ANATOMY &

PHYSIOLOGY
Prepared by Camille Nas, PTRP, RPT
Prayer before class…

Dear Lord and Father of all,

Thank you for today.
Thank you for ways in which you provide for us all.
For Your protection and love we thank you.
Help us to focus our hearts and minds now on what we are about to learn. Inspire
us by Your Holy Spirit as we listen and write.
Guide us by your eternal light as we discover more about the world around us.

We ask all this in the name of Jesus.

Amen
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
• Describe the anatomical position, and explain
its importance.
• Discuss homeostasis
• Use proper anatomical terminology to
describe body regions, orientation and • Describe a negative-feedback
direction, and body planes. mechanism and give an example.
• Name the body cavities, and indicate the • Describe a positive-feedback
important organs in each.
• Name and describe the serous membranes of mechanism and give an example.
the ventral body cavities.
• Identify the abdominopelvic quadrants and
regions on a torso model or image.
• Define the directional terms for the human
body and use them to locate specific body
structures.
lecture website
INTRODUCTION TO THE
HUMAN BODY
 ANATOMY vs PHYSIOLOGY

ANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY
- Structures of the body - Processes of functions
of living things

MAJOR GOAL:
1. Understand and
predict body’s response
to stimuli
2. How body maintains
conditions within a
range of values during
constant changing
environment internally
and externally
Structural and Functional
Organization of the Human Body
6 levels of organization of body:

1. Chemical
2. Cell
3. Tissue
4. Organ
5. Organ system
6. Organism
 HOMEOSTASIS
• Existence and maintenance of relatively constant
environment in the body despite changes outside
continuously
• dynamic state of equilibrium
• Affected by variables
• Changes in internal body conditions
• Values are not constant
• Ex. Body temp., volume, chemical content,
pH level

stimulus
• A changed variable is called? __________

NORMAL RANGE
• For cells to function normally
• Narrow range set point of homeostasis to maintain
near normal value
 Feedback Loops
• Regulates homeostasis

TYPES:
1.Negative feedback
2.Positive feedback

COMPONENTS:
1. Receptor
2. Control center
3. Effector
1. Negative feedback
• More common in homeostasis
• “to decrease” or reduce intensity
• cause the variable to change in a
direction opposite to that of the
initial change, returning it to its
“ideal” value (the set point)
1. Positive feedback
• Enhances the original stimulus
• Further response, adds
• is “positive” because
• the change that results proceeds
in the same direction as the
initial change,
I. ANATOMICAL POSITION

• Standing erect
• Face and feet directed forward
• Upper limb at the side
• Palms facing forward
II. DIRECTIONAL TERMS
• Supine vs Prone
• Superior vs Inferior
• Anterior vs Posterior
• Ventral vs Dorsal
• Proximal vs Distal
• Medial vs Lateral
• Superficial vs Deep
SUPINE
PRONE
II. DIRECTIONAL TERMS
1. WHAT VIEW IS THIS SHOWING?
A. ANTERIOR
B. POSTERIOR
C. LATERAL
D. MEDIAL
2. THE FRACTURE IS
______ TO THE ELBOW?

A. SUPERIOR
B. INFERIOR
C. LATERAL
D. MEDIAL
2. THE FRACTURE IS
______ TO THE
SHOULDER?

A. PROXIMAL
B. DISTAL
C. MEDIAL
D. LATERAL
III. BODY PARTS & REGIONS
III.a. Quadrants
III.a. Quadrants
BODY PLANES & SECTIONS
o Sagittal
o Transverse
o Frontal
BODY PLANES & SECTIONS

o Sagittal
o Transverse
o Frontal
BODY CAVITIES
PLANES AND MOTION
PLANE MOTION

SAGITTAL FLEXION-
EXTENSION

FRONTAL ABDUCTION-
ADDUCTION

TRANSVERSE ROTATION
PLANES AND MOTION

PLANE MOTION

SAGITTAL FLEXION-
EXTENSION

FRONTAL ABDUCTION-
ADDUCTION

TRANSVERSE ROTATION
 THE NERVOUS
TISSUE AND CELL
Prepared by Camille Nas, PTRP, RPT
Function of the nervous system
• regulates and coordinates
functions of the body required to
maintain homeostasis.

