefly distinguish between segmental and nonsegmental phonology.
3.2
s Phonological System
A phonological system is generally concerned with phonological units which are
significant and/or contrastive and are therefore differentially replaceable with other
significant units within a given language. Such units constitute the core of the
phonological system. A major feature of the phonological system is that the units in
each system have the function of distinguishing or isolating words and changes in
words as a result of occurrence in mutually inclusive environments. They have little or
no opportunity of influencing each other with regard to pronunciation since they enter
vertical arrangements.
Phonological units in vertical arrangement are usually said to be those in paradigmatic

distribution. They are separate and are realizable generally in isolation. If we take the
words (a) port (b) keen and (c) milk for example and arrange the contrastive sound
units paradigmatically, we notice the following:
A B C
p K M
ɔ: i: ɪ
t N l
k
An analysis of these entries shows that in A the /p/ cannot be said to be aspirated
neither can we claim that the voiceless consonant /t/ at the bottom of the first
arrangement has had the effect of reducing the length of / :/ in any way. For the
vowel sound in B there can be no claim that the /n/ at the bottom has led to the
slightest attempt at nasalizing /i:/. In C the quality of the liquid lateral /l/ does not
suggest that it has occurred in the middle of the word! It is as clear as it would have
been if it had occurred at the beginning. All these show that items in paradigmatic
distribution which form the core of the phonological system do not normally influence
each other.
3.3 Phonological Structure

A phonological structure is generally concerned with phonological units which co-
occur together in a horizontal arrangement. Such co-occurrence is generally known to
exhibit reciprocal influences as a result of nearness to each other. For instance, if a
long sound occurs at the end of a word, it is likely to remain long in a normal
pronunciation of words like:
bar /ba:/
see /si:/
we /wi:/
But if these long sounds are arrested by consonants, for instance if we now
have barred /ba:d/
seen /si:n/
weed /wi:d/
The durations are slighted affected. If they were arrested by voiceless consonants, the
durations of /a:/, /i:/ and /i:/ in bar, see and we would have been greatly reduced.
These facts will become clearer to you when your programme takes you to a study of
synchronic sound change. Also expect further clarification when we get to Unit 12,
Module 4. If however, we go back to our examples under phonological system – port,
keen and milk, we are likely to understand what happens under phonological structure.
The arrangement would then be syntagmatic (as against the one of phonological
system which we had as paradigmatic). The syntagmatic arrangement is horizontal
thus:
port /pɔ: t/
keen /ki:n/
milk /mɪlk
In the first illustration, the influence of / t / ending the word /pɔ: t/ is to reduce the
length of /ɔ:/ drastically.
In the second illustration, the influence of the nasal /n/ is to create a situation of partial
nasalization for the vowel /i:/.
In the third illustration, the occurrence of the liquid (lateral) /l/ word medially shows
that ordinarily the /l/ cannot be clear, it must be dark or velarized. This is so because
in English the clear /l/ occurs only word initially. Medially and finally, the /l/ becomes
dark and is represented thus: /ɔ/??. Milk would then be shown to be /mɔɔk/.?!
Indeed, a lot of reciprocal influences occur with items in phonological structure and
with syntagmatic distribution which marks the core of the phonological structure.
However, we shall take a look at two more issues in connection with the phonological
structure. These are complementary distribution and free variation.
3.4.1 Complementary Distribution

Within the phonological structure of English, there are sounds which enter into
complementary distribution. Such sounds are normally allophones of phonemes.
Allophones in complementary distribution are those which cannot be replaced by
other allophones without bringing about a change in the meaning of the words(-
allophones don’t result in change in meaning, that’s why they are called
ALLOPHONES, OR ELSE they would be PHONEMES IN THAT LANGUAGE!!)
concerned. Put differently, sounds in complementary distribution occur in mutually
exclusive environments: they have no contexts in common.
If we take the /l/ sound, we notice that word initially it is always clear /l/, word
medially and finally it is usually dark or velarized: [ɫ]. So, normal speakers of English
cannot use the clear /l/ word medially or finally just as they cannot use the dark [ɫ]
word initially. Notice that the dark [ɫ] is usually written with a tilde across it.
In a similar way, if we take three words: cat, Kate and caught, we notice that each
starts with [k] which is an allophone of /k/. But the [k] in cat is “different” from the
[k] in Kate and both are “different” from the [k] in caught. But the differences are not
significant: the /k/ sounds adjust themselves to the nearby vowels - /æ/ in /kæt/, /ei/, in
/keit/ and /ɔ:/ in /kɔ:t/. This is the sense in which the [k] sounds are allophones of /k/.
3.4.2 Free Variation

Within the phonological system of English there are contrastive items which may be
used not for the purpose of bringing about a change in the meaning of a given word,
but with the intention of bringing about a change in pronunciation. When this happens,
the items within the phonological system are seen to operate within the phonological
structure. Thus the words.
embrace may be pronounced [ 'embreis] or [ ' mbreis]
either may be pronounced ['ai:ð ə] or ['i:ð ə]
economics may be pronounced ['i:kn miks] or ['ekn miks]
It should be noted that free variation is not a universal event: there are many people
who stick to the pronunciations they had learnt from the beginning or who are not
easily influenced by speakers around them. But every speaker has the capacity to
notice when sounds are used in free variation.
4.0 CONCLUSION
You have, in this unit, been exposed to coverage of phonology. You have also learnt
additional very important issues in this unit: phonological system and phonological
structure.
5.0 SUMMARY
The main issues discussed in this unit are:
(i) the coverage of phonology
(ii) phonological system – the core
(iii) phonological structure – syntagmatic/complementary distribution; free
variation

Briefly distinguish between sounds in complementary distribution and those in
free variation.
Eka, D. (1996). Phonological Foundations 1: English; Uyo Scholars Press
Eka, D. and Inyang Udofot (1996) Aspects of Spoken Language. Calabar: BON
Universal.
Lyons,John (1990): Language and Linguistics: An Introduction; Cambridge

University Press.
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Phonological Processes
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor - Marked Assignment
7.0 References
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Phonological processes are a common and predictable part of phonological

development often recognized as simple pronunciation alteration. When phonemes are
combined to form words, the segments of neighbouring phonemes become juxtaposed
and sometimes undergo changes. Changes can also occur based on phonological
environment. Such changes are found in word initial, medial and word final positions
in relation to a segment and are all referred to as ‘phonological processes’.
4.1 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this unit is to:

differentiate sound changes that occur in or within words.
state what causes these changes
identify the relationship between sounds in a sequence.
differentiate phonological processes.
discuss how phonological processes function in languages.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Phonological Processes
Phonological processes are the changes sounds undergo for occurring with other
sounds in a particular phonological environment. They are a set of restructuring which
link the underlying structure to the phonetic surface structure. It presents the realised
sequence from the deep structure to the surface structure. One interesting aspect of the
phonology of languages is that organised sounds of each language are not always
static. They are constantly affected by the surrounding or neighbouring sounds, that is,
the neighbouring segments always condition them. These conditioning are governed
by rules called,’ Phonological Rules’. Sometimes phonological changes are not
merely strictly phonological, changes may occur in the morphology or syntax that
warrant a phonological change’
Phonological rules have to be exact in their scientific accounts of linguistic analysis.
As such the rule should be scientifically and notationally represented:
X y /b
In the formula above, ‘X’ which is the main focus of the analysis refers to the input to
the alternation, while ‘y’ shows the feature changed to, by rule application. The slant
‘/’ refers to the context or environment in which the change occurs.
One important thing about this formula is that any of the elements (x, y, b) could be
null. This makes it possible to capture different phonological processes within this
formula. If in an analysis, we discover that the input ‘x’ is null, the rule will appear,
Ǿ y/b
This kind of a change can be noticed in some varieties of spoken language. For
example, most Nigerian languages do not tolerate consonant clusters. Whenever a
Nigerian speaker of English as a second language meets a word in English that has
consonant clusters, he is likely to break the cluster and simplify the structure to suit
his own language for easier articulation. For example,
‘bread’ /bred/ [buredi}
CCVC CVCVCV
In the above the English ‘CCVC’ structure has been simplified to ‘CVCV’ structure.
Phonological processes are the principles or norms which explain how abstract units
are combined and vary when they are used in speech, such processes are assimilation
nasalisation, dissimilation, coalescence, contraction, elision, neutralization,
metathesis, insertion etc.
3.1.1 Assimilation
Assimilation is a phonological process where a speech sound changes and becomes
more like another sound, which follows or precedes it. e.g.:
Im – possible impractical
In – tolerant impatient
In – tangible impartial
In – decent immaterial
In – delible indirect
In – sincere imbalance
In the above, the forms with the prefix as ‘im-’ take bilabial plosives as /p/ and /b/ or
nasal /m/, while those with ‘in-‘prefix take alveolar plosives or fricative /s/ . There is
anticipation as both are articulated at the same place and this decides which phoneme
that is to follow.
On the other hand, the difference between /s/ in the English word ‘cats’ and the /z/ in
‘dogs’ is another kind of assimilation.
The most common phonological rule is assimilation, as many other process have their
root in assimilation.
The functions of assimilation are:

• To save time
• To anticipate other sounds
• For ease of articulation
Assimilation is considered in terms of features as: this is totally unclear from the
examples above.
ɔ m/-b ɔ/-
f n/-l or
d ŋ/-k
ŋm/-gb
Assimilation can be either:
(i) Progressive Assimilation: The assimilated sound follows the conditioned
sound. It is a sort of hand over phenomenon. It is when the change proceeds
from left to right.
Man /mãn/
No /n ∂~υ /
Notationally, this can be captioned as:
/V/ ˜V/N-
(ii) Regressive Assimilation (anticipatory) takes place from right to left (R –
L). The assimilated sound precedes (comes before) the conditioning sound.
bon /b˜ ‫כ‬/ So which is the assimilated sound, and which the
conditioning sound? Also, let a secretary place the tilde (nasalization
symbol over the vowels)
bomb / b˜ ‫כ‬m/
song /s˜ ‫כ‬ŋ/
son /s˜Dn/
By rule application, the above phonological process can be notationally stated:
V ˜V /-N (before)
This means that a non-nasal sound changes to a nasalised sound in an environment
before a nasal sound.
Nasalisation
Nasalisation is a phonological process whereby a non-nasal sound picks on the
features of a nasal sound because it occurs in the same distributional environment. e.g.
sing [sĩŋ]
pin [pĩn]
pen [pĕn]
sand [sãnd]
It is a secondary articulation, which results from the process of assimilation.
Dissimilation
Dissimilation is a process whereby sounds become less similar to their surrounding
segments. This process is less common than the assimilation. It creates
distinctiveness in sounds in the same environment. In English the adjectival suffix –
‘al’, has two phonetic realizations of ‘-al’ or ‘-ar’ e.g.
A B
Noun - Adjective Noun - Adjective
Electric – electrical Angle - Angular
Culture – cultural Single - Singular
Region – regional Title - Titular
Orbit – orbital Circle - Circular
When the ‘-al’ is added to a word that already ends in ‘–l’, it takes the form –ar,
where the ‘–r’ is dissimilar to the ‘–l’ of the noun. However, there are exceptions to
this rule(s). This is morphologically-induced.
Coalescence
This is a phonological process whereby two contiguous sounds are replaced by one
which, though different from each of the two, shares some properties in common with
each of the two original sounds. In English coalescence occurs when a morpheme final
alveolar plosive or fricative /t, d/ or /s, z/ is followed by [ j ], a palato – alveolar fricative
results, mostly when the segment is followed by the suffix “-ion” e.g.,
relate /rileit/ relation /rileiʃ ∂ n/
confuse /k ∂ nfju:z/ confusion /kənfju:ʃ∂ n/
Contraction
Contraction is a phonological process whereby a sequence of two identical segments
is reduced to one. This process is always identifiable with vowels and it is usually a
direct result of vowel assimilation, but can also be found in consonants. This process
is dominant in Nigerian languages e.g. Isoko
da + udi
drink water
Duud
by assimilation i
by contraction Dudi
drink water
Vowel Reduction
Vowel Reduction is a phonological process whereby unstressed vowels are weakend
to schwa, this process abounds in English, e.g.
phone /f ∂ un/ phonemics /fe ∂ ni:mIks/
phone /f ∂ un/ phonetics /f ∂ netiks/
photography /f ∂ utəgra:f/ photography /f ∂ tɒgrəfI/
able /eIbl/ ability / ∂ bil ∂ ti/
super /su:p ∂ ) superior /s ∂ :pI ∂ rIə/
telegraphy /t ∂ legr ∂ fi/
telegraphy /tl ∂ gra:f/ /telәgra:f/
Elision /Deletion
This is a phonological process whereby a segment that had existed is lost or becomes
zero. The process may affect a vowel or a consonant. Some segments that are heard in
a deliberate or slow articulation of a word in isolation may get deleted/elided or lost in
festination (fast speech) and this can even affect an entire syllable. Deletion exists in
many forms:
(i) Aphaeresis: This affects a morpheme or a sound at initial position. This is
initial deletion e.g. I have – I’ve
The loss could be diachronically (history) traced.
Other examples are:
Knight /nait/
Know /n ∂ u/
Pneumonia /njium ∂ ni ∂ /
Psychology /saik ∂ lɒʤi/
(ii) Syncope (Syncopation) is the internal deletion e.g.

listen/lisn/
sword /sɔ:d/
often /ɔfn/
castle /kæsl/
plumber /plɔm ∂ /
secretary /sektri/
chocolate /ʧɒkleit/
(iii) Apocope (Apocopation) is the deletion of the final segment e.g.
and /ə n/
last time /læstaim/
Apocopation abounds in French words borrowed into English e.g.
coup /ku:/
debut /debju:/
depot /dep ∂ u/
chalet /ʃæleɪ/
sachet /sæʃeɪ/
In French, the final vowels of the definite article ‘le’ and ‘la’ are always deleted if the
following word begins with a vowel. This process prevents sequences of vowels from
occurring across word boundaries and thus maintains the preferred ‘CV’ structure.
le garcon [l ∂ ga:sən] The boy
le ami [l’ami] The friend (male
la fille [la fij] The girl
la amie [lamie] The friend (female)
Neutralization
This is a fact of language. It is a process, which takes place when two distinctive
sounds (phonemes) in a language are no longer distinctive. This usually occurs in
particular positions in a word. For example /t/ and /d/ are neutralized inter-
vocalically (in between vowel sounds) in American English as in:
Betting [beɔɔŋ ]
Bedding [be ɔɔŋ ]
In German /t/ and /d/ do not contrast at word final positions e.g;
Rad [ra:t]
Rat [ra:t}
Metathesis
This is a phonological process whereby the order of segments is juxtaposed. The
process involves movement, permutation or reversal of segments in a string. This is
common in speech errors and children’s language.
Some refer to it as spoonerism coined from Professor Spooner who liked
juxtapositioning segment e.g.
professor prossefor
ask aks
comfortable comfterble
certificate cerfiticate
relevant revelant
disc dics
This process has shaped many English words historically. The discrepancy between
some spellings and pronunciations is caused by metathesis. For example, ‘iron’.
Even ‘bird’ in English was once ‘bryd’, ‘run’ was once ‘ irnan’, ‘horse’ was ‘hros’,
‘wasp’ was ‘wæps’, and ‘hasp’ ‘hæps’.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Phonological processes are the natural facts of languages. It is natural because it is

common among all the languages of the world. Phonological processes are the
changes phonemes undergo because they happen to occur with other sounds in the
same environment. The most common of all the processes is ‘Assimilation’. All other
processes like nasalization, metathesis, neutralization, insertion, deletion etc can be
traced to assimilation process.
5.0 SUMMARY
Phonological process is the change sounds undergo for occurring in the same
environment with other sounds. These changes could be phonological, morphological
and syntactic. Phonologically, a sound change can be conditioned based on
phonological environment as in ‘physics’ /fiziks/. The‘s’ changes to /z/ because it
occurs in between two vowel sounds. The sound‘s’ is a voiced, while ‘y’ and ‘i’
consonant are voiced sounds. The voiceless sound /s/ has to change to [z] a voiced
sound to be like ‘y’ and ‘I’ in terms of voicing. It could be morphologically
conditioned when it happens across word boundary. Consider the English regular past
tense formation ‘-ed’ and the regular plural suffixation ‘-s’. These processes are
meant for ease of articulation, save time and anticipation of neighbouring sounds.
1. What are phonological Processes?
2. List the various phonological processes and explain only five with copious
examples.
3. What are the functions of these processes in language development?

Bowen, C. (1998). Developmental phonological disorders: A practical guide for
families and teachers. Melbourne: ACER Press.
Grunwell, P. (1997). Natural phonology. In M. Ball & R. Kent (Eds.), The

new phonologies: Developments in clinical linguistics. San Deigo:
Singular Publishing Group, Inc.
Phonological Processes: C:\Documents and Settings\Administrator\My

Documents\Phonological Processes 1.htm. Retrieved 22/12/ 2007
Phonological Processes: C:\Documents and Settings\Administrator\My

Documents\Phonological Development - Phonological Processes.htm.
Retrieved 22/12/ 2007.
Phonological Rules: C:\Documents and Settings\Administrator\My

Documents\Phonological Rules 3.htm. Retrieved 22/12/ 2007.
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Minimal Pairs
3.2 Types of Minimal Pairs
3.3 Phonetic Base for Minimal Pairs
3.3.1 Phone
3.3.2 Phoneme
3.3.3 Allophone
3.4 Examples of Minimal Pairs
3.4.1 Sound Segments
3.4.2 Suprasegments
3.4.3 Stress Placement
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Minimal pairs are an important means of establishing the distinctive nature of a
phoneme in English. Until a phonetic form passes the test of its being compared to a
contextual form in which it is not replaceable by another phoneme, it cannot be placed
in a distinct class of independent sound. The meaning content can also not be
established. It is seen more as a mere phone, a mere sound made but with no particular
meaning being distinctly conveyed by it. This unit will therefore show you how to
establish the distinct form of a sound through the use of minimal pairs. It will also
discuss the instruments for distinguishing phonetic elements. It is also going to show
the distinct nature of phones, phonemes, and allophones to avoid confusing them. This
unit will also give examples of minimal pairs in the segmental and suprasegment
forms.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, you should be able to:
• discuss the nature of minimal pairs
• identify types of minimal pairs
• state the instruments for establishing minimal pairs
• discuss the different aspects of phonetics that contribute to establishing
minimal pair types
• give examples of segmental minimal pairs
• give examples of suprasegmental minimal pairs
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Minimal Pairs
Minimal pairs are representative of elements of speech, which have difference only in
one segment of their make-up. What this means is that just one sound segment being
changed can cause a difference to the word in terms of its meaning and possibly status.
Also, the change in the syllable stressed in some English words can lead to a change in
their class and function. You may of course find this comparable in the Yoruba tonal
structure, at the semantic level. In the Yoruba tonal structure as is common with many
Nigerian indigenous languages, the placement of the tonal mark has implication for
the pronunciation of the word and also its semantic content. As such, a word like
[agbon] will have different meaning due to change in the direction of the pitch of
voice. As such,
1. Àgbon (coconut)
2. Agbòn (basket)
3. Àgbòn (jaw)
4. Agbón (wasp)
are only different on the basis of tonal placement on the word. This affects what they
mean even though they are spelt the same way. Naturally, their having different tone
position leads to different pronunciation. The four examples above clearly indicate
that tone is phonemic in the Yoruba language. This could be found to be the same in
many Nigerian languages. The examples above illustrate the way minimal pairs
function as it is obvious that what makes a difference in the words is just the
movement of the tone from one point to the other.
Nonetheless, the best language to illustrate this functioning of minimal pairs appears
to be English. Examples of minimal pairs in English could be seen below. For
instance, the difference between [bit] and [pit] is just the sound segments [b] and [p].
It is obvious then that minimal pairs clearly make a difference in the meaning that
words have. The essential concept is that when a segment is replaced it changes the
meaning of the word as we see in the words pit and bit. The change in the initial
segment thus changes the meaning of the words. This makes it easy to establish that
these two sounds are different sounds. This essentially is what minimal pairs are used
to do in the phonology of the English language. In this way, it establishes the
difference in two segments or suprasemental elements. Minimal pairs are then
possible tools that can be used to establish phonemic status of sounds and other
speech elements.
Discuss, with 10 examples from your language, some words or phrases in which tone
is phonologically significant.
3.2 Types of Minimal Pairs

