PHYSICS MAGNETISM &

CLASS : XII ELECTROMAGNETISM

MAGNET : A substance which attracts iron or bodies made of iron is called a magnet.

PROPERTIES OF A MAGNET : A magnet have following properties:

1. Magnet attracts iron and bodies made of ion.
2. A freely suspended magnet points in north-south direction.
3. Like poles repel and unlike poles attracts each other.
4. Magnetic lines of forces are directed from north to south pole of a magnet.
5. If magnetic lines of forces are parallel to each other then they represent uniform
magnetic field.
6. Spacing between the lines of magnetic forces represent strength of the field.

MAGNETIC FIELD : The region around a magnet in which it exert force on other
magnet of magnetic material by inducing magnetism in them is called magnetic field.

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO CURRENT :

In ۶𝟏𝟖𝟏𝟗 Oersted showed that a current carrying
conductor deflect a near by magnetic needle. That is, current produces magnetic field.
If a compass needle is placed near a copper wire it remains in its normal N-S position
because copper is a non-magnetic material, but if the current is switched on through
the same copper wire, the compass needle deflected. If the direction of current is
reversed then direction of deflection of compass also reversed. It means that when
current is passed through a wire a magnetic field is produced around it.

FORCE ON A CHARGED PARTICLE IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD :

Consider a
⃗ ′ in a uniform magnetic field ′𝐵
charge +𝑞 moving with velocity ′𝑉 ⃗ ′ in direction making
an angle ′𝜃′ with the field. Experiments shows that the force ′𝐹 ′ on the charge +𝑞 is
proportional to the following parameters:
1. Magnitude of charge ′𝑞′. 2. Velocity ′𝑉′ of charge .
3. Magnitude of field ′𝐵′ 4. Angle of sine ′𝜃′.
𝐹 ∝ 𝑞 𝑉 𝐵 sin 𝜃
𝐹 = (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)𝑞𝑉𝐵 sin 𝜃
Where constant of proportionally = 1

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PHYSICS MAGNETISM &
CLASS : XII ELECTROMAGNETISM
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑉𝐵 sin 𝜃  𝐹 = 𝑞(𝑉
⃗ ×𝐵
⃗)
UNIT OF ′𝑩′ :
𝐹
∴𝐵=
𝑉𝑞 sin 𝜃
sin 𝜃 is unit less quantity.
𝐹
𝐵=
𝑞𝑉
𝑁 𝑁
𝐵= =
𝐶 − 𝑚/𝑠 𝐴 − 𝑚
Multiply and dividing by second:
𝑁 𝑚 𝑁−𝑚
𝐵= × =
𝐴−𝑚 𝑚 𝐴−𝑚 2
{∴ 𝑁 − 𝑚/𝐴 =
𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟}
𝐵 = 𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟/𝑚2
𝐵 = 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎
Hence the unit of magnetic field is Tesla.

FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD

:
When a conductor carrying current is subjected to a magnetic field it experiences a
force. Consider a conductor having :
𝐿 = Length of conductor. 𝐴 = Cross-sectional area.
𝐵 = Uniform magnetic field. 𝑛 = Number of electrons.
𝐼 = Current through the conductor.
∴ Volume of conductor = 𝑉 = 𝐴 × 𝐿
∴ Total charge per unit volume of conductor = 𝑞 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝐿
We know that force on a charge particle in a uniform magnetic field is given by :
𝐹 = 𝑞(𝑉⃗ ×𝐵
⃗ ) = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝐿(𝑉⃗ ×𝐵⃗)

BY ASAD KHAN (0333-2167067) Page 2

PHYSICS MAGNETISM &
CLASS : XII ELECTROMAGNETISM
⃗
⃗ =𝑆=𝐿
We know that 𝑉 𝑡 𝑡
𝐿⃗
∴ 𝐹 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝐿 ( × 𝐵 ⃗)
𝑡
𝑛𝑒𝐴𝐿
𝐹= (𝐿⃗ × 𝐵
⃗)
𝑡
𝑞
𝐹 = (𝐿⃗ × 𝐵
⃗) {∴ 𝑞 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝐿}
𝑡
𝑞
𝐹 = 𝐼(𝐿⃗ × 𝐵
⃗) {∴ 𝐼 = 𝑡 }

