⃝Francis

c Oketch

1 Numbers
Numbers are classified into the following sets:
• N = {x : x is a natural number} = {1, 2, 3, 4, · · · }
• Z = {x : x is an integer} = {· · · , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · }
a
• Q = {x : x is a rational number} = {x : x = , where a, b ∈ Z, b ̸= 0, and GCD(a, b) = 1}.
b
Numbers that are not rational are irrational and is denoted by the set Qc .
• R = {x : x is a real number} = Q ∪ Qc = (−∞, ∞)
• C = {z : z is a complex number} = {z : z = x + iy, where x, y ∈ R}. √
The number i “iota” is an imaginary/complex number defined by i = −1.
→ Note: N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R ⊂ C.
Definition 1.1 (Prime number). It is a number that has only two divisors, i.e., 1 and the number
itself.
For example,
{2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, · · · }
Any number which is not prime is said to be a composite number.
Definition 1.2 (Odd number). It is a number x that can be expressed in the form x = 2n − 1, where
n ∈ Z.
In other words, an odd number is an integer which is not divisible by 2. For example,
{· · · , −7, −5, −3, −1, 1, 3, 5, 7, · · · }
Definition 1.3 (Even number). It is a number x that can be expressed in the form x = 2n, where
n ∈ Z.
In other words, an even number is an integer which is divisible by 2. For example,
{· · · , −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6, · · · }
y
Let x, y ∈ Z. We say that x divides y, written as , if y can be written in the form y = mx, where
x
m ∈ Z. For example, 2 divides 30. This can be written as 30 = 15 × 2.

2 Functions/Mappings
To understand the word function, let’s consider the general equation of a straight line given by
y = mx + c,
where m is the slope and c is the y-intercept. Here, m and c are constants (their values are fixed)
while x and y are called variables (their values are not fixed). Since the values of y depend on the
values of x, we say that x is the independent variable (or input) and y is the dependent variable (or
output). In this case, we say that “y is a function of x”, written as y = f (x). The function f (x) is
read as f of x, meaning that f depends on x. Let X denote the set of all possible x-values for which
f (x) is defined and Y be the set of all possible y-values.
Definition 2.1 (Function). It is a rule that assigns/associates/maps each element in the independent
set X to a unique element in the dependent set Y .
Thus, a function f from X to Y is denoted by
f : X → Y.
The set X is called the domain of f and the set Y is called the codomain of f . If f (x) = y, where
x ∈ X and y ∈ Y , we say that y is the image of x and that x is the pre-image of y. The range or
image of f is a subset of Y and is defined as
Rng(f ) = {y ∈ Y : ∃x ∈ X with y = f (x)}

1
2.1 Domain, Range and Codomain ⃝Francis
c Oketch

2.1 Domain, Range and Codomain

Definition 2.2 (Domain). It consists of all the elements in the independent set X for which the
function f is defined.
Definition 2.3 (Range). It is a set of all the elements in the dependent set Y which have their
pre-images.
Definition 2.4 (Codomain). It consists of all the elements in the dependent set Y .
For example, given X = {1, 2, 3} and Y = {9, 15, 25, 30, 40}. Let f : X → Y defined by f (x) = 2x2 +7,
as illustrated in the diagram below

Here, Dom(f ) = X, codomain = Y, and Rng(f ) = {9, 15, 25}.

Example(s):
1. Find the domain, range and codomain.

(a) Given X = {a, b, c, d, e} and Y = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Let f : X → Y with f (a) = 2, f (b) = 1,
f (c) = 4, f (d) = 1 and f (e) = 2.

Solution
Domain of f is X, co-domain of f is Y , range of f is {1, 2, 3}.
(b) Let f : Z → Z defined by f (x) = x2 .

Solution
Domain of f is Z, co-domain of f is Z, range of f is {0, 1, 4, 9, 16, · · · }.