NEURONS vs NERVE

2 main cell types:

1. Neurons
2. Glial cells
NEURONS NERVES
- Electrically excitable cells of - A collection of many axons
nervous system bundled together outside the
brain and spinal cord
 GLIAL CELLS
NEURONS
- Are supportive cells that
- Electrically excitable cells of serve many function for
nervous system neurons
NEURONS AND GLIAL CELLS
Functions:
1. Maintain homeostasis
2. Receive sensory input
3. Integrate information
4. Control muscles and glands
5. Establish and maintain mental activity
NEURONS
(Nerve cells)
structural units of the
nervous system.
E.
A. NUCLEUS
B. SOMA OR CELL BODY
C. AXON TERMINAL BRANCHES
D. AXON
A.
B. E. DENDRITES

C.
D.
 NEURONS STRUCTURE

CELL BODY
- Aka soma
- Protein synthesis
- Packages proteins into vesicles
- (+) rough Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
- Nissl bodies
- Has spherical nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm
- The major biosynthetic center and metabolic center of a neuron
 NEURONS STRUCTURE

DENDRITES
- Extensions of cell body
- Receive information
- Short and highly branched
- Generate small electric currents towards the cell body

- Dendritic spines
- Small extension where axons of other neurons form connections
 NEURONS STRUCTURE

AXONS
- Arises from axon hillock
- INITIAL SEGMENT – narrows to form a slender process
that is same in diameter for the rest of its length
- Generate signals away from the cell body

-
NERVE FIBER
A LONG AXON IS CALLED _________________

The combination of the axon hillock and the initial segment is

called the trigger zone
 TYPES OF NEURONS:

FUNCTIONAL:
1. SENSORY NEURONS
2. MOTOR NEURONS
3. INTERNEURONS

STRUCTURAL:
1. Multipolar
2. Bipolar
3. Pseudo-unipolar
4. anaxonic
 TYPES OF NEURONS: MULTIPOLAR
Have many dendrites and 1 axon

BIPOLAR
1 axon 1 dendrite
STRUCTURAL:
1. Multipolar
2. Bipolar
3. Pseudo- PSEUDO-UNIPOLAR
unipolar
start out as bipolar neurons during
4. anaxonic
development, but the two processes that
extend rom the cell body fuse into a single
process

ANAXONIC
No axons but only has dendrites
GLIAL CELLS OF THE CNS

four types of CNS glial cells:

(1)astrocytes,
(2)ependymal cells,
(3)microglia,
(4) oligodendrocytes.
 GLIAL CELLS OF THE CNS
Ependymal
Astrocytes Microglia Oligodendrocytes
Cells
help regulate the line the ventricles CNS-specific
composition of (cavities) immune cells
extracellular of the brain and derived from the form an insulating
brain fluid the central canal same embryonic layer around
of the spinal cord tissue as other axons.
Blood brain barrier form structures immune cells
called choroid within the blood. forming the myelin
plexuses sheath
mobile and
phagocytic
 GLIAL CELLS OF THE PNS
two types of glial cells in the PNS:
(1) Schwann cells
and (2) satellite cells.

SATELLITE CELLS
- surround neuron cell bodies in sensory
and
autonomic ganglia
- Provide support and nutrition to the
neuron cell bodies
- protect neurons from heavy-metal
poisons, such as lead and mercury;
absorbing them
 GLIAL CELLS OF THE PNS
two types of glial cells in the PNS:
(1) Schwann cells
and (2) satellite cells.

SCHWANN CELLS
form myelin sheaths.
However, unlike oligodendrocytes,
each Schwann cell forms a portion of
the myelin sheath around only one
axon
MYELIN SHEATH
• protects and electrically insulates axons
• increases the transmission speed of nerve Impulses.