TORQUE PRODUCED IN A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN UNIFORM

MAGNETIC FIELD :
Consider a rectangular coil 𝐶𝐷 :
𝐼 = Electric current through the coil. 𝐿 = Length of the coil.
𝑏 = Width of the coil. 𝐴 = Cross-section area of the coil.
The coil placed in a uniform magnetic field ′𝐵⃗ ′ . The plane of coil is parallel to the
magnetic field, therefore no force on either sides ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 and ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐷 . Force ′𝐹′ acted on vertical
̅̅̅̅ which is directed perpendicular in to the magnetic field. There is an equal and
sides 𝐴𝐵
opposite force ′𝐹′ on side ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷 .
𝑏
∴ Torque on side ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 = 𝜏1 = 𝑟 × 𝐹 = 𝐹 2
𝑏
∴ Torque on side ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷 = 𝜏2 = 𝑟 × 𝐹 = 2 𝐹
These two torque result in a couple in the coil and coil starts
rotating in magnetic field.
𝑏 𝑏
∴ Total torque = 𝜏 = 2 𝐹 + 2 𝐹 = 𝑏 𝐹
The force acting on a current carrying conductor in a uniform
magnetic field is 𝐹 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵 sin 𝜃.
∴ 𝜏 = (𝐿 × 𝑏)𝐼𝐵 sin 𝜃 {∴ 𝐿 × 𝑏 = 𝐴 }
𝜏 = 𝐴𝐼𝐵 sin 𝜃
If coil has ′𝑁′ turns:
𝜏 = 𝐵𝐼𝑁𝐴 sin 𝜃
𝑜
If 𝜃 = 90 : 𝜏 = 𝐵𝐼𝑁𝐴
When plane of coil makes an angle ′𝛼′ with ′𝐵′ , then torque will be:
𝜏 = 𝐵𝐼𝑁𝐴 cos 𝛼

BY ASAD KHAN (0333-2167067) Page 3

PHYSICS MAGNETISM &
CLASS : XII ELECTROMAGNETISM
MAGNETIC FIELD: Magnetic field is the region around a magnet in which it exert force
on other magnet or magnetic materiel by inducing magnetism in them.

MAGNETIC FLUX: The scalar product of magnetic field ′𝐵⃗ ′ and small element of area
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ′ is called magnetic flux.
′∆𝐴
⃗ . Δ𝐴
∆𝜙𝑚 = 𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
The S.I unit of magnetic flux is Weber.

MOTION OF A CHARGED PARTICLE IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD :

When a charged particle (Electron, Proton) move in a uniform magnetic field ′𝐵 ⃗ ′ with
⃗ ′, then force excreted on electron is given by:
velocity ′𝑉
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑞(𝑉⃗ ×𝐵 ⃗ ) = 𝑒(𝑉
⃗ ×𝐵 ⃗ ) = 𝑒𝑉𝐵 sin 𝜃
Electron moves under this force whose magnitude is constant but direction is always
perpendicular to the velocity of the particle, therefore moves in a circular path. The
necessary centripetal force is provided by the magnetic force acting on the moving
particle.
𝐹𝑚 = 𝐹𝑐
𝑚𝑉 2
𝑒 𝑉𝐵 sin θ =
𝑟
𝑚𝑉
𝑒 𝐵 sin 𝜃 =
𝑟

J.J THOMSON’S EXPERIMENT

e/m Ratio of an electron

Sir J.J Thomson’s determine the ratio of charge to mass (e/m) for an electron in 1897.

LIMITATION : This experiment is valid for a charged particle, not for neutral or mass
less particles.

