Learning

Definition
Learning:

What does learning mean to you?

 Learning
Definition
Learning:
is a relatively permanent change in
behavior due to experience.

Can you think of changes in behavior that

are not learning? What could they be due to?
Discuss.
Is there of learning of one type, or are there
many kinds? Substantiate.
 Theories of Learning
• Behavioral learning Theories:
1- classical
conditioning,
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2- operant conditioning,

• Cognitive learning Theories

• Social (observational) Learning
 Learning: Classical Conditioning
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hhqumfpxuzI

» Ivan Pavlov
» 1849-1936
www.experiencefestival.com/a/...Classical.../id/1287986

Pavlov’s Experiment shows that:

• UCS (food) UCR (salivation)

• CS (bell) UCS (food) UCR (salivation)
• CS (bell) CR (salivation)
• Read the book p. 170 for definitions. Of NS, UCS CF, UCR and CR.
 Learning: Classical Conditioning
www.experiencefestival.com/a/...Classical.../id/1287986

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 Learning: Classical Conditioning
www.experiencefestival.com/a/...Classical.../id/1287986
 Learning: Classical Conditioning
www.experiencefestival.com/a/...Classical.../id/1287986
 Learning: Classical Conditioning
www.experiencefestival.com/a/...Classical.../id/1287986
 Learning: Classical Conditioning
Principles
• Extinction The process of unlearning a CR

• If the unconditioned stimulus stops to

follow conditioned stimulus, the
-

conditioned response will gradually slow

down and will finally disappear.
– How can you get a CR to stop occurring?
• What would you do to get Pavlov’s dog to stop salivating to
the sound of the tone?
– The key is to break the “association” between the CS and the US

How can you apply this to many of human behavior, See examples
of the textbook p 172-173) and say how can this be applied
 Learning: Classical Conditioning
Principles

Spontaneous Recovery:
Be careful if you have de-learned a bad
habit such as smoking or drinking too
much stimulants (coffee, tea, coke etc..).
You habit may be learned again easier than
you think?
Spontaneous Recovery: the reoccurrence of
an extinguished conditioned response.
 Learning: Classical Conditioning
Principles

• Generalization:
• Stimuli resembling the CS will also produce• the)
CR although never having been associated with
the US
• Loading…
Discrimination: (ability to differentiate between
stimuli.
– When we respond to similar CS in different ways. We
will learn to respond to the appropriate CS.
– Wrong generalizations will stop.
 Learning: Classical Conditioning
& & sir Factors Affecting Conditioning
-
go
&
1. Contiguity: Contiguity is the closeness in time and space
between the CS and US.
- =

closer association elicits stronger conditioning. (however delayed

association may still elicit association Garcia effect (read top paragraph p.175
textbook)

2. Contingency: Contingency represents the number of times that

the CS is paired with the US. This strengthens the conditioning
especially when CS precedes US.

3. Stimulus Features: The physical characteristics of

the CS and US affect the rate of conditioning. The more
salient the stimulus, the more likely it is to create
conditioning.
• Sense organs stimulated will also determine salience
(e.g., auditory vs. visual)
 Learning: Classical Conditioning
Factors Affecting Conditioning

4. Prior Experience with CS and US

Experiencing a stimulus prior to associating it with
a US decreases the likelihood that it will become
a CS (latent inhibition). Novel stimuli are more
likely to become CSs than are stimuli that have
been experienced many times in the absence of
the US.
5. Temperament Hereditary differences in
temperament may influence conditionability.
It was found that more anxious people are more easily
conditioned.
 Learning: Classical Conditioning
1- What are the main factors affecting
Conditioning ?
Under what conditions does conditioning
happen?