MYELIN SHEATH GAPS

or nodes of Ranvier
- occur at regular intervals (about 1 mm apart)
along a myelinated axon. Axon collaterals can
emerge at these gaps.
In myelinated axons, Schwann cells in the PNS or oligodendrocyte
extensions in the CNS repeatedly wrap around a segment
of an axon to form a series of tightly wrapped membranes rich
in phospholipids, with little cytoplasm sandwiched between the
membrane layers

It gives myelinated axons a white appearance

because of the high lipid concentration.
The myelin sheath is not a continuous covering of the axon

These characteristics help myelinated axons

conduct electrical
signals more rapidly than unmyelinated axons.
 SYNAPSE
The point of contact between
axon ending and its effector

If an axon has been severed,

so that it is no longer connected
to its neuron cell body, what will
be the effect on the distal and
proximal portions of the axon?
 ACTION POTENTIALS
The electrical signals produced by the
nervous system are called action potentials

The membrane potential

- A measure of the electrical properties of the plasma
membrane and is due to
two major characteristics:
1. Ionic concentration differences across the plasma
membrane
2. Permeability characteristics of the plasma membrane
Ionic Concentration Differences Across
the Plasma Membrane
There is a higher
concentration of Na+ and Cl−
outside the cell than inside
the cell,

while there is a higher

concentration of K+ inside
the cell
Role of Membrane Ion Channels
channels that are selective as to the type of
ion (or ions) it allows to pass.
TYPES OF ION
For example, a potassium ion channel allows
only potassium ions to pass CHANNELS:
1. Leakage or nongated channels
2. Chemically gated channels
Voltage-gated channels
3. Mechanically gated channels
TYPES OF ION CHANNEL: 2. Gated Ion Channels
- closed until opened by specific signals
1. Leak Ion Channels - by opening and closing, these
- Nongated ion channel channels can change the permeability
- always open of the plasma membrane.
- are responsible for the permeability of the
plasma membrane to ions when the
plasma membrane is unstimulated, or at There are three major types of gated ion channels:
rest.
1. Ligand-gated ion channels
2. Voltage-gated ion channels
3. Other gated ion channels
 Gated Ion Channels
1. Ligand-gated ion channels
stimulated to open by the binding of a
specific molecule to the receptor site
of the ion channel
- The specific molecule that binds to the
receptor site can be referred to as a
ligand.

Ligands could be neurotransmitters or hormones,

 Gated Ion Channels
1. Voltage-gated ion channels
open and close in response to a
specific, small voltage change
across the plasma membrane

In an unstimulated cell, the inside

of the cell is negatively charged
relative to the outside.
When gated ion channels open, ions
diffuse quickly across the membrane.

The direction an ion moves (into or out of

the 1. Concentration gradient
cell) is determined by the electrochemical 2. Electrical gradient
gradient.

The electrochemical gradient has two

components:
Establishing the
MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
Resting Membrane Potential - Measured by comparing the charge inside to
the outside of the cell
there are opposite charges, or
poles,
across the membrane, the plasma Resting membrane potential
membrane is referred to as being - Unstimulated
- Resting cell
polarized.
- By convention, the potential difference
is reported as a negative number
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE because the inside of the plasma
electrical charge membrane is negative compared with
difference across the the outside
plasma membrane
Changing the Resting
Membrane Potential
There are two types of changes to the
resting membrane potential:

(1) depolarization and

(2) hyperpolarization.
Changing the Resting DEPOLARIZATION
Membrane Potential
There are two types of changes - Inside of the cell is more positive
to the resting membrane - Action potential is generated
potential: - The movement of membrane potential closer to zero
(1) depolarization and
- it is always excitatory to the cell.
(2) hyperpolarization.
- For example, if the membrane potential increases from −70
mV to −55 mV

- Several factors can lead to depolarization of neurons,

including (1)
Na+ entry, (2) Ca2+ entry,
and (3) changes in extracellular K+
concentration.
 DEPOLARIZATION:
SODIUM IONS
- Most common cause of depolarization
- Regulated since only few Na leak channels
- Stronger entry with ligand-gated r voltage gated
- Enters inside cell