BY ASAD KHAN (0333-2167067) Page 4

PHYSICS MAGNETISM &
CLASS : XII ELECTROMAGNETISM
PRINCIPLE : When a beam of electrons is allowed to enter a uniform magnetic field,
⃗ ×𝐵
perpendicularly, then force 𝐹 = 𝑞(𝑉 ⃗ ) excreted on electrons. The path of the beam
is changed. By measuring the deflection of the path, e/m can be determined.

THEORY : When a beam of electrons enter perpendicularly in a uniform magnetic field,

the magnetic force provides necessary centripetal force to move the beam in a circular
path.
𝐹𝑚 = 𝐹𝑐
o
𝑚𝑉 2
𝑒 𝑉𝐵 sin90 =
𝑟
𝑒 𝑉
= __________(1)
𝑚 𝐵𝑟

CONSTRUCTION :The apparatus consists of:

1. FILAMENT : Electrons are produced by heating a tungsten filament.
2. CATHODE : It is a hollow cylinder at – 𝑣𝑒 potential.
3. ANODES : A +𝑣𝑒 potential on metal discs ′𝐴′ and ′𝐵′.
4. PLATES : Two parallel plates 𝑃 and 𝑃′ .
5. SCREEN : It is used to observed the electrons beam.
6. MAGNETIC FIELD : In the region of the plates and right angle to the motion of
electrons and electric field.

WORKING :
Electrons are
accelerated by applying a higher
potential (1000 𝑉 ) on disc ′𝐴′ with a
hole at its center. Electrons acquires
K.E and electron beam then passed
through the disc ′𝐵′ and the region
between the plates 𝑃 and 𝑃′ and
strikes at the end of the tube, and
produced a light spot on screen
(𝑍𝑛𝑆) at point ′𝑂′. When a uniform
magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the tube, the beam is deflected and light spot
shift from ′𝑂′ to 𝑂′ .
BY ASAD KHAN (0333-2167067) Page 5
PHYSICS MAGNETISM &
CLASS : XII ELECTROMAGNETISM

DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY : The velocity of electrons can be determine by the

two following methods:

1. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE METHOD : If P.D ′𝑉′ is applied at anode, the electrons are
accelerated. They gain K.E which is given by:
1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑉𝑒
2
2𝑉𝑒
𝑣2 =
𝑚
2𝑉𝑒
∴𝑣=√
𝑚
2. PARTICLE VELOCITY SELECTOR METHOD : Electrons are subjected to an electric
field by an equal and opposite perpendicular to the already present magnetic field.
The magnetic force cancelled by and equal and opposite electric force and electrons
will move un-deflected.
𝐹𝑚 = 𝐹𝑒
𝑒𝑣𝐵 = 𝑒𝐸
𝐸
𝑣=
𝐵
Put in equation (1):
𝑒 𝐸/𝐵 𝐸
= = 2
𝑚 𝐵𝑟 𝐵 𝑟
𝐶
The most accurate value of (𝑒/𝑚)of an electron is 1.75888 × 1011 𝑘𝑔.

BIOT AND SAVART’S LAW : According to Biot and Savart’s law:

“ The magnitude of ′𝐵′ of a long straight current carrying conductor is directly
proportional to the twice of current and inversely proportional to the perpendicular
distance ′𝑟′.”
Mathematically,
2𝐼
𝐵∝
𝑟
𝜇𝑜 2𝐼 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
𝐵= . =
4𝜋 𝑟 2𝜋𝑟
Where , 𝜇𝑜 = Permeability of free space and its value is 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑇 − 𝑚/𝐴 .
BY ASAD KHAN (0333-2167067) Page 6
PHYSICS MAGNETISM &
CLASS : XII ELECTROMAGNETISM

AMPERE’S LAW
According to Ampere’s law:
“ The sum of products of tangential components of magnetic field of induction and length
of elements of a closed curve is equal to the ′𝜇𝑜 ′ times the current enclosed by the closed
curve.”
Mathematically, ∑𝐵⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 (Enclosed current)