2- What are the main principles in

conditioning?
 Learning: Classical Conditioning

1- What are the main factors affecting

Conditioning ?
Under what conditions does conditioning
happen?
1- contiguity (closeness in time)
2- contingency Repetition
3- characteristic of stimulus
4-Experience
5- personality (temperament)
 Learning: Classical Conditioning

2- What are the main principles in

conditioning?
1- extinction
unlearning / disappearance of the
conditioning
2- generalization responding to similar stimuli
3- discrimination respond to a particular
 Learning: Classical Conditioning
Applications
1- Higher-Order Conditioning Once a stimulus has
been developed as a CS, it can then serve as a US to
develop a second CS and so on.
2- Semantic Conditioning Words can become CSs.
Words associated with USs or strong CSs can become
CSs themselves. Once this happens, the words can
evoke the same emotional response as the US did
initially
3- Prejudice Words with bad associations can be paired
with words for groups of people, producing bad
associations toward those people. Words such as dirty,
thieving, clannish, smelly, etc., when used to describe
people can make us prejudiced toward those people.
4- Use in Advertising: Pairing pleasant images with
products makes us more agreeable to purchase and use
of the product.
 Learning: Classical Conditioning
5-Classical conditioning ofApplications
emotional responses: Pictures of people’s
faces were paired with either a pleasant, neutral, or
unpleasant odor.
• When later asked to evaluate the faces, the highest ratings
were given to those pictures that had been associated with
the pleasant odor.
• The lowest ratings were given to those pictures which had
been paired with the unpleasant odor (Todrank, Byrnes,
Wrzesniewski, & Rozin, 1995)
6- Immunological Reactions: The immune system is
susceptible to
– Allergic reactions can be conditioned as can immune
suppression in response to chemo-therapy.
– Increases as well as decreases in immune functioning
have been found capable of being classically
conditioned.
 Useful links
http://psychology.about.com/od/eindex/g/extinction.htm. It answers many
questions and gives easy and straightforward definitions.

http://answers.yahoo.com/ Gives answers about almost everything. Beware,

answers could be given by a person who may not specialized in the field.
http://www.mentalhelp.net/ Nice for general reading and information about
many a thing in psychology and behavior.
(http://academics.tjhsst.edu/psych/links.php) gets to many useful links about psychology
topics.
 Operant conditioning
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA
• A type of learning where a voluntary response is
strengthened (by favorable) or weakened (by
unfavorable) consequences that follow it.
• Thorndike Proposed the Law of effect:
• What is the effect of things that follow a
behavior?
• Law of effect portrays that the responses that
lead to satisfying consequences are more likely
to be repeated.
 Basics of operant conditioning (read pp178-180)

Reinforcement: The way by which a

stimulus increases the probability
that a preceding behavior will be
repeated.
Students will continue to study harder if they get
good marks and encouragement after their hard
studying.
Reinforcer: Any stimulus that
increases the probability that a
preceding behavior will occur again.
– Primary: related to biological
needs (food, candy etc..)
– Secondary: those that are
associated with the primary
(money, and all other non
material rewards).
 Basics of operant conditioning (read pp178-180)

Reinforcerers can be….. : Any

stimulus that increases the probability
that a preceding behavior will occur
again.
They can be of the following types
Positive the stimulus is added to increase
the repetition of desired behavior.
Negative the stimulus is withdrawn to
encourage the repetition of desired
responses.
Punishment: unpleasant stimuli
introduced to decrease the probability of
a behavior to occur again.
Differentiate between the concepts of reinforcement
(pp178-180)

Type Definition Example

Application of give awards to high

Positive positive stimulus achievers

Reinforcement Removal of a Reducing the

Negative negative stimulus restrictions for
good achievers
Application of Embarrassing a
infliction negative stimulus late comer to the
Punishment
lecture
Depriving Removing of a Decreasing marks
desired stimulus for absence
 How effective is punishment?
• Is it useful to punish?
• It represents the faster way to stop behavior:
warning of a danger (child venturing outside at
night or busy traffic street).
• However it has more disadvantages:
– It is mostly ineffective in many instances.
– Physical punishment gives the ideas that aggression
is permitted and an appropriate adult response.
– Punishment reduces self-esteem
– It is Useful only if it is explained and alternative (good
behavior) is shown.
(pp180-181)
 How frequent and timely can reinforcement be
presented? (pp182-183)