Minimal pairs can occur at the segmental sound level and the level of the
suprasegmentals, especially that of stress. As the examples above have illustrated,
minimal pairs are not the exclusive preserve of segmental elements in English. Stress
placement can have implication for the meaning and the pronunciation of a word. For
example, a word like import can have two different meanings due to the position its
stress occupies in the word. As it is obvious, the word has two syllables [im.port]. The
syllable division is done with the dot within the word in the square bracket to divide it
into two syllables. When the primary stress is placed on the first syllable, the word is
pronounced with the first vowel having full realisation. But when the stress shifts to
the second syllable, the second vowel now has full realisation while the first one
becomes unstressed.
In addition, the class of the word changes due to the stress positioning. What this
means is that the first realisation of the word with the stressed syllable being the first
one makes the word realised as a noun. However, when the stress shifts position to the
second syllable, it is realised as a verb. This shows that stress is also phonemic in the
English language. The question then is what are these phonemic elements that enable
us to establish the phonemic status of the phonetic elements in English?
Self Assessment Exercise 2

State two types of minimal pairs that you are familiar with.
3.3 Phonetic Base for Minimal Pairs

The phonetic base for minimal pairs can be found in the phonetic elements that help us
to determine the nature of a sound. In phonology, there are not just speech sounds, but
the function each one performs is important in establishing its nature. This is why we
continue to say that phonology is about the functioning of sounds in language. The
terms phone, phoneme and allophone are different based on their nature and the
functions they perform in language. We will thus discuss these terms to establish what
they are and how they contribute to minimal pairs functioning in the English language.
Let us look therefore closely at the terms: phone, phoneme and allophone.
3.3.1 Phone
When we talk of a phone, we are referring to the sound elements made within a
language. When we make sounds, we are merely producing phonic entities. Thus, in
producing [p, t, k, l, r, e, ɔ, ɔ:, a:, etc.], we are merely making sounds. (Note: the
square brackets are used to indicate phones while the slanting brackets indicate the
sounds have been established as phonemes.) But to establish them as being significant
will require another test. And this is where minimal pairs become a useful tool in
establishing the significance of any phone. When it becomes significant, it is referred
to as phoneme.
3.3.2 Phoneme
A phoneme is a sound segment that has been found to possess significance in terms of
its existence and meaningfulness within a language. Thus, to establish a phone as
being an actual phoneme requires putting it in the environment of other sounds in
order to see if it can function meaningfully.
Thus by putting [p] in the environment of segments like [-it] to form pit, we see that it
can combine with other sounds to form a meaningful word. But to establish its being
an independent phoneme in contrast to some other phonemes now requires its sharing
this environment with them. Thus, we may replace /p/ with [k] in the environment of
/-it/ in order to create kit. In this way, we are able to establish that /k/ is different from
/p/ in that they can both occur within the same environment. This is the convention
that is called minimal pair. That is the pairing of sound segments at minimal levels to
establish their independent forms.
3.3.3 Allophone
Allophones are usually variants of the same phoneme. Unlike in the case of different
phonemes, these cannot occur in the same environment. They are usually mutually
exclusive. And the reason for their occurrences is more often phonological. When a
single phoneme is realized in different environments by a series of phones, we say the
different occurrences are the allophonic variations of the same phoneme. What this
means is that a phoneme gets realized in a particular manner in a particular
environment. This particular manner of being realized is a peculiar way of being
realized by this phoneme in this sort of environment. The phoneme may not get
realized in this particular manner in another environment.
We may take, for instance, the sound /t/. This sound can get greatly influenced by
different situations around it. This phoneme is what is regarded as the phonemic
representation or underlying representation of the phoneme. The alternative
realizations are that /t/ becomes aspirated in the stressed syllable initial position. This
allophonic realization of /t/ is written as [th], the phonetic realization.
/t/ also gets nasalised when followed by a homorganic nasal. That is, when followed
by /n/, which is also an alveolar sound like /t/, sound /t/ begins to anticipate the
pronunciation of the following /n/ sound and thus releases its air stream partly through
the nose. We write it as [tN].
/t/ also becomes lateralised when followed by a homorganic lateral. That is, the
alveolar lateral /l/ following /t/ in a word like bottle /bɔtLl/ gets anticipated in the
course of finishing the production of /t/ in the word above. Thus, /t/ gets finished in
producing /l/
We can thus see four possible realizations of /t/. It may be just the voiceless alveolar
plosive as in bat or cat. It may be realized with aspiration as in tape or nasalised as in
cotton or lateralised as in kettle. These four realizations occurred in different
environments and they are therefore referred to as allophonic variants of the same
phoneme.
We however note that they cannot be regarded as different phonemes because the
sound underlying the representations can still occur in the same environment in a
minimal pair. Thus,
tape – take, bat – bet, etc.

Using any segment as example, fully discuss the allophonic variation that are possible
with your chosen sound.
3.4 Examples of Minimal Pairs

3.4.1 The Sound Segments
/i:/ /ɪ / /f/ /v/
feel fill fan van
wheel will fail vale
seat sit fain vain
feet fit fewer viewer
leak lick fear veer
/æ/ /a: / /s/ /z/

bad bard seal zeal
pack park loose lose
had hard house(n) house(v)
mad marred these this
ban barn bus buzz
/e/ /ʌ / /i: / / /
bed bud cheap sheep
said Sud catch cash
bet But cheese she’s
/ɜ:/ / a:/ /r/ /l/

fur far rack lack
bird bard brake Blake
burn barn road load
/ʌ / /ɜ:/ // /s/?!
bud bird shot /ɒ/ sot
puss purse shoot /u:/ soot
such search shed /e/ said
/ɒ / /a :/ /p/ /b/
cot caught pill bill
rot wrought pin bin
cod cord pen Ben
don dawn rip rib
/u/ /u:/ /t/ /d/

full fool team deem
soot suit tin din
wood wooed try dry
/ʌ / /ɒ / /k/ /g/
done Don cap gap
stuck stock lack lag
putt pot rack rag
shut shot craze graze
/e/ /eɪ/ /t/ /θ/

debt date tick thick
get gate bat bath
red raid writ wreath
wedge wage tree three
/ ɔ :/ /əu/ /θ/ /ð/ born

bone thigh thy
court coat wreaths Wreathes
walk woke teeth teethe
porch poach mouth (n) mouth (v)
/əu/ / a u/ /ð/ /d/

tone town then den
boat Bout than Dan
drone drown breathe breed
wrote rout lather ladder
/ ɔ i/ / ai/ /v/ /w/

boy Buy vent went
oil Aisle vale wail
boil Bile vain wane
/l/ /j/ /ð/ /z/

loo ewe breathe breeze
lose use writhe rise
lawn yawn seethe seize
/z/ /ʒ / /ʃ/ /ʒ /
composer composure ruche rouge
Caesar seizure shone genre
bays beige Aleutian allusion
/m/ /n/ /n/ /ŋ/

maim name thin thing
dame Dane sinner singer
/h/ /w/ /ŋ/ /g/

horse worse bang bag
who woo sang sag
hate wait hang hag
/h/ / - i: /
heat Eat
hill Ill
heel eel

Give examples of ten sounds and the possible minimal pairs of the sounds.
3.4.2 Stress as a Phonemically Significant Element

The position in which the stress is placed in this group of words is phonemic. That is,
it is significant in terms of its function and meaning.
Such words are usually spelled or written orthographically in exactly the same
manner. However, as we are well aware by now from all our previous discussions, a
stressed syllable has its nucleus fully realized whereas a non-stressed syllable will be
realized as the weak form. Thus, the position of the stress in these words affects the
pronunciation of certain syllables. While a syllable that has a full-vowel realization
has one pronunciation of the word, the other may have the weak form realized due to
the shift of the stress mark in another.
Examples are:
I have inserted ALL the stress marks AND correct phoneme symbols where ommitted!
Noun/Adjective Verb
ʹpermit /pɜ:mɪt/ perʹmit /pəmɪt/
ʹperfect /pɜ: fikt/ perʹfect /pəfekt/
ʹcombined /kɔmbaind/ comʹbine /kəmbain/
ʹpresent /preznt/ preʹsent /prizent/
You should try and get other examples of your own.

Give about 10 examples of words that have stress significance in their usage and
demonstrate how they operate.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have learnt about minimal pairs. We have seen that minimal pairs are
very important in establishing the significance of a phone for it to become a phoneme.
We have also seen that allophones are mere variants of the same phoneme as opposed
to how minimal pairs help us to establish individual phonemes through the means of
substitution. It is thus obvious that minimal pair is an important device in establishing
independent phonemes/sounds of English. The copious examples given reveal this.
5.0
s SUMMARY
This unit discusses minimal pairs. It specifically defines what minimal pair is and how
it functions. It outlines different types of minimal pairs possible in English language
as segmental and suprasegmental. It also establishes phonetics as the base for the
phonological establishment of minimal pairs. It gives copious examples of segmental
and suprasegmental minimal pairs that are possible in English language.

1. Discuss what you understand by minimal pairs in English.
2. State clearly two points in phonetics at which minimal pairs can be applied.
3. Identify three phonetic points that form basis for minimal pairs operation in
the English language.
4. Give 10 different examples of segmental sounds and two possible
minimal pairs formed with each.
5. Give 15 examples of minimal pairs formed with the suprasegmental element of
stress in English sentences.