- As Na+ diffuses into the cell, the inside of the

membrane becomes more positive, or is
depolarized.
- This is the principal way most neurons respond to
excitatory stimuli
 Ca+
Regulation of Na entry via concentration of:
unbinds

CALCIUM IONS
Ca +
- Higher concentration outside;extracellular fluid Ca+
Ca +
- Enters when voltage-gated channels open Ca +
- Found in some cardiac muscle cells

- However, Ca2+ also plays two other significant roles

in action potentials:
- (1) regulation of voltage-gated Na+ channels and
- (2) regulation of neurotransmitter secretion at the
presynaptic terminal
 CALCIUM IONS
Decrease vs Increase Concentration

DECREASE CONCENTRATION INCREASE CONCENTRATION

Calcium outside cell is attracted to
negatively charged groups of proteins binds to voltage-gated Na+
within the voltage-gated Na channels channels, causing them to

- If Ca concentration decrease, it diffuses close.

away from the voltage-gated Na
channels, causing the gate to open

- = Voltage-gated Na Channel OPEN

 Ca+ Ca+ 2. Ca
Ca+Ca+ binds
Ca+
Ca+
1. When Ca
concentration is
Ca+
HIGH Ca+
extracellularly Ca+
Ca+

3. CLOSES the gate

 Ca+

unbinds
1. When Ca concentration is
LOW Ca + IN SUMMARY
Extracellularly Ca+
Ca +
Ca + +
+
Ca Ca+ Ca
2. Ca on the receptor site Calcium BINDS = Gate Closed
UNBINDS Ca+ No sodium entry
3. GATE OPENS

4. Na enters
 WHAT CAUSES
HYPERPOLARIZATION?
2 FACTORS:

1. SLOW EXIT OF K+ VIA POTASSIUM

LEAK CHANNELS:

POTASSIUM IONS
diffuses out of the cell

- If concentration outside is INCREASES = K+

STAYS INSIDE

- Remember, Potassium in normal state is higher

in concentration intracellularly

- When K+ stays inside, cell is depolarized

(positively charged membrane potential)
POTASSIUM IONS
diffuses out of the cell
Resting membrane
- If concentration outside is INCREASES = potential
K+ STAYS INSIDE

- Remember, Potassium in normal state is

higher in concentration intracellularly

- When K+ stays inside, cell is

depolarized (positively charged
membrane potential)
Changing the Resting
Membrane Potential HYPERPOLARIZATION
There are two types of changes
to the resting membrane
potential:
- Inside of the cell is more NEGATIVE
- For example, if the membrane potential
(1) depolarization and decreases from −70 mV to −90 mV, then
(2) hyperpolarization.
the cell is less likely to generate an action
potential.

- There are two major ways to

hyperpolarize neurons: (1) K+ exit and
(2) Cl− entry.
2. ENTRY OF CHLORIDE
IONS
- NEGATIVELY CHARGED
higher concentration outside the cell

- Opening of ligand-gated Cl− channels causes Cl− to

diffuse into the cell.

introduction of the negatively charged Cl− into the

cell hyperpolarizes it

HYPER POLARIZED = INCREASED

NEGATIVE CHARGE INSIDE CELL
LET’S RECAP: VOLTAGE-GATED CHANNELS
FOR:
LIGAND GATED CHANNELS:
1. Sodium
ENTRY GATE OF:
1. Chloride - LEAK CHANNELS:
2. Potassium+
1. Potassium**
2. Sodium
Changing the Resting
Changes in membrane potential can
Membrane Potential produce two types of signals:
A change in membrane potential
can be produced by: 1. Graded Potentials
(1) anything that 2. Action Potentials
alters ion concentrations on the
two sides of the membrane,