PROOF :
Consider a long straight conductor carrying current ′𝐼′. The magnetic field exists
in form of concentric circles around the wire, and has tangential direction at a given
point. Let circular magnetic field divided into small elements, each of length ′∆𝑙′. The
tangential component of magnetic field is given by:
𝐵 = 𝐵 cos 𝜃
Multiply ′∆𝑙′ both sides:
𝐵∆𝑙 = 𝐵∆𝑙 cos 𝜃
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐵∆𝑙
⃗ . ∆𝑙
𝐵
Apply  on both sides:
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∑𝐵 ∆𝑙 = ∑ 𝐵 ∆𝑙

⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐵 ∑ ∆𝑙 ____________(1)
⃗ . ∆𝑙
∑𝐵
According to Biot and Savart’s law:
𝜇𝑜 𝐼
𝐵= And, ∑ ∆𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑟
2𝜋𝑟
Put in equation (1):
𝜇𝑜 𝐼
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∑𝐵 ∆𝑙 = × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
2𝜋𝑟
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇𝑜 (Enclosed current)
⃗ . ∆𝑙
∑𝐵

APPLICATIONS OF AMPERE’S LAW

There are two applications of Ampere’s law.

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PHYSICS MAGNETISM &
CLASS : XII ELECTROMAGNETISM
1. MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY DUE TO SOLENOID :
A solenoid is a long cylinder coil of insulated copper wire with close turns.

Determination Of ′𝑩′ : In order to determine the

value of ′𝐵′ inside a solenoid , imagine a closed
rectangular loop ′𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑𝑎′ as shown in the diagram.
This closed loop divided into four elements
𝑙1 , 𝑙2 , 𝑙3 and 𝑙4 respectively.
According to Ampere’s law:
4
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∑(𝐵 ∆𝑙 )𝑛 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 ___________(1)
𝑛=1
(a) The length element ′𝑙1 ′ is parallel to the magnetic field i.e. 𝜃 = 0𝑜 .
(𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ ) = 𝐵𝑙1 cos 𝜃 = 𝐵𝑙1 cos 0𝑜
⃗ . ∆𝑙
1
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
(𝐵 ∆𝑙 )1 = 𝐵 𝑙1
(b) The length element ′𝑙2 ′ is perpendicular to the magnetic field i.e. 𝜃 = 90𝑜 .
(𝐵 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑙 ) = 𝐵𝑙2 cos 𝜃 = 𝐵𝑙1 cos 90𝑜
2
⃗⃗⃗ ) = 0
⃗ . ∆𝑙
(𝐵 2
(c) The length element ′𝑙3 ′ is outside the solenoid where the magnetic field is almost
zero.
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
(𝐵 ∆𝑙 ) = 0
3
(d) The length element ′𝑙4 ′ is perpendicular to the magnetic field i.e. 𝜃 = 90𝑜 .
(𝐵⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑙 ) = 𝐵𝑙4 cos 𝜃 = 𝐵𝑙4 cos 90𝑜
4
⃗⃗⃗ ) = 0
⃗ . ∆𝑙
(𝐵 4
Put all products in equation (1):
⃗⃗⃗ ) + (𝐵
⃗ . ∆𝑙
(𝐵 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑙 )2 + (𝐵 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑙 )3 + (𝐵 ∆𝑙 )4 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
1
𝐵 𝑙1 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
𝐵 𝑙1 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
If 𝑛 = Number of turns per unit length and 𝐼 = Current through each turns.
∴ Total current will be ′𝑛 𝑙1 𝐼′.
∴ 𝐵 𝑙1 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛 𝑙1 𝐼
𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛 𝐼

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PHYSICS MAGNETISM &
CLASS : XII ELECTROMAGNETISM
The above relation shows that the value of ′𝐵′ inside a long solenoid is independent of
the position. Hence ′𝐵′ is uniform inside a long solenoid.

2. MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY DUE TO TOROID :

A toroid is a circular solenoid of insulated copper wire with closed turns.