Daniel, I. O. (2005). Introductory Phonetics and Phonology of English. Ibadan:
Safmos Publishers.
Cruttenden, A. (1994). Gimson’s pronunciation of English . New York:

Edward Arnold.
Arnold, G. F. & Gimson, A. C. (1973). English pronunciation practice. Kent: Hodder

and Stoughton Educational.
MODULE 4: NONSEGMENTAL FEATURES
Unit 2: Defining the Syllable
Unit 5 : Rhythmic Patterns
Table of Contents
This unit introduces you to the nonsegmental features of tone and intonation. The unit
is arranged thus:
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Variations of pitch in natural languages
3.1 Intonation in English: Key notions and variability
3.2 Types of Intonation and their Functions in English
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References
1.0 Introduction
In this unit, you are going to study variations of pitch in natural languages, how the
variations result in tone and intonation, as well as the different types of intonation and
accentual patterns in English.
2.0 Objectives
i) explain variations of pitch in natural languages;
ii) distinguish between tone and intonation;
iii) describe types of intonation patterns;
iv) express the functions of intonation in English
v) listen to and practise the production of intonation patterns as recorded
on your audio tape.
3.0 Variations of Pitch in Natural Languages

It has generally, (indeed universally) been observed that natural languages are never
spoken at one level of voice pitch for a considerable length of time. When people
speak (or read aloud), the voice pitch is always falling or rising, rising or falling,
falling and then rising, rising and then falling and only occasionally level for a
specific effect.
In some languages, the variations indicated here are generally noticed in relation to
the sentence, the clause, the group or even the word. In other languages, the variations
indicated above are usually noticed in relation to the word only. When the variations
relate to items higher than the word, they are normally said to signal intonation, the
patterns of which occur at the ends of specific utterances. Languages which use pitch
variation in this way are generally said to be intonational. English, German and
Russian are examples of intonational languages. When variations in pitch relate to the
word, they are usually said to signal tone. The variations in that case, feature within
the words. The languages which use pitch variation in this way are usually classified
as tonal. Chinese, Spanish, Italian and the majority of African and Nigerian languages
like Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba and Ibibio are in this class.
So, we can talk about intonation patterns in English for instance, and tone patterns in
Ibibio, for example.
The two variations in pitch shown above create melody in natural languages.
But as hinted here, they create melody (musical effect) in different ways and with
different results. As we are concerned in this unit mainly with intonation, we shall
restrict our discussion to intonation in English.
Self-assessment Exercise 18 -Pls number previous assessments (which I deleted)

18. Briefly discuss the term “variability of pitch in natural languages.”
3.1 Intonation in English: Key Notions and Variability

It is now commonly known that there are many speakers of English who, in their
performances, have exploited the rich, variable and almost inexhaustible possibilities
within intonation in English. People in this group are essentially those who speak
English as a first language (L1) and those nonnative speakers (L2 or foreign) who are
appropriately educated in the language. The users of English in this second group
(most probably only a few), have generally employed intonation patterns for two main
purposes – to distinguish meanings and to show various forms of attitude and
emotion. Even for such users of the language, complete agreement on intonation
usage has never been achieved. Indeed, while it is quite possible, (even easy), to reach
agreement on one aspect of functional use of identifying meanings of utterances, it is
not so possible and not so easy to reach agreement on one functional level, namely
that of indicating attitude or emotion. It is for this latter purpose that intonation has
been described as being largely idiosyncratic, conventional to a group and generally
variable from one individual to the other.
There are also some groups of English speakers who have never managed to
get near to exhausting the full range of possibilities offered by intonation in English.
Various groups within L2 speakers and users of English as a foreign language are in
this category. Probably the most easily identifiable in this group are the nonstandard
speakers of the new Englishes in particular. Indeed one can see why the intonation of
a large number of speakers of the new Englishes is often said to be colourless; for a
large number, there is hardly any variation beyond the fall and the rise, with the
former dominating.
Nevertheless, it is worth emphasizing, as in O’Connor (1970: 137-138), that
intonation is a major source of meaning variation in English. Let us illustrate with the
words “Yes” and “No”. These words are common for speakers of English. However,
they can be said in a great variety of ways to bring out various shades of meaning in
English. The morphological shapes of the words may remain the same, but their
meanings could vary with each intonation tune, pattern or contour. For instance, the
•
word “Yes” can be said with a falling tune, ( \ ). In that case, the word would suggest
•
agreement on an issue stated or argued. It can be said with a rising tune, (/ ). In that
case it could suggest a doubt in the mind of the speaker. On a different occasion, a
rising tune could be used to show that the speaker did not understand what was
said. The intonation options shown here in respect of “Yes” are also possible in
respect of “No”.
In a similar way, the words “thank you” may be said on a falling tune, when
they are intended to express gratitude; they may be said on a rising tune when they
are intended to demonstrate casual acknowledgement of something said or done.
Again, the words “good morning” could be said on different tunes. When said
with a falling tune, it suggests formal greeting, which, ordinarily, would need a reply.
When said with a rising pattern, it tends towards causal exchange of pleasantries
often referred to as “phatic communion” which may be replied to in an equally causal
manner. The greetings could even be ignored without creating a problem for the
speakers. Tone, tune, - so what’s the difference? Used confusingly here.
19. Briefly illustrate variability with regard to intonation usage.
3.2 Types of Intonation and Their Functions in English

Put very simply, intonation in English may be classified into two groups in the
first instance:
i) those with pitch movement involving no change of direction on the tonic
syllable;
ii) those with pitch movement involving change of direction on the tonic
syllable.
Intonation in the first group may be said to be simple or undirectional;
intonation in the second case is said to be complex or bidirectional. The fall, the
rise, the level tunes are undirectional. The fall-rise, the rise-fall are bidirectional.
You can appreciate these points by going through the following intonation patterns.
i) The Falling Pattern

Statements without implication, mild commands, wh-questions are generally
known to be realized on a falling intonation. The following are examples:
1(a) Statements without implication
(a) Peter is in London.
(b) Mary played the piano.
1(b) Mild Commands
(a) Take your feet off the chair.

(b) Put the book on the table.
1(c) Wh-questions
(a) Which is the correct answer?
(b) What is your name?
ii) The Rising Pattern

When the pitch of the voice rises at the end of an utterance or at a tonic syllable, we
have a rising intonation. A rise of that nature generally signals none finality such as
we notice in none final coordinates, none final subordinates, first parts of
enumerations, the second parts of some tags.
The rising intonation pattern is also generally noticed in questions requiring
the answer “Yes” or “No”, in requests as well as in statements with implication.
You should note carefully that we are dealing with two types of rises: the
unidirectional rise as in questions requiring the answer “Yes” or “No”, and the
bidirectional rise as in utterances involving a majority of none finality and
statements with implication. The following are examples:
i) None final Coordinates • •
(a) I wanted to go to London; my wife preferred going to Canada

• •
(b) Peter got on a bus; Alice went by sea
In each of the above examples, the falling-rising pattern of intonation occurs

at the tonic syllable of the nonfinal coordinates, namely, London, and bus, while the
falling pattern of intonation occurs at the second coordinate which marks the end of
each sentence.
ii) Nonfinal subordinates- MAKE BOLD/CLEAR PLS. The tones= [\ / ˅ ˄]

•
(a) A year ago, I studied Mathematics
•
(b) Without further explanation, the case ended
•
•
In the two examples above, we see that the falling-rising pattern is at the nonfinal
∪ ∪
subordinates marked by both ago and explanation.
iii) First parts of enumerations

For first parts of enumerations, there are two patterns: either the fall throughout or the
rises plus a final fall. So, we can have either
• • • •
a) Peter bought a book a pen a pencil and a ruler
or
Peter bought a ˅book, a ˅pen
b) a ˅pencil
•
and a \ruler
• • •
iv) Requests
With regard to requests, we often notice the bidirectional rise: the falling-
rising. Examples here include:
a) Could I have your ˅pen?•
b) Come over now, please!•
v) Questions requiring the answer “Yes” or

“No” Examples here include:
a) Should we start off at six?• ϒ
b) Was Alice at home?
What you have so far studied here are the more common, regular, objective,
grammatical or even routine functions of intonation. There are other functions
which tend to be situational, depending on attitude of the speaker to his audience
and to the general context of utterance, to the speaker’s emotion or changes in
situations. For instance, we can say
i) routinely:
‘This is my book’
•
. .
ii) We can say enthusiastically:

‘This is my book’
•
• . .
iii) We can say this same sentence with a shift of the tonic syllable as in
the three examples below here
(a) ‘This is my ‘book
•
• • (tonic on my)
(b) ‘This is my ‘book
•
. . • (tonic on this)
(c) ‘This is my ‘book

•
• . • (tonic on is)
These last three examples are sometimes referred to as contrastive stress. So,
we move on from here to our next focus: accentuation (stress).
20. Listen to the voice on the audio tapes and practice the intonation patterns.
4.0 Conclusion
You have, in this unit, been exposed to the melody of language through your
study of tone and intonation. You have also studied various functions of intonation in
English.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, you have defined the term intonation and have contrasted it with
tone. You have isolated the various uses of intonation patterns such as the falling
pattern, the rising pattern, the fall-rise pattern (the commoner patterns). You have also
learnt that in real life, intonation patterns are much more varied than we have seen
here.
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assessment 11

11. Briefly discuss the functions of intonation in English.
7.0 References and Recommended Texts
Eka. D. (1996). Phonological Foundations: English; Uyo, Scholars Press (Nig) Ltd.
Gimson, A. C. (1977) A Practical Course of English Pronunciation: A Perceptual

Approach; London, William Clowes and Sons Ltd.
O’Connor, J. D. (1970). Better English Pronunciation; Cambridge; Cambridge
University Press.
Unit 2: DEFINING THE SYLLABLE
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Defining the Syllable
13.3 Conclusion
13.4 Summary
13.5 Tutor - Marked Assignment
13.6 References
13.0 INTRODUCTION
A syllable is the smallest unit of pronunciation in a word. It can also be defined as the
puff of air(?) that accompanies the production of speech sounds. This corresponds to a
peak in the flow rate of the pulmonary air stream. Syllable can also be considered as
the most prominent or sonorous sound in a sound neighbourhood(?) or phonetic
environment. Vowels usually form the peak of the syllable, as they are always louder
than consonants. However, some consonants, called syllabic liquids / l, r / and nasals
/m, n/ can also function as the peak of the syllable(s). 13.1 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this unit is to:
• Make you understand the concept: Syllable.
Know the different theoretical definitions of syllable.
Know the different types of syllables.
Know the structure of a syllable.
Know how to determine syllable boundaries.
Know how to determine the strength or weight of a syllable.
13.2 DEFINING THE SYLLABLE
The exact definition of syllable has been elusive, because of the problems associated
with syllabification of words. Considering the different phonological theories of
syllables, syllables can be defined based on:
13.2.1. CHEST PULSE THEORY
Physiologically, Stetson using CHEST PULSE THEORY defines syllable from the
point of view of its production as a “puff of air pushed upward through the
vocal tract by a compression of the intercostals muscles”. This corresponds to a
peak in the flow rate of the pulmonary air stream. He says, every syllable consists
of three successive phases:
• The release phase
• The culminate phase
• The arrest of the pulse phrase
The consonant sounds form the release and the arrest of the pulse phases (onset
and coda), while the vowel sound or the nucleus or the peak form the culminate
phrase. Thus a syllable is described structurally as comprising:
• The onset
• The nucleus or peak
• The coda
Syllable
Rhyme
13.2.2 PROMINENCE/ SONORITY THEORY