or (2) anything that changes

membrane permeability to any
ion
GRADED POTENTIALS ACTION POTENTIALS
➢ incoming signals operating over ➢ long-distance signals of axons that
short distances that have variable always have the same strength
(graded) strength
GRADED POTENTIALS
➢ Short lived
➢ Localized changes
➢ Usually in dendrites
➢ Important because they sum together and
determine whether or not an action potential
occurs
➢ Intensity of voltage decreases with distance
➢ Strength varies directly with stimulus strength
➢ The stronger the stimulus, the more voltage
generated
➢ OTHER NAMES:
➢ Receptor potential
➢ Generator potential
➢ Post synaptic potential
➢ End-plate potential
GRADED POTENTIALS
Graded potentials can be either
(1) hyperpolarizing or (2) depolarizing.
SUMMATION
= the combination of graded potentials,
which, if sufficiently large, will result in an
Hyperpolarizing graded potentials are action potential
due to either K+ exit from the cell or
Cl− entry into the cell TRESHOLD - a specific membrane potential
➢ the membrane potential at which an
Depolarizing graded potentials are action potential is generated.
always excitatory to the cell ➢ An action potential is generated when
voltage-gated Na+ channels open
depolarizing graded potentials are added
together
in a process called summation
➢ A brief reversal of membrane potential
➢ Change in voltage of about 100mV (from ACTION POTENTIALS
-70 to +30mV)

➢ Depolarization is followed by
Repolarization and a short period of
Hyperpolarization
➢ whole event is over in a few milliseconds
➢ do not decay with distance
➢ Only in axons
➢ transition from local graded potential to
long-distance action potential takes
place at the initial segment of the axon.

➢ OTHER NAME: Nerve impulse

Action potentials have
four phases:
(1) a depolarization phase,
(2) a repolarization phase,
(3) an afterpotential, and
(4) return to
resting membrane potential.
All-or-None Voltage-gated K+
Voltage-gated Na+ channel
Principle two voltage-sensitive gates:
channels:
Action potentials occur
according to the all-or- 1. activation gates At rest, closed
none principle
2. Inactivation gates When stimulus reach
➢ a depolarizing At Rest, activation gates are closed
threshold
Inactivation gates = open Gate opens, BUT more
graded potential that SLOWER compared to Na
is large enough to ➢ Sodium cannot diffuse inside gated channel
reach threshold
How do membrane potential maintain
concentration gradients?
SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP
- ATP driven
- First: ejects 3 Na+
Then: transports inside 2 K+

- 3NaOUT 2K+IN
1.D E P O L A R IZ A T IO N
➢T h e re tu rn to R MP , a c tiv a tion
T IO N g a te s in th e v o lta g e -g a te d N a +
➢S o d iu m g o e s in s id e th e c e ll c h a n n e ls to c los e a n d th e
➢P o ta s s iu m e x its th e c e ll in a c tiv a tio n g a te s to ope n.
➢o c c u rs b e c a u s e th e v olta g e -
g a te d K + c ha nne ls re m a in ope n
2. fo r a s lig h tly lo n g e r tim e th a n it
ta k e s to b rin g th e m e m b ra n e
R E P O L A R IZ A T I p o te n tia l b a c k to its o rig in a l re s tin g
le v e l.
ON ➢T h is a llo w s e x tra K + to le a v e th e
➢Ina c tiv a tion N a c ha nne l c los e s , K c e ll, h y p e rp o la riz in g it.
c h a n n e l s till ope n =
➢S o d iu m re m a in s o u ts id e
➢P o ta s s iu m s till e x its
4 . R MP
3 .A F T E R P O T E N T I ➢v o lta g e -g a te d K c h a n n e l c lo s e s
➢R e e s ta b lis h e d b y s o d iu m
AL / p o ta s s iu m p u m p
H Y P E R P O L A R IZ A
 REFRACTORY PERIOD
Once an action potential is produced at a given point on
the plasma membrane, that area becomes less
sensitive to further stimulation

1ST PART: ABSOLUTE REFRACTORY

PERIOD
➢ from the beginning of the action potential until near the
end of repolarization
➢ the inactivation gates in the voltage-gated Na+
channels are already open
➢ Depolarization ends as the inactivation
gates close
➢ further depolarization cannot occur
2nd part: RELATIVE REFRACTORY
PERIOD
➢ Follows the absolute period
➢ Very strong stimulus, or a stronger-than-threshold stimulus can
initiate another action potential during the relative refractory period