Determination Of ′𝑩′ : In order to determine the value of ′𝐵′ inside a solenoid , imagine
a toriod consist of ′𝑁′ closely packed truns and carry a current ′𝐼′. Imagine a circular
curve of radius ′𝑟′ concentric to the core. Let magnetic field at all points of the curve is
uniform. Let us consider the following cases:
a) If the circular paths (curve 1 & 3) is outside the core on the inner & outer sides of
the toriod respectively, it encloses no current.
∴ 𝐵 2𝜋𝑟 = 0
𝐵=0
b) If the circular path (curve 2) is within the core
the area bounded by the curve will be threaded
by 𝑁′ turns each carrying a current 𝐼′:
𝐵 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑁 𝐼
𝜇𝑜 𝑁 𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

When magnetic flux linked with a conductor, an EMF is induced, called induce EMF. This
induce EMF causes an electric current to flow through the conductor, called induce
current. This phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction.

FLUX LINKAGE :
The magnitude of induce EMF depends upon the rate of change of
magnetic flux through the coil and the number of turns. The product of magnetic flux and
the number of turns of a coil is called flux linkage.
Flux linkage = 𝑁 ∆𝜙
It’s unit is Weber.

BY ASAD KHAN (0333-2167067) Page 9

PHYSICS MAGNETISM &
CLASS : XII ELECTROMAGNETISM
LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
A quantitative relation between EMF and magnetic flux was provided by Faraday’s in
1831.

FARADAY’S LAW : There are two parts of faraday’s law:

1st PART :
“ When magnetic flux through the circuit is changing with time, the EMF lasts
as long as the flux changing and becomes zero as soon as the flux becomes constant.”
2nd PART:
“ The magnitude of EMF induced is directly proportional to the rate of change
of magnetic flux with linked with the coil.”
∆𝜙
∝−
Δ𝑡
∆𝜙
 = −𝑁
Δ𝑡
Where , N = Number of turns of the coil and – 𝑣𝑒 sign is introduced according to Lenz’s
law.

LENZ’S LAW : The direction of induced current and conventional current was given by
Lenz’s in 1835.
“ The direction of the induced current in a conductor is always such as
to oppose the cause that produces it.”
That is why a – 𝑣𝑒 sign is introduced in Faraday’s law.

APPLICATIONS OF LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

There are two applications of laws of electromagnetic induction.

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PHYSICS MAGNETISM &
CLASS : XII ELECTROMAGNETISM
1. SELF INDUCTION: If current flowing in a coil is suddenly changed, the magnetic
flux with the coil itself also changed, causes an induced EMF in it. This
phenomenon is known as self induction.

EXPLANATION : Consider a coil having ′𝑁′ turns. When the

switch is suddenly closed, a magnetic flux is produced, so
according to Faraday’s law, an EMF will be produced in the
coil, which causes induced current in the same coil.
“ The EMF induced in a coil is proportional to the rate of
change of current in the same coil.”
∆𝐼
∝−
Δ𝑡
∆𝐼
= −𝐿 ___________(1)
Δ𝑡
Where ′𝐿′ is called self inductance. And – 𝑣𝑒 sign is according to Lenz’s law.
According to Faraday’s law:
∆𝜙
 = −𝑁 _________(2)
Δ𝑡
Comparing equations (1) and (2) :
∆𝐼 ∆𝜙
− 𝐿 = −𝑁
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡
𝐿 ∆𝐼 = 𝑁 ∆𝜙
SELF INDUCTANCE : “ The ratio of the induced EMF in the coil to the rate of change of
current in the same coil is called self inductance.”

UNIT: The S.I unit of self inductance is Henry (H).

DEPENDENCE : The value of self inductance depends upon:

a) Number of turns of the coil. b) Cross-section area of the coil.
c) Material of the coil. d) Permeability of the core.

USES:
a) Regulators of fans. c) Simple motors.
b) Welding plants.