Onset
Peak Coda
Phonetically, a Danish phonetician, Otto Jesperson, defines syllable as the most
prominent or relatively loudest or most sonorous sound(Nucleus)inasound neighbourhood or

phonetic environment. Vowels usually form the peak of the syllable, as they are more
sonorous than consonants. However, some consonants, called syllabic liquids / l, r /
and nasals /m, n, / can also function as the peak of the syllable(s).
Sonority is the phonetic loudness of sounds, thus syllables are associated with the
peak of sonority. Oral stops are the least sonorous while vowels are the most
sonorous. Thus, he came up with sonority hierarchy table. –Arrange correctly
Stops Fricatives Nasals Liquids semi-vowels

Vowel
Note that the sonority of a sound is determined primarily by the size of the resonance
more plainly audible than a higher vowel / i, І, u: u / uttered with the same force, and
chamber through which the air stream flows. Thus within vowels, the low vowel is
any vowel is more sonorous than any consonant.
Goldsmith (1990:11) Sonority Hierarchy

Vowels sound sonority index
-low vowels a 10
-mid vowels e, o 9
-high vowels i, u 8
Glides r 7
Liquids l 6
Nasals m, n 5
Obstruents s 4
Fricatives v, z, ð 3
Affricate f, θ 2
Stops b, d, g, p, t, k 0.5
Arithmetic system
The larger the chamber of the mouth, the more sonorous the sound. For example,
compare / i, e, a / or / u, ‫ כ‬, a /. Producing these sounds as arranged, there is a sort of
grading in terms of resonance based on the opening and the chamber created as the
production of these sounds progress. The articulation of / a / sound in the two groups
has a greater resonance than any other sound in the groups.
Among the sounds that constitute the word ‘claim’, the diphthong / ei / is the most
sonorous as shown in the graph below.
Claim /kleim/
Sonority Peak
v
s
l
N
S
0 k l eI m
13.2.3 THE STRUCTURE OF SYLLABLE

Syllables are usually described as consisting of a centre, which has little or no
obstruction to air flow, and which sounds comparatively louder; before and after this
centre, there will be greater obstruction to airflow and / or less loud sound.
The four major structures are:
• A minimum syllable with a single vowel in isolation e.g. are /a: /, or /‫כ‬: / and
err /з:/
These are preceded and followed by silence. Structurally this is a V-syllable
structure.
• Some syllables have an onset e.g. bar /ba: /, key / ki: /, more /m‫כ‬: /. CV-
structure
• Syllables with no onset, but coda e.g. am /æm/, ought /‫כ‬:t /, ease /i:z/. VC
structure
• Syllables with onset and coda e.g. run /r٨n /, sat / sæt /, fill / fIl /. CVC
structure
Thus syllable structure can be represented thus:
a) bats / b æ t s /
ð
O N M (C)
/ b t s/
/evƏ/
æ
b) Ever
ð ð
R O R
/ e + v Ə/
c) Little / litl /
ð ð
O R O R
N N
/l I + t l /
Note:ð - Syllable
O – Onset
R – Rhyme
N – Nucleus
M – Margin
+ - Syllable boundary
The major problem in the phonetic description of the syllable is on the division
between syllables or syllable boundary (+). There are some words that the
exact syllable boundary cannot be determined. For example;
I. Aroma / ∂r∂uma /
II. Extra
ekst + ə ekstr + ə
/ ekstrə /
e + kstrə ek + strə eks + trə
In the word ‘going’ / g ∂uІŋ /, does / ɪ / belong to the first or second syllable, since its
articulation is slightly closer to obstructing airflow than the vowels next to it.
Phonologically, / ɪ / is part of the / əu / diphthong phoneme. This makes syllabification
a bit difficult.
Syllabification provides a way of grouping arrays of CV elements into syllables. It is

clear that each V-element will be associated with a syllable peak. What is confusing is
which syllable nodes are C-elements e.g. panic “CVC VC-structure”. The onset first
principle (Khan 1976, Clements and Keyser 1983) says,
a) Syllable-initial consonants are maximised to the extent consistent with the
syllable structure of the language concerned.
b) Subsequently, syllable-final consonants are maximised to the extent consistent
with the syllable structure of the language in question.
Principle (a) must apply before (b) in any derivation. In a word like [e + və] the Onset
First Principle requires that the string be divided up as ‘V + CV’ rather than ‘VC+V’,
that is,
[e + v ə] and not [ev+ ə].
Another example is ‘a + spire’ or ‘asp+ ire’. The former is correct using the onset first
principle.
Clements and Keyser (1983: 38) also say:
a) Underlying every ‘V’ of the ‘CV – tier’ is linked to ð, this shows that no
syllable exists without a V-element (as nucleus)
b) Link each C- element to the nearest V-element to its right provided the
resulting sequence of segments does not violate any language specific rules. This
procedure creates syllable onsets.
c) Repeat the procedure in (b), this time linking the ‘C- elements’ to the nearest
‘V’ to its left. This procedure creates syllable co da / margin.
Consider the example below,
a) ‘Conscript’ -/ k ∂nscript /
ð ð
V V
/ K∂n / / script /
Linking V element with by convention ‘a’

b) ð ð
C V C C CC V C C
/k ∂ n / + / sk r I pt/
By convention ‘b’ link c-element to the V on their right, one at a time provided the
resulting sequence is permissible in the language. Thus /skri/, but not /nscri/ because
in English nasals are not allowed to occur at the beginning of a syllable initial
consonant cluster.
c) By convention ‘c’, link C-elements to the V preceding them, so long as the

resulting sequence is allowed.
ð ð
C V C C CC VCC
/k ∂n s kr I p t /
Phonotactically, syllable rules in English say, if the first syllable of a word begins
with a vowel (any vowel may occur, though / ɔ / is rare, such syllable has a zero onset.
If the syllable begins with one consonant, that initial consonant may be any consonant
except / ŋ /, / ɔ/ which is rare. In terms of initial consonant clusters, the maximum is
three:
C1 C2 C3
S P l
t r
K w
j
The pre-initial consonant must be /s/, the initial must and could be any of /p t k/,
which the post-initial could be any of / l, r, w , j /.
Pre-initial initial post-initial
S + p l r w j
T
K
At the onset the C- elements range from 0-3 = C 0-3
On the right margin or coda, consonant clusters range from 0-4=C0-4
It is zero coda when there is no final consonant e.g. tea, air, ear. It is final or one
consonant coda when there is one consonant only. It could be any consonant, except /
h, r, w, j /.
In terms of two consonant codas, there are two types,
consonant form a small set: / m, n, ŋ, l, s / bump, bent, bank, belt, ask.

A) A final consonant preceded by a pre-final consonant. The pre- final
B) A final consonant followed by a post-final consonant. The post-final

consonants also form a small set: / s, z, t, d, Ө / bets, /bets/, beds/bedz/,
backed /bækt/, bagged /bægd/, eighth /eIt Ө/. N/B. The post final
consonant can be identified as separate morphemes (though not always,
e.g axe /æks/ is a single morpheme, and its final / s/ has no meaning)
THIS SECTION HAS BEEN POORLY EXPLAINED. THE

SYLLABLE STRUCTURE (C)0-3V (C)0-4 and its constituent elements
need to be clearly explained first before citing examples of each.
Phonotactics too (and the rule constraints).Roach (2000) explains it well
There are two types of final three consonant clusters:

A) The first is pre-final + final + post final:
Pre-final final post-final e.g
Helped h e l p t
Banks b æ ŋ k s
Bonds b D N d z
Twelfth twe L f Ө
B) The second type shows that more than one post-final consonant can occur in a final
cluster, i.e. final + post-final + + post-final 2.
Post-final 2 can be one of / s, z, t, d, Ө / e.g
Pre-final?! final post-final 1 post-final 2

Fifths fi - f Ө s
Next ne - k s T
Lapsed l - p s T
C) Most four -consonant clusters can be said as consisting of a final consonant

preceded by a pre-final and followed by post-final 1 and post- final 2 e.g.correct!!
Pre-final final post-final 1 post-final 2
Twelfths twe l f Ө S
Prompts prD m p t S
The below shows a final consonant with no pre-final?! but three?! post-finals
Pre-final final post-final 1 post-final 2
Sixths sІ - k s Ө
Texts te - k s T
In the final analysis, English syllable may be described as having the following
maximum phonological structure:
C0-3VC0-4
This specification states that the syllable structure in English can have an onset of no
consonant at all or up to three consonants, an obligatory vowel as the peak, and a coda
made up of no consonant at all or up to four consonants.
13.2.4 SYLLABLE STRENGTH (WEIGHT)

Traditionally, a syllable could be said to be:
- Open syllable- syllables without a final consonant e.g to- //tu:/
- Closed syllable- syllables that end with consonants e.g rat / raet /
In contemporary linguistic syllables phonological system is described in terms of

syllable weight. In many languages the factor that determines the applicability of
certain phonological rules is the weight of the rhyme (i.e. [the peak/nucleus (+coda)])
Essentially, a syllable is light if it contains a non-branching rhyme. In a light syllable
the rhyme contains a short vowel.
A syllable is heavy if it contains a branching rhyme. In a heavy syllable that rhyme
contains either:
A) A long vowel or diphthong, optionally followed by one or more consonants or
B) A short vowel followed by at least one consonant e.g.
Syllable weight forms the heart of poetry metre, which is written in verse.
13.3 CONCLUSION
We have defined syllable as the smallest unit of pronunciation in a word. We added

that it can also be defined as the speech sounds within a puff of air that accompanies
the production of speech sounds. Scholars defined syllable differently based on
individual conviction. Syllable has a structure made of onset, nucleus and coda. The
onset and coda must be consonantal sounds, while the nucleus, otherwise called ‘the
peak’ must be the vowels or syllabic consonants. The possible syllable structures in
English are: v, cv, vc, cvc and different combinations, up to the maximum cccvcccc.
Syllable has weight and this forms the heart of poetry metre, which is written in verse.
13.4 SUMMARY
A syllable is the minimal pronounceable unit in words. There are three types of
syllables which are: monosyllabic, disyllabic and polysyllabic words. Every syllable
must take a stress mark which could be primary, secondary or tertiary. Structurally,
syllable comprises: the onset (the first consonant sound(s) in a syllable), the nucleus
or peak (the element of the syllable that takes the stress mark on syllabic sounds) and
the coda (the last consonant(s) on a syllable). The general formula for English syllable
is C 0-3 V C0-4. A syllable may not have any consonant at the initial position of words.
It may have one and must not exceed three. At the final position, it may have none,
may have one, two and must not exceed four. Syllable structure varies from language
to language.
1. Define a syllable using any of the theoretical approaches.
2. Divide the following words into syllables and place the primary stress correctly:
communication, aroma, university, open, television, facilitator, student, hospital,
little, button, bottle, water, go, isolation, education, cup, house, soldier.
3. With copious examples, when is a syllable said to be light or heavy?
4. Discuss the syllable structure using the Schema C 0-3 V C 0-4.
13.6 REFERNCES
Goldsmith, J. (1990) Autosegmental and Metrical Phonology. Oxford: Blackwell
Katamba, F. (1992) An Introduction to Phonology. London: Longman Publishers
Khan, D. (1980) Syllable-Based Generalisation in English Phonology. London:

Garland Publishing
Lass, R. (1984) Phonology: An Introduction to Basic Concepts. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press
Rocca, I. & Johnson, W. (1999) A Course in Phonology. Oxford: Blackwell

ADD Roach, P. (2000) English Phonetics and Phonology: A Practical Course
Table of Contents
This unit introduces you to Syllable Structure/Juncture. The language for illustration
is English.
1.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
3.0 The Meaning of Syllable
3.1 Syllable Structure
3.1.1 More Complex Structures
3.2 Syllable Juncture
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References
1.0 Introduction
This unit exposes you to the nature of the syllable in English. It provides for
you some of the key ways of considering the meaning of the term syllable and
the issue of juncture.
2.0 Objectives
i) explain what a syllable is;
ii) illustrate how sounds are combined to bring about syllables (i.e. the
structure of the syllable);
iii) appreciate the hypothetical or composite structure of the syllable;
iv) practise juncture demarcation using specific words.
3.0 The English Syllable: Meaning

Many attempts have been made by many scholars in phonetics and phonology
to explain the term syllable. Apparently, there is hardly any single satisfactory
explication. In spite of this (or rather because of it), we are going to examine various
views and approaches and then to help you to decide on the one that seems most
nearly satisfactory.
We can attempt to explain the syllable from the viewpoint of phonetics and
from the standpoint of phonology. With regard to phonetics, the attempts are in two
parts – from the viewpoint of articulatory phonetics and from the viewpoint of
auditory phonetics. Connected with the articulatory phonetics is the pulse theory
which states that when the pulmonic air stream mechanism is in action, the respiratory
muscles alternately contract and relax so that the air is expelled in a succession of
small puffs with each contraction.
The resulting puff of air then constitutes the basis of the syllable. The syllable
from this viewpoint then becomes an audible movement called a chest pulse, breath
pulse or syllable pulse. Since at least one such movement must be involved in
whatever we say, the syllable has been taken to be the minimum utterance or the
smallest sound produced with one pulse of breath.
This is the explanation which is usually said to be universal: the pulse theory
covers the syllable in all natural languages.
21. Discuss the pulse theory as the basis of explaining the term syllable
Secondly, from the viewpoint of auditory phonetics, there exists what has
usually been referred to as the prominence theory. According to this theory, syllables
may be distinguished in terms of their peaks and valleys of sonority, the peaks
denoting the areas where the sound comes out most audibly, the valleys designating
the areas of comparatively less audible sound produced. For example in the word
caught /k :t/, it is generally known that the sound [ :] is more sonorous than either
[k] or [t]. In the word remedy /’r ΙmΙdΙ/ we have three syllables with the vowels /e/,
/Ι/ and /Ι/ constituting the peaks; the /r/, /m/ and /d/ making up the valleys. Those who
propounded the theory have, from their findings, come to the conclusion that plosives
are the least sonorous of all sounds while the semi-vowels are the most sonorous of all
consonants. The vowels, on the other hand, remain at the other extreme of being the
most sonorous of all sounds.
Thirdly, from a specific, functional viewpoint, the syllable may be explained
taking into account the phonological rank scale in the first instance. Since, in this
scale, we have: “the tone group, the foot, the syllable and the phoneme” (cf. Halliday
et al 1970: 45). We can say that the syllable is that unit of phonological description
which comes between the phoneme and the foot.
Fourthly, from the specific functional viewpoint, the syllable may be explained
from the viewpoint of structure. According to this viewpoint, the English syllable is
describable as the linking of vowels and consonants with the vowels generally
forming the nucleus or central part of the syllable. In this explication, it is
important to note such operational terms as the onset (the opening segment of a
syllable) the centre or nucleus (the central segment of the syllable), and the coda (the
closing or arresting) segment of the syllable. (cf. Crystal 1991: 339).
22. Explain the syllable from the viewpoint of phonological rank scale and from the
viewpoint of structure.
3.1 The Syllable in English: Its Structure

The last explication of the syllable that we have offered here (from the
viewpoint of structure), seems most suitable and applicable for our purpose. It also
leads us naturally to this second part of our description – the structure of the syllable
in English. However, occasional references may be made to other explications.
As a starting point, we know that the vowel is the most sonorous part of a
syllable and that it (the vowel), can stand on its own as a syllable. So, an English
syllable can be made up of a vowel alone, as in the entries: are, our or air. To show
that in this type of syllable there are no consonants (whether as onset or coda), we can
represent this structure as: O V O
or simply, V. Here “O” means no consonant at the syllable initial position and none at
the final position; V means the presence of a vowel or nucleus. Very rarely, we have
something like a consonant alone. For instance, in the utterance: sh! we can represent
the syllable to show that it occurs as a consonant constituting the onset followed by
nothing else (no nucleus and no coda). However, since utterances (interjections) like
Sh! Ah! Oh! Mm! Are not language specific, (they occur across languages), we can
exclude the occurrence of only a consonant in an English syllable, (except as it affects
the foregone explication).
More usually however, we have English syllables which combine vowels and
consonants. For instance, we can have one consonant onset combining with a nucleus
as in the syllables: tea, fee, see, pear and sow. To demonstrate the presence of an
onset and a nucleus and the absence of a coda, we can represent the structure thus: C
V O. Here, you are advised to note again that we are concerned with sounds (not
letters), and that the syllables: tea, fee, see, pear are of the CVO structure because
they are transcribed as:
/ti:/, /fi:/, /si:/ and /pe↔/ respectively.
Also, it is worthwhile drawing your attention to the fact that tea, fee, see, pear and
other items of a similar syllable structure are syllables which in morphological terms
are of word status.
3.1.1 More Complex Structures

We can also have syllables in which the three components are present: the
onset, the nucleus and the coda: CVC. A syllable of this nature can be found in items
like: pet, set, read, pool
We can have a maximum of three initial consonants: CCC – and a maximum of

four final consonants – CCCC in an English syllable. Of CCC initial, the following
are examples of items: spread, street, spleen; of – CCCC final consonants we have
the following examples: prompts, thousandths. The information we have so far in
relation to the structure of the English syllable can be summarized as in the following
Table.
Table I: Syllable Structure in English
Consonant Vowel Consonant

Entry (onset) (nucleus) (coda)
Our O V O
Go C V O
boat C V C
clear CC V O
clean CC V C
cleans CC V CC
straw CCC V O
street CCC V C
streets CCC V CC
strengths CCC V CCC
prompts CC V CCCC
Strengths=/streŋkɵs/cccvcccc.
Taking into account the fact that the nucleus is the compulsory element in the
structure of an English syllable and the fact that the consonants do occur along with
the nuclei, we can indicate a composite or hypothetical structure of the English
syllable thus: (C) (C) (C) V (C) (C) (C) (C)
Alternatively, the composite or hypothetical structure may be shown thus:
C VC
0-3 0-4
The first composite structure simply shows that the consonant-syllable initial
and syllable final – are optional, the vowel is compulsory.
The second composite structure has the information that we can have an
English syllable that has no initial consonant and none with more than three initial
consonants. Also, we can have an English syllable that has no final consonant and
none with more than four final consonants. In either case, the vowel remains constant:
a required element.
3.2 Syllable Juncture

The term syllable juncture refers to the demarcation of a word of more than
one syllable into its syllable components. In Eka (1992: 1-8; 1995 (1-29) this matter,
along with relevant modifications – juncture raising, juncture lowering and juncture
levelling – are discussed.
Here we consider it sufficient to indicate that juncture in English is a
controversial matter. Abercrombie (1975: 36) for instance, indicates that the English
word better which apparently has two syllables can be uttered as a word of one
syllable. For many English words, scholars have tended to demarcate syllables of
words differently. However, the following syllable demarcations are functional
(attested), and so deserve your attention:
Dav-id
Jan-et
dis-trib-ute
mad-am
cal-en-dar
con-trib-ute
cav-al-cade
cir-cum-scribe
cir-cum-spect
dif-fer-ent
fes-tiv-ity
fet-ter
in-cho-ate
in-cli-na-tion
in-tel-lect
in-ter-act
in-ter-est
pol-ite
pon-der-ous
top-ping
vis-ible
writ-ing
hect-or
start-ed
You should also do yourself a favour by looking up English words in any good
dictionary for the purpose of identifying syllable junctures.
4.0 Conclusion
In this unit, you have studied the word syllable and can explain it in four
different ways. You have also studied the English syllable with attention to its three
components and to its juncture.
5.0 Summary
You have, in this unit learnt to explain the term syllable in four different ways.
You have also understood the structure of the English syllable with attention to such
important concepts as the onset, the nucleus and the coda. You have also been
exposed to syllable juncture concept and can identify syllable juncture in some
English words such as:
Dav-id;
Mad-am;
Pet-er.
6.0 Tutor-marked assignment 12

Explain the composite or hypothetical structure: C0-3 V C0-4
7.0 References and Recommended Texts

University Press.
Crystal, D. (1991). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics (3rd Edition),

Cambridge; Basil, Blackwell.
Eka, D. (1992). Juncture Modification in Nigerian English. Journal of Humanities 2

pp.1-8.
Eka, D. (1995) The Changing Patterns of Accentuation in Nigerian English.