➢ the membrane is more permeable to K+ because many

voltage-gated K+ channels are open
➢ period ends when the voltage-gated K+ channels close and the
membrane potential has returned to the resting level
ACTION POTENTIAL FREQUENCY Threshold stimulus – produces 1 action potential
the number of action potentials produced per unit of time in > just strong enough to reach threshold
response to a stimulus
➢ is directly proportional to stimulus strength and to the Submaximal stimulus
size of the graded potential ➢ Includes all threshold and maximal stimulus
strength
➢ 1. subthreshold ➢ action potential frequency increases in
➢ 2. submaximal proportion to the strength of the stimulus
➢ 3. maximal because the size of the graded potential
➢ 4. supramximal increases with stimulus strength

➢ SUBTHRESHOLD STIMULUS – any stimulus not MAXIMAL

strong enough to produce a graded potential that ➢ Produces maximum AP
can reach threshold
SUPRAMAXIMAL
➢ is any stimulus stronger than a maximal stimulus.
➢ axon’s ability to produce action potentials is
limited, these stimuli cannot produce a greater
frequency of action potentials than a nmaximal
stimulus.
PROPAGATION
OF ACTION
POTENTIALS:
SYNAPSE
communication between the cells
 CHEMICAL SYNAPSES:
ELECTRICAL SYNAPSES: occurs where a chemical messenger, called
a neurotransmitter, is used to communicate
occur between cells connected by gap a message to an effector
junctions

are not common in the nervous system

but some do exist in other tissues, such as
between adjacent cardiac muscle cells
CHEMICAL SYNAPSES

COMPONENTS:
1. PRESYNAPTIC TERMINAL
2. SYNAPTIC CLEFT
3. POST SYNAPTIC MEMBRANE
Neurotransmitters and
Neuromodulators

Acetylcholine Chatecolamine GABA, glycine, Purines Nueropeptides Gas and lipids

(Ach) glutamate - nitrogen- - Short chain such as Nitric
Indoleamine (amino acids) containing amino acids oxide and
compounds Carbon
monoxide

- Ex., substance Sometimes

P, endorphins referred o as
gasotransmitters
 Responses at the Postsynaptic Cells: Excitatory
and Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials

IPSP
EPSP
➢ results from an increase in the permeability of the
➢ Occurs because the plasma membrane has become plasma membrane to Cl− or K+, resulting in
more permeable to Na+. hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic cell
➢ When depolarization of post-synaptic occurs
➢ Response is stimulatory ➢ the response is inhibitory because no action
➢ depolarization might reach threshold potentials are generated
➢ producing an action potential and a response from the
cell. ➢ move the membrane potential farther from threshold,
➢ Caused by EXCITATORY NEURONS ➢ decreases the likelihood of an action potential being
generated.
 SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL SUMMATION:

SPATIAL TEMPORAL
➢ Multiple APs from separate neurons arrive ➢ When 2 or more Aps arrive very close
simultaneously at the same post synaptic together at post-synaptic
neuron ➢ The 1st AP cause depolarizing graded
➢ each action potential causes a depolarizing potential that remains few milliseconds
graded potential that undergoes summation at before disappear
the trigger zone. ➢ in the postsynaptic cell results when the
➢ If the summated depolarization reaches second action potential from the
threshold, an action potential is produced presynaptic neuron initiates a second
graded depolarization before the
postsynaptic cell’s membrane potential
returns to its resting value

➢ APs have “tempo” in depolarizing a cell

Neuronal Pathways and Circuits

four basic
patterns of parallel pathways can be recognized:
(1) Convergent pathways, (2) divergent pathways, (3) reverberating circuits, and (4) parallel
after-discharge circuits.
DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM:
1. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
End of lecture. Prepare for post-lecture quiz.

1ST POST QUIZ = 15 ITEMS

2ND POST QUIZ = 25 ITEMS