BY ASAD KHAN (0333-2167067) Page 11

PHYSICS MAGNETISM &
CLASS : XII ELECTROMAGNETISM
2. MUTUAL INDUCTION: If current flowing in a coil (Primary) is changed, then an
induced EMF in another coil (Secondary) placed near the 1 st coil. This
phenomenon is known as mutual induction.

EXPLANATION : Consider two coils primary and

secondary placed very near to each other. When the
switch is suddenly closed, the magnetic flux is
produced due to change in current in primary coil, so
according to Faraday’s law, an induce EMF will be
produced in the secondary coil.
“ The EMF induced in secondary coil is proportional to
the rate of change of current in the primary coil.”
∆𝐼𝑃
𝑆 ∝ −
Δ𝑡
∆𝐼𝑃
𝑆 = −𝑀 ________(1)
Δ𝑡
Where ′𝑀′ is called mutual inductance. And – 𝑣𝑒 sign is according to Lenz’s law.
According to Faraday’s law:
∆𝜙𝑆
𝑆 = −𝑁𝑆 ________(1)
Δ𝑡
Comparing equations (1) and (2) :
∆𝐼𝑃 ∆𝜙𝑆
−𝑀 = −𝑁𝑆
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡
𝑀 ∆𝐼𝑃 = 𝑁𝑆 ∆𝜙𝑆
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE : “The ratio of the induced EMF in the secondary coil to the
rate of change of current in the primary coil is called mutual inductance.”

UNIT: The S.I unit of mutual inductance is Henry (H).

DEPENDENCE : The value of mutual inductance depends upon:

a) Number of turns of the coils. b) Cross-section area of the coils.
c) Material of the coils. d) Permeability of the core.
e) Closeness of two coils.

USES:
a) Transformers b) Stabilizers
BY ASAD KHAN (0333-2167067) Page 12
PHYSICS MAGNETISM &
CLASS : XII ELECTROMAGNETISM
c) Electromagnetic machines

MOTIONAL EMF

When a conductor is moved across a magnetic field or when a magnetic field moved
relative to nearby a conductor a potential difference appears across the conductor. This
potential difference is known as motional EMF.

EXPLANATION: Consider a straight conductor of

length ′𝐿′ moving with a certain velocity ′𝑉′
perpendicular to its length as well as a uniform
magnetic field. The free electrons experience a force
which is given by:
𝐹 = −𝑒(𝑉 ⃗ ×𝐵 ⃗ ) = 𝑒(𝑉⃗ ×𝐵⃗ ) = 𝑒𝑉𝐵 sin 𝜃
The potential difference (Motional EMF) developed across the ends of the conductor is
given by:
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒
∆𝑉 =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝐹 . 𝐿 𝑒𝑉𝐵 sin 𝜃 . 𝐿
∆𝑉 = =
𝑒 𝑒
∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝐵𝐿 sin 𝜃
The above relation is general formula for motional EMF when conductor moved making
any angle ′𝜃′ with the magnetic field.
If = 90𝑜 :
∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝐵𝐿

ALTERNATING CURRENT GENERATOR (DYNAMO)

An electro mechanical device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy
is called generator. An A.C generator produces A.C current that alternates its direction
several times per second.

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PHYSICS MAGNETISM &
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PRINCIPLE : Its working principle is based upon the idea that when a coil is rotated in
a magnetic field an EMF is induced in it, causes an alternating current in the external
circuit to flow.

CONSTRUCTION:
An A.C generator has following components:
1. ARMATURE : It is a coil of insulated copper wire wound on a soft iron cylinder.
2. FIELD MAGNET : A strong permanent magnet with concave poles which
produced strong and radial magnetic field.
3. SLIP RINGS : Two slip rings (Fixed), connected at terminals of the coil.
4. CARBON BRUSHES : Two carbon brushes touch the each slip rings. They make
connection to the external circuit.
WORKING :
When coil is rotated in a magnetic field, an induced EMF is produced in it.

i. When coil is rotated from 0𝑜 to 90𝑜 , then induced EMF increases and becomes
maximum at 90𝑜 .
ii. When coil is rotated from 90𝑜 to 180𝑜 , the flux drop gradually to zero and
EMF decreases and becomes zero at 180𝑜 .
iii. When coil is rotated from 180𝑜 to 270𝑜 , then EMF increases in – 𝑣𝑒 half cycle
and becomes maximum at 270𝑜 .
iv. When coil is rotated from 270𝑜 to 360𝑜 , the flux drop gradually to zero and
EMF decreases and becomes zero at 360𝑜 .