Proceeding of the XIVTH Annual Conference of LAN, pp 101-121.
Eka, D. (1996): Phonological Foundations 1: English; Uyo; Scholars Press (Nig) Ltd.
Halliday, M.A.K., McIntosh, A. and Strevens, P. (1970). The Linguistic Sciences and
Language Teaching; London; Longman.
Unit 4: Accentuation / Stress
Table of Contents
This unit introduces you to accentuation/stress in English. The unit is arranged thus:
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Accentuation/Accent: Difference
3.1 Accentuation/Stress: Difference
3.2 General Use of Accentuation/Stress in English
3.3 Specific words and their Accentual Patterns
3.4 Accentuation of Words in Connected Speech
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References
1.0 Introduction
This unit exposes you to a very important phonological issue -accentuation.
The unit also explains the difference between accentuation and accent, accentuation
and stress and points out for your attention generally acceptable accentual and stress
patterns.
4.0 Objectives
(i) explain the terms accentuation and accent; accentuation and stress and be able
to differentiate between them
(ii) indicate general/common applications of the terms accentuation/stress
(iii) apply the terms to specific words and utterances.
3.0 Accentuation/Accent: Difference

The terms accentuation and accent are not normally used interchangeably:
accentuation refers to the emphasis or the totality of energy that makes a sound, a
syllable, a word or even a stretch of utterance to stand out from the other sounds,
syllables, words or stretches of utterances. Thus, an item such as a sound or a syllable
that receives accentuation may be said to have been accented and such an accented
syllable or sound naturally becomes prominent, (easily heard) by virtue of its being
louder than the other sounds or syllables in the specific environment. In this unit we
are concerned with an introduction to the entire accentual system in the phonology of
English.
Accent on the other hand refers to a variety of pronunciation associated with a
particular person or group. It has practically nothing to do with variation in grammar or
vocabulary. From a functional viewpoint, the term accent can be used by an L1 speaker to
single out and to characterize nonnative (L1 or foreign) pronunciation as compared to the
pronunciation of the given language by another L1 speaker. Similarly, an L2 or foreign
speaker can single out and characterize native pronunciation as compared to the
pronunciation of the given language by another L2 or the foreign
speaker. In each case, we can emphasize that the focus of attention is the
pronunciation not the grammar or the vocabulary.
However, it is only the L1 speaker or the L2 or foreign speaker educated in the
language who is often known to refer to others outside these categories as “having” or
“speaking with” an accent. Having or speaking with an accent therefore implies a
departure from L1 norms or the norms of the standard variety of any language. With
regard to the English language, L1 speakers or educated L2 or foreign speakers are
often known to refer to others, particularly other speakers of the new Englishes as
“having” or “speaking with” an accent.
3.1 Accentuation and Stress

The terms accentuation and stress are quite often confused even by some who
are above the foundation stage in their study of phonology. This situation is easy to
appreciate when we consider the fact that many authorities in phonology have used
the terms in different ways. We shall briefly consider a few of the diversifications in
this connection.
Ward (1972:156) sees accentuation as prominence which can be achieved
through a very intimate combination of two or more of length, stress, pitch and
inherent sonority of sounds. Gimson (1977:33) sees accentuation in a way quite
similar to the above: as prominence which can be achieved through any or all of four
factors: stress, pitch, quality and quantity.
In this unit stress is indicated specifically as: “loudness for the listener” while
pitch prominence associated with it (stress) is considered the most important correlate
for the determination of the accentual system of the given language. Thus, we see that
these two sources see accentuation as prominence – an embodiment with identifiable
components. Clark and Yallop (1990:288) on the other hand, indicates that
accentuation and stress are sometimes used as alternative terms, and in this rather
loose sense, what is referred to as word stress or lexical stress may, alternatively, be
referred to as word accent or lexical accent. Sommerstein (1977:37-38) is apparently
more specific on the matter: while considering both terms as embodying prominence,
it shows stress as the actual realization of prominence and accentuation as the
objective realization of the same phenomenon. In other words, we can analyze or
describe stress in perceptual terms: the place that the hearer perceives prominence
whether in the sound or the syllable or the word or a longer utterance. We can
therefore analyze accentuation in phonological terms: the way prominence is
organized in relation to sounds, syllables, words or other utterances. Where, therefore,
we use the word accentuation in this unit the reader is free to think about stress… its
component in perceptual or phonetic terms.
Self-assessment exercise 23
23. (a) briefly distinguish between accentuation and accent
(b) accentuation and stress
3.2 General use of Accentuation/Stress in English

When we pronounce English words in isolation, it is easy to notice that word
accentuation is fairly regular, almost fixed. For example, in isolation the words:
David, people, reason, teacher, Janet can be observed to have accentuation always on
the first syllable. On the other hand, the words: forget, success, proclaim, decide,
extend can be noted to have accentuation always on the second syllable.
As indicated in section 3.1 it is always useful to separate accentuation from
stress as Gimson (1977) does. As a rough guide, whenever you pronounce a word and
place prominence in it, you can be said to have employed accentuation. When your
study partner pronounces a word, the part of it that sounds louder for you e.g.
suc’cess, is the stressed part. When you analyze written texts, you can use the word
stress. What follows is a general guide on the use of accentuation or stress as
appropriate.
(i) Generally all English words of more than one syllable can be said to have
stress at a particular place when the word is heard in isolation.
(ii) Words of one syllable are generally known to show stress if they are nouns,
full verbs, adjectives or adverbs.
(iii) Interrogative pronouns are generally heard as stressed. Example: What are you
doing?
(iv) Demonstrative pronouns are generally heard as stressed. Example: This is the
teacher.
(v) Relative pronouns are generally heard as stressed if each is preceded by a
preposition. Examples:
(a) The overhead bridge under which the beggar lives.
(b) The premise on which the conclusion rests.
Even though other words like pronouns, modifiers, conjunctions, prepositions
(grammatical items) are not normally heard as stressed when in isolation, they can be
accented and hence can be heard as stressed in connected speech for special purposes
e.g. contrastive purposes.
3.3 Specific Words and their Accentual Patterns

As already stated, all English words of more than one syllable are normally
accented in one (fixed) position when the words occur in isolation.
Also, words of one syllable (monosyllabic words) are generally given
accentuation if they are open class items, i.e. if they are:
(i) nouns such as John, house, peace, tree, pen;
(ii) or they are full verbs such as sweep, dance, eat, read, sing;
(iii) or they are adjectives such as good, bad, prim, clean, poor;
(iv) or they are adverbs such as there, here, past, well, very.
All other monosyllabic words are generally observed to be unaccented and

therefore heard as unstressed. For example:
(i) pronouns such as: I, we, he, you, she
(ii) specific and nonspecific modifiers (articles) such as: the, a, an
(iii) conjunctions such as: and, or.
(iv) Prepositions such as: in, on, at, from by.
As a further step in the provision of words and their accentual/stress patterns, you
should note the following:
Pattern 1: Examples of words of two syllables with accentuation/stress on the first
syllable only:
Absent antics Agnes
Ever even erring
Fully finger fever
imprest instant inches
passive panther pastor
zealous zealot zebra
zenith zig-zag zoning
Pattern 2: Examples of words of two syllables with accentuation/stress on the second

syllable only:
admit across along
effect Event erode
inform Impress ignore
July Japan jocose
narrate neglect negate
without within whereas
Pattern 3: Examples of words of three syllables with accentuation/stress on the first

syllable only:
abdomen Abigail afterward

janitor juvenile odorous
telephone televise talking-drum
uvular upkeeping varnishing
wonderful willingly yesterday
Pattern 4: Examples of words of three syllables with accentuation/stress on the

second syllable only:
addition abrasive abundant

December decision develop
important inferior intrinsic
perfection perennial perception
tomorrow taxation volcanic
Pattern 5: Examples of words of four syllables with accentuation/stress on the first

syllable only:
auctionary dictionary
February January
valuable veterinary
24. (a) Select 20 words from your dictionary and indicate their stress patterns.
Endeavour to avoid the words listed in this unit.
(b) Listen to the voice on your audio tape and practise the accentual positions
indicated therein.
3.4 Accentuation of words in Connected Speech

You studied in section 3.2 that every accentable word in English has a specific
accentual position which every speaker keeps to in order to ensure appropriateness in
the phonological shapes of words.
In connected speech however, above information becomes modified in quite

significant ways, the following being some of them:
(i) in connected speech, practically every English word has been known to be
accented for specific reasons. For instance, in the sentence:
(ii) I think he wants to read;
only three words would be accented thus:
I ‘think he ‘wants to ‘read The dots used below aren’t totally correct; pls
confirm
If however, a speaker intends to emphasize his opinion and to contrast it with other
people’s views, he can change the nucleus from read to I, thus leaving the sentence as:
I think he wants to read
• • • •
The same speaker or another one, may decide to place the emphasis on the word he to
draw attention to the fact that he means a particular person, not another, so the
nucleus of the sentence could move to the word he thus giving it the shape:
•
• • •
Again, the speaker may have in mind a contrast between need and want. In that case,
he may thus emphasize this fact that the person he is referring to wants to read, not
that he needs to! So, the nucleus could then shift thus:
•
• •
The second important point to note about accentuation in connected speech is that
speakers generally tend to avoid “clashes” when two or three accented syllables come
together in a stretch of utterance. For instance in the utterances.
(i) good food;
(ii) beautiful girl;
(iii) honest intention;
(iv) heavy rain;
we notice that each word has or represents an accented syllable. To avoid two strongly
accented syllables coming together, it has generally been observed that speakers tend
to make some of the accented syllables attain the status of weak syllables to ensure
appropriate rhythmic patterning. Thus, in the four utterances here, it is generally
observed that speakers tend to weaken the first otherwise accented syllable thereby
retaining only the second in each utterance. This relates to the metrical theory of word
stress which you will study in detail much later in your phonology course.
5.0 Conclusion
You have studied a number of matters relating to accentuation and stress. You
should by now be better informed about accentuation and stress, accentuation and
accent and the relationship which holds between each pair.
6.0 Summary
You have in this unit studied accentuation and accent:
(i) accentuation and stress
(ii) specific words and their accentual patterns as well as
(iii) accentuation of words in connected speech

Briefly discuss accentuation pointing out how it features in English
8.0 References
Clark, J. and Yallop C. (1990). An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology;
Cambridge; Basil Blackwell.
Eka, D. (1996). Phonological Foundations 1: English; Uyo, Scholars Press
Gimson, A. C. (1977). A Practical Course of English Pronunciation: a Perceptual

Approach; London, William Clowes and Sons Ltd.
Sommerstein, A. H. (1977). Modern Phonology; London, Edward Arnold.
Ward, Ida C. (1972). The Phonetics of English, Cambridge University Press.