Schedules of Reinforcement: we present

reinforcement in different patterns of frequency
and timing following desired behaviors.
1. Continuous Reinforcement schedule: can
presented every time the behavior is present.
2. Partial (or intermittent) reinforcement schedule:
behavior is reinforced some time but every time it
occurs. This is represented as follows.
 Schedules of reinforcement (pp182-183)
Type of schedule Definition Example
Reinforcement given The teacher gives two
Fixed at specific desirable extra marks after five
Ratio responses timely and rightly solved
Related to required pieces of work
responses Reinforcement given The teacher rewards
Variable after varying number students for good
of responses participation at different
(random) number of those
participations .
Reinforcement for The increase of stipends
Fixed responses is given at is given to students only
Interval fixed times after the end of year GPA
Related to time
of responses Times between The supermarket
Variable reinforcements introduces sales at
varies different time intervals.
 Discrimination and Generalization
in Operant conditioning
Operant conditioners use the terms
1- Stimulus Discrimination in Stimulus control
training:
a- In it a behavior is reinforced in the presence
of a specific stimulus (green drive; and red stop)
b- but not its absence (if lights are not on, people will be puzzled
whether to go or stop?).

2- Stimulus Generalization: when an organism

learn a response and then exhibits (shows) the
same response to slightly different stimuli.
(see pp 184-185).
 Is it always easy to condition Behavior?
There are two constraints (Biology & Difficulty)
1- Biology. Built-in facilitators as well limitations of
ability to learn. These are to be taken into
consideration in operant conditioning. (Can you teach
a fish to fly or a donkey to swim?) You can take dispositions to help them
learn a relevant behavior).
2- difficulty: the Solution is Shaping:
The process of teaching a complex behavior by
rewarding closer approximations of the desired
behavior.
(Read pages 186-187) 202
 Applications of Operant conditioning
(Read pp188-189)

Behavior Modification: technique to promote the

frequency of desirable behaviors and decrease
of undesirable ones. (Read pages 186-187) /204

Applications of Operant Conditioning

• a) In the Classroom
• Loading…
Skinner proposed using teaching machines
(what we now call computers) that would allow
each student to move at their own pace.
• The teaching machine would provide self-paced
learning that gave immediate feedback,
immediate reinforcement, identification of
problem areas, etc., that a teacher could not
possibly provide.
 Applications of Operant conditioning
(Read pp188-189)

• b) In the Workplace
• Rewards e.g. study by Pedalino & Gamboa
(1974) - To help reduce the frequency of
employee tardiness, the researchers
implemented a game-like system for all
employees that arrived on time. When an
employee arrived on time, they were allowed to
draw a card. Over the course of a 5-day
workweek, the employee would have a full hand
for poker. At the end of the week, the best hand
won $20. This simple method reduced employee
tardiness significantly and demonstrated the
effectiveness of operant conditioning on
humans.
 s sig
Are Classical and Operant Conditioning Comparable? (Pls. Read
(p187)

Type of conditioning
Concept
Classical Operant
Basic Building association between Use Reinforcement to increase
Principle a conditioned stimulus and a or punishment decrease
conditioned response behavior
Nature of Based on Involuntary, Voluntary behavior in reaction
Behavior natural, innate behavior to environment, consequences
play a role in increase or
decrease
Order of Unconditioned stimulus Reinforcement produces
events follows a conditioned to increase in behavior ;
produce a conditioned punishment decreases
Response behavior.
Example Fear in child due to injection and Results after studying (what do
the nurse that injected him (what expect?) How do they reinforce it?
are the US, UR, CS, CR?)
 Useful Readings
.
http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Thorndike/Animal/chap4.htm Classics in history of Psychology

http://web.mst.edu/~pfyc212b/behaviorism.htm. Major Behavioral Psychology Theories and

theorists of Learning.