EXPRESSION FOR MOTIONAL EMF :

Let ,

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PHYSICS MAGNETISM &
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𝐿 = Length of the coil. 𝑏 = Width of the coil.
𝑉 = Linear velocity of coil. 𝐵 = Uniform magnetic field.
For a complete revolution of coil the total motional EMF will be:
 = 2 𝑉𝐵𝐿 sin 𝜃
𝑏
We know that 𝑉 = 𝑟𝜔 = 𝜔
2
Where 𝜔 = Angular velocity of the coil.
𝑏
∴  = 2 × 𝜔 𝐵𝐿 sin 𝜃 = (𝐿 × 𝑏) 𝜔𝐵 sin 𝜃
2
Here 𝐿 × 𝑏 = 𝐴 , cross section area of the coil.
 = 𝐴 𝜔𝐵 sin 𝜃
If the rotating coil has ′𝑁′ turns :
 = 𝑁𝜔𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃
For maximum motional EMF 𝜃 = 90𝑜 :
𝑜 = 𝑁𝜔𝐴𝐵

TRANSFORMER

A transformer is a device that transfer electrical energy from one circuit to another,
and used to step up or step down A.C voltage.

PRINCIPLE : Transformer works on the basis of mutual induction between the two
coils i.e. when current is changed in a coil (Primary), its changing magnetic flux, induces
an EMF in a nearby coil (Secondary).

CONSTRUCTION: A transformer consists of:

1. COILS : Two coils of copper wires insulated from each other. Input voltage is
applied across the primary coil, whereas the output voltage obtain across the
secondary coil.
2. CORE : The two coils are wound one on top of the other or side by side close to
each other, on a laminated soft iron core.

WORKING :

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PHYSICS MAGNETISM &
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When the input alternating voltage is applied at primary coil, then due to
self induction an EMF is induced in the coil itself. According to Faraday’s law:
∆𝜙
𝐸𝑃 = −𝑁𝑃 __________(1)
Δ𝑡
Where , 𝐸𝑃 = EMF at primary coil, 𝑁𝑃 = Number of turns on primary coil.
At the same time, the varying flux ′∆𝜙′ passes through the secondary coil and induced
EMF in it.
∆𝜙
𝐸𝑆 = −𝑁𝑆 __________(2)
Δ𝑡
By dividing equations (1) & (2) :
∆𝜙
𝐸𝑃 −𝑁𝑃 Δ𝑡
=
𝐸𝑆 −𝑁 ∆𝜙
𝑆 Δ𝑡
𝐸𝑃 𝑁𝑃
=
𝐸𝑆 𝑁𝑆
This relation is known as transformer equation.

POWER DISSIPATION : For an ideal transformer:

Output = Input
𝐸𝑆 𝐼𝑆 = 𝐸𝑃 𝐼𝑃
𝐸𝑃 𝐼𝑆
=
𝐸𝑆 𝐼𝑃
EFFICIENCY : The efficiency of a transformer is given by:
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝜂= × 100%
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑃𝑆
𝜂= × 100%
𝑃𝑃
TYPES OF TRANSFORMER :
There are two types of transformer.
1. STEP-UP TRANSFORMER : A transformer in which 𝑁𝑃 < 𝑁𝑆 and 𝐸𝑃 < 𝐸𝑆 , is
called step-up transformer.
2. STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER : A transformer in which 𝑁𝑃 > 𝑁𝑆 and 𝐸𝑃 > 𝐸𝑆 , is
called step-up transformer.

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