Table of Contents
This unit introduces you to rhythmic patterns in English. The unit is arranged thus:
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Timing and Variation in natural languages
3.1 The Components of Rhythmic?!
3.2 Rhythmic Patterns in English
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
This unit exposes you to a composite discussion of melody in natural languages
and specifically in English. It demonstrates the interplay of intonation, accentuation,
duration and pausing in the achievement of rhythmic patterns in English.
2.0 Objectives
(i) explain timing and variation in natural languages;
(ii) identify the components of rhythmic; do you mean rhythmic patterns
(iii) demonstrate the combined effects of intonation, accentuation (stress,
duration on rhythmic (melodic) patterns.
3.0 Timing and Variation in Natural Languages

Rhythm is sometimes known by another name – timing. This is because
rhythmic patterns involve time sequences, which are very largely regular. The time
sequences mentioned here obtain in practically all natural languages.
Because of their nature, rhythmic or timing patterns are also sometimes
referred to as universal melodic or musical patterns.
There are many approaches to the study of rhythm depending on the theory one
uses, and also the language involved. Generally however, scholars have tended to
classify rhythms of natural languages into three: stress-timed, syllable-timed and
mora-timed. Languages which are stress-timed are generally said to be those whose
utterances can be broken down into parts (or feet) which are isochronous i.e. of equal
duration, the basis for the segmentation being the accented syllable together with any
number of unaccented syllables before the next accented syllable. English, Russian,
German and Arabic are usually know to be in this category. Syllable-timed languages
are also said to be those which are isochronous, but unlike the situation with stress-
timed languages, the basis for the segmentation is the syllable, whether accented or
unaccented. The indication in this case is that the number of syllables in an utterance
determines the duration of the utterance, as each syllable is accented. Examples of
syllable-timed languages include French, Spanish, Italian, Telugu, and Nigerian
Languages such as Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo, Ibibio. With regard to mora-timed languages
syllable duration depends on the number of moras which themselves are usually said
to be isochronous within the syllable. Such languages are known to include Japanese
and Estonia. Thus, the concept of isochronism (equal time-ness) has stood out as the
focal point in all analyses of rhythm so far in natural languages.
3.1 The Components of Rhythm
The components of the rhythm of any natural language depend on the theory
used in the analysis. We have no intention of taking you into theories and
controversies, rather, the task we present to you is that of analyzing the usual
composite categories of intonation, accentuation/stress, duration/quantity and pauses.
You are already familiar with the categories of intonation patterns of rising and
falling tunes; accentuation/stress patterns of prominence; duration patterns of length
and quantity and pauses – a tendency towards hesitation at both appropriate places
(making both appropriate places (marking fluency) and in inappropriate places
(marking jerkiness).
Self-Assessment Exercises 25
25. (a) Briefly distinguish between stress-timed and syllable-timed rhythms in
natural languages
(b) What are the components of rhythm used in the analysis of the rhythm of
English in this unit?
3.2 Rhythmic Patterns in English

The English of L1 speakers as well as L2 and foreign speakers educated in the
language has generally been considered to be stress-timed. This description stems
from the fact that there is generally a noticeable attempt by speakers to maintain some
measure of equality in timing between one accented syllable and the next accented
syllable in an utterance. Thus, for the utterance: (i) “Peter thinks that he wants us to
play”
a normal English speaker (the L1 and the otherwise educated) is likely to spend
approximately the same amount of time between the accented syllables thus:
// Peter / thinks that he / wants us to / play //.
This means that the speaker is likely to spend about the same amount of time to say
each of:
// Peter //
// thinks that he //
// wants us to //
// play //
At the stage in which we are, any student who has paid attention to the relevant
sections of this course will have come to the conclusion that syllable accentuation
(stress, pitch placement, duration) and intonation all have a part to play in our
description of rhythm: the melody of English. It is also likely that such student will
have come to the conclusion that the melody of English can be described through
intonation alone, through syllable accentuation alone or through both. In this unit we
have combined accentuation (stress and duration in particular) and intonation to arrive
at the rhythm of our illustrative utterances.
The following are the utterances:
(i) John wrote the letter in English
//’John/’wrote the/’ letter in/’English//•
(ii) John wrote the letter in English?
//’John/’ wrote the/’letter in/’English//•
(iii) I think it was an excellent affair…. (Right-headed foot below =red lines)
//I’ think/ it was/ an/’ ex/cellent af/fair…// •
(iv) I think it was an excellent affair
//’ I think it was an ‘excellent af/fair// tune?
(v) Mary can go to school, can’t she? tune?

//’Mary/can’go to/’school//’can’t she// •
(vi) Mary can’t go to school, can she?
//’Mary ‘can’t ‘go to ‘school/’• can ‘she// •
(vii) What’s your name?

//’ what’s your/’ name// •
(viii) Did you talk with Alice at the club?
//Did you’ talk with/’ Alice at the/’club//•
(ix) Margaret bought books, pens, pencils and rulers

’pens •’pencils
//’Margaret ’bought ’books/ •and/ ’rulers//•
•
(x) Margaret bought books, pens, pencils and rulers
//’Margaret/’bought/’books• /’pens and/’rulers//
• /’pencils • •
We can consider the rhythmic (melodic) patterning of the above utterances in
pairs. In i and ii, the utterances have different phonological patterns (even though they
have identical morphological shapes). Both have accentuation on four items: John,
wrote, letter, English with the nucleus on English. The two show duration in one item
– wrote /r ↔,Υt/ - the diphthong being a long vowel. The main difference is that the
first is a statement without implication; the second is a declarative (an indirect)
question. The intonation on the first, as normally heard, is a fall. The intonation on the
second, as normally heard, is a rise. Thus, while the first makes a simple statement of
fact, the second indicates a doubt….as to whether t he letter was written in English (or
in some other language). It could even imply that the listener did not hear properly
what the speaker said and so is requesting for a repetition of the statement.
In the second pair, i.e. iii and iv both have accentuation on three items: think,
excellent, affair with the nucleus on the last: affair. However, the first ends on a low
rise intonation to indicate additional information.
Such information could amount to the possibility that the affair was not excellent in
any objective or unqualified sense; that there were problems in spite of the claim. The
second indicates a falling intonation showing that no additional explication is
necessary or intended by the speaker.
The next pair, i.e. v and vi, are tag questions – checking tag and copy tag. Each
utterance has two information points: the first and the second parts of the tags.
Whereas the first part in utterance v ends on a fall, the second ends also on a fall,
giving the possibility that the answer could be positive: that Mary can go to school! In
utterance vi, the first part ends on a fall while the second part ends on a rise giving the
impression that the answer could be negative: that Mary can’t go to school! So the
rhythmic patterning in these two show a difference mainly in the second part of the
tags, although the component – durational difference between can’t and can also plays
a part. With regard to utterances vii and viii, we notice that both are questions of
different morphological as well as phonological shapes. The first. What’s your name?
has a melodic pattern that ends on a falling intonation, being a question that requires
information. The second.
Did you talk with Alice at the club?
has a melodic pattern that ends on a rising intonation being a question that calls for
“yes” or “no” in answer. Also, while both have the nucleus on the last item, the first
has the indicator of duration on your and name; the second has it on talk.
Next, utterances ix and x involve enumeration. In the first, the melody relies on
consistent falls, leading to a final fall. In the second, the melody depends on low rises
up to the penultimate then a final fall. Both however have those points marking
duration as an essential component: Margaret, bought and rulers.
Finally, in this section it should be noted that we are able to arrive at meanings
and differences between pairs of utterances because all of them are fluent: they have
pauses at appropriate information points. The contrary would have been the case if the
rhythm had been jerky or largely so. This explains why the English of a number of
speakers within the new Englishes (particularly that of speakers of non-standard sub
varieties), is often difficult to understand. Poor rhythmic patterning almost certainly
results in poor information distribution and hence difficulty in understanding the
message communicated. For example, if the first utterance had a jerky rhythm like
//John/wrote/the/letter/in English// or the fourth utterance had been: // I / think/it
/was/an/excellent /affair//
meaning would been totally obstructed.
26. Listen to the voice on your audio tape in this unit, and practise as the voice
directs.
4.0 Conclusion
You have learnt in this unit that there are many factors which contribute to the
realization of rhythmic patterns in English. You have also learnt that the factors can be
combined together (and you have actually done so) to bring about a specific rhythmic
pattern.
5.0 Summary
From this unit you have studied the following among others:
(i) timing and variation in natural languages;
(ii) the components of rhythm;
(iii) how to analyze the rhythm of English utterances

14. Outline the components of rhythm and indicate how you may use those
components to analyze any three utterances of your choice.

Abercrombie, David (1975). Elements of General Phonetics, Edinburgh, Edinburgh
University Press.
Eka, D. (1993). Timing in Educated Spoken Nigerian English. Journal of

Humanities Volume 3; September pp. 1-11
Eka, D. (1996). Phonological Foundations 1: English; Uyo, Scholars Press Ltd.

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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

COURSE CODE: ENG 241

COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY OF

Course Team Prof. David Eka (Developer/Writer) – UNI UYO

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

Working through the Course

C Module 3: The Phonology of English

D Module 4: Non-segmental Features

Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs)

Course Marking Scheme

Final Examination and Grading

Tutors and Tutorials

You are welcome to the course!

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

Module 4: Non-segmental Features

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

Unit 1: Language: Nature, Origins and Mediums

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Language: Meaning and Origin

3.1 3.2?? Language: Technical definitions

(ii) Gimson (1980: 4-5) describes language as:

(iii) Hall (1968: 158) says that language is:

3.2 Language: Its Mediums

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Gimson, A.C. (1980). An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English. London:

Sapir, E. (1991). Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech. New York:

Sapir, E. (1949). Culture, Language and Personality: Selected Essays. California:

Yule, G. (1996). The Study of Language: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

Ordinarily, however, when we write in a language, we make use of letters of the

late [ei] [leit]

3.2 Major Components: Speech and Writing

Apart from these physical differences there are other differences:

4. Speech is time-bound and dynamic. It is often in a situation of interaction

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Abercrombie, D. (1975). Elements of General Phonetics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh

Akpan, E. (1987). “Expressive Communication as a Responsive Behaviour”. In:

Crystal, D. (2001). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language.

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Defining Phonetics and Phonology- Merge as one section.

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

7.0 References/Further Reading

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

[b] as in boy: [bɔɪ]

When the differences in sound combinations are as a result of non-segmental

In phonology, distinctive features of speech sounds (otherwise called phonemes) are

3.3 3.2??Phonetics and Phonology

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

The aim of this unit is:

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

Phonology is a branch of linguistics that deals with useful sounds of a specific

Phonology is particular to a language. Several languages may share the same or

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

3. What is the level of relationship between Phonetics and Phonology?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adetugbo, A.A. (1993) English Phonetics: A Course Text. Lagos: University

Unit 1: Phonetics and its branches

Unit 1: Phonetics and its Branches