http://www.slideshare.net/Tank/learning-perspective-2008-presentation IB Psychology
- Learning Perspective,
http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/operant.html An Introduction to Operant
(Instrumental) Conditioning
http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/conditioning.html Psychology 101 Class Notes >
Learning & Condition Class Notes

– http://skeptically.org/scpsy/id10.html TEACHING EXAMPLES Concept Definition: Positive

Reinforcement
 Cognitive Learning
• The theory Says that thought processes are to
be stressed to understand learning.
• So they are not convinced that it is only
what is happening in the environment that
leads to learning. People, for example,
make decisions as to what to respond to.
• This was prove by experiments on animals
Some latent learning happened.
 Cognitive Learning

Latent Learning: In this learning a new

behavior is acquired but is not demonstrated
until some incentive is provided for
displaying it.

You know that you have learned when you

have to answer questions in an exam. (read the
example on p 191-192)./ 207
 Cognitive Learning
• For example, if you are in a car going to
school with a friend every day, but your
friend is driving all the time, you may learn
the way to get to school, but have no reason
to demonstrate this knowledge. However,
when your friend gets sick one day and you
have to drive yourself for the first time, if you
can get to school following the same route
you would go if your friend was driving, then
you have demonstrated latent learning.
Learning might appear in many styles:
(example p 196)
 Tolman and Honzik (1930) Latent Learning
• Tolman and Honzik (1930) built a maze to investigate
latent learning in rats.
• The study also shows that rats actively process information
rather than operating on a stimulus response relationship.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_uDCGmo2xOM
 Tolman and Honzik (1930) Latent Learning
• Tolman and Honzik (1930) built a maze to investigate latent learning in rats.
• The study also shows that rats actively process information rather than operating on a
stimulus response relationship.

Procedure
In their study 3 groups of rats had
to find their way around a complex
maze. At the end of the maze
there was a food box. Some
groups of rats got to eat the food,
some did not.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_uDCGmo2xOM
 Tolman and Honzik (1930) Latent Learning
• Tolman and Honzik (1930) built a maze to investigate latent learning in rats.
• The study also shows that rats actively process information rather than operating on a
stimulus response relationship.

Group 1: Rewarded
•Day 1 – 17: Every time they got to end, given
food (i.e. reinforced).
Group 2: Delayed Reward
•Day 1 - 10: Every time they got to end, taken out.
•Day 11 -17: Every time they got to end, given
food (i.e. reinforced).
Group 3: No reward
•Day 1 – 17: Every time they got to end, taken out.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_uDCGmo2xOM
 Tolman and Honzik (1930) Latent
Latent Learning
Learning: In this learning a new
behavior is acquired but is not
• Tolman and Honzik (1930) built a maze to investigate latent learning in rats.
demonstrated until some incentive is
• The study also shows that rats actively process information
provided forrather than operating
displaying it. on a
stimulus response relationship. Procedure
In their study 3 groups of rats had to find their way
around a complex maze. At the end of the maze there
was a food box. Some groups of rats got to eat the food,
some did not.
Group 1: Rewarded
•Day 1 – 17: Every time they got to end, given
food (i.e. reinforced).
Group 2: Delayed Reward
•Day 1 - 10: Every time they got to end, taken
out.
•Day 11 -17: Every time they got to end, given
food (i.e. reinforced).
Group 3: No reward
•Day 1 – 17: Every time they got to end, taken
out.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_uDCGmo2xOM
Relational Versus Analytical Styles of Learning
Adams et al (2007). Teaching for diversity and social justice. Routledge.
 The Mental Self-Government Model
http://web.cortland.edu/andersmd/learning/Mental%20Self%20Government.htm

• FUNCTIONS of governments of the mind:

– Legislative - creating, planning, imagining, and formulating.
– Executive - implementing and doing.
– Judicial - judging, evaluating, and comparing.

• FORMS of mental self-government:

– Monarchic – These people perform best when goals are singular. They deal
best with one goal or need at a time.
– Hierarchic - These people can focus on multiple goals at once and recognize
that all goals cannot be fulfilled equally. These people can prioritize goals easily.
– Oligarchic – These people deal well with goals that are of equal weight, but they
have difficulty prioritizing goals of different weight.
– Anarchic – These people depart from form and precedent. Often they don't like
or understand the need for rules and regulations. They operate without rules or
structure, creating their own problem-solving techniques with insights that often
easily break existing mindsets.
•
SCOPE - stylistic variables:
– Internal – Like to be by themselves
– External – Like to collaborate and work in groups
 MODALITES….How do you Learn?
http://web.cortland.edu/andersmd/learning/Modalities.htm
Find out how you learn http://www.ldpride.net/learning_style.html
http://www.howtolearn.com/cgi-bin/list.pl

MODALITES….How do you Learn?

When you.. Visual Auditory Kinesthetic & Tactile
Do you sound out the word or use Do you write the word down to find if
Spell Do you try to see the word?
a phonetic approach? it feels right?
Do you enjoy listening but are
Do you sparingly but dislike listening Do you gesture and use expressive
impatient to talk? Do you use
Talk for too long? Do you favor words movements? Do you use words such
words such as hear, tune, and
such as see, picture, and imagine? as feel, touch, and hold?
think?
Do you become distracted by Do you become distracted by Do you become distracted by activity
Concentrate
untidiness or movement? sounds or noises? around you?
Do you forget faces but remember
Do you forget names but remember Do you remember best what you did
Meet someone again names or remember what you
faces or remember where you met? together?
talked about?
Contact people on Do you prefer direct, face-to-face, Do you talk with them while walking or
Do you prefer the telephone?
business personal meetings? participating in an activity?
Do you enjoy dialog and
Do you like descriptive scenes or Do you prefer action stories or are not
Read conversation or hear the characters
pause to imagine the actions? a keen reader?
talk?

Do something new Do you like to see demonstrations, Do you prefer verbal instructions or Do you prefer to jump right in and try
at work diagrams, slides, or posters? talking about it with someone else? it?

Put something Do you like at the directions and the Do you ignore the directions and
together picture? figure it out as you go along?

Need help with a Do you call the help desk, ask a

Do you seek out pictures or Do you keep trying to do it or try it on
computer neighbor, or growl at the
diagrams? another computer?
application computer?
https://vark-learn.com/the-vark-questionnaire/
 Observational Learning:
Learning Through imitation
It is a type of Learning by observing behavior of
others (model) then imitate it.
Bandera conducted experiment where children viewed adults showed
aggression towards a doll. Those who watched the film did
themselves do the same thing .
Many instances and behaviors of ours are learned through
the observation of others.
Discuss How many behaviors can be socially learned
(Read pp 194-196).
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QPGqN1iPvQI
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWsxfoJEwQQ
• http://www.engr.ncsu.edu/learningstyles/ilsweb.html
• http://www.learning-styles-online.com/inventory/questions.php
• For example, learning to tie your shoe by observing another individual
perform the task would be an example of observational learning.
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QPGqN1iPvQI
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QPGqN1iPvQI
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QPGqN1iPvQI
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QPGqN1iPvQI
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QPGqN1iPvQI
 Useful Readings
• http://web.cortland.edu/andersmd/learning/Cognitive.htm Cognitive Learning
Styles

• http://www.animalbehavioronline.com/observationallearning.html Observational
Learning

• http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~kariv/CK_III.pdf An Experimental Test of Observational

Learning Under Imperfect Information∗∗

• http://www.helium.com/items/1084583-learning Learning from observation of others

• Observational Learning: The process of acquiring information by
observing others.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QPGqN1iPvQI
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWsxfoJEwQQ
• http://www.engr.ncsu.edu/learningstyles/ilsweb.html
• http://www.learning-styles-online.com/inventory/questions.php
• For example, learning to tie your shoe by observing another
individual perform the task would be an example of observational
learning.