2. Let f : R → R. Find the domain and range of the following functions.

(a) f (x) = (x − 4)2 + 5

Solution
 Since f (x) is defined (or is a real number) for any real number x, the domain of f is
the interval (−∞, ∞).
√
 Let y = (x − 4)2 + 5. Making x the subject, we have x = 4 ± y − 5. This function is
defined if y − 5 ≥ 0 or y ≥ 5. Therefore, the range is the interval [5, ∞).
(b) f (x) = 2x2 − 5x + 1

Solution
 Since f (x) is defined (or is a real number) for any real number x, the domain of f is
the interval (−∞, ∞).
 Let y = 2x2 − 5x + 1 or 2x√ 2 − 5x + (1 − y) = 0. Making x the subject (use quadratic

5 ± 25 − 8(1 − y)
formula), we have x = . This function is defined if 25 − 8(1 − y) ≥ 0
4 [ )
17
or y ≥ − . Therefore, the range is the interval − 17 8 , ∞ .
8

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2.1 Domain, Range and Codomain ⃝Francis
c Oketch

4
(c) f (x) =
x2 − 5x + 6
Solution
→ Note: 4/0 = ∞ (infinity), i.e., a very very large value, undefined, or indeterminate.
 The function f (x) is defined when the denominator is nonzero, i.e., if x2 − 5x + 6 ̸= 0.
Solving yields x ̸= 2 and x ̸= 3. Therefore, the domain of f includes all the real numbers
of x except x = 2 and x = 3, i.e., the set (−∞, ∞)\{2, 3} or (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, 3) ∪ (3, ∞).
4 ( )
 Let y = 2 or x2 − 5x + 6 − y4 = 0. Making x the subject (use quadratic
x − 5x + 6
formula), we have √ ( )
5± 25 − 4 6 − 4
y
x=
2
( )
This function is defined if 25 − 4 6 − 4
y ≥ 0 or y ≥ −16 and y ̸= 0. Therefore, the
range is the interval [−16, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).
√
(d) f (x) = x − 1

Solution
 Since f (x) is defined (or is a real number) if x − 1 ≥ 0 or x ≥ 1, the domain of f is the
interval [1, ∞).
√
 Let y = x − 1. Making x the subject, we have x = y 2 + 1. This function is defined
for any real number y. Therefore, the range is the interval [0, ∞).
(e) f (x) = 2|x − 3| + 4

Solution
 Since f (x) is defined for all real numbers, the domain of f is the interval (−∞, ∞).
 Since for all |x − 3| ≥ 0, the function f (x) = 2|x − 3| + 4 ≥ 4. Therefore, the range is
all the values of y for which y ≥ 4 or the interval [4, ∞).

Exercise:

1. Given A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {−2, 0, 1, 4, 5, 9, 13, 16, 18, 25}. Let f : A → B defined by
f (x) = 2x2 − 2x + 1. State the domain, range, and co-domain of f .

2. Let f : R → R. Find the domain and range of the following functions.

(a) f (x) = 6 − x2 . [ans: domain (−∞, ∞), range (−∞, 6]]

6 + 3x
(b) f (x) = . [ans: domain (−∞, 0.5) ∪ (0.5, ∞), range (−∞, −1.5) ∪ (−1.5, ∞)]
1 − 2x
x+5
(c) f (x) = . [ans: domain (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, ∞), range (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)]
x−2
√
(d) f (x) = 4 − 2x + 5. [ans: domain (−∞, 2], range [5, ∞)]
1
(e) f (x) = √ − 3. [ans: domain (−1, ∞), range (−3, ∞)]
x+1
√
x2 − 16
(f) f (x) = . [ans: domain (−∞, −4) ∪ (−4, 4] ∪ (6, ∞), range
[ ) (x2 − 2x ) − 24
0, √25 ∪ √25 , 1 ∪ (1, ∞)]
√
x+2
(g) f (x) = . [ans: domain [−2, 2) ∪ (2, ∞), range (−∞, ∞)]
x−2
(h) f (x) = 2x + 3. [ans: domain (−∞, ∞), range (3, ∞)]
(i) f (x) = x2 − 2x − 24. [ans: domain (−∞, ∞), range [−25, ∞)]

3
2.2 Types of functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

2.2 Types of functions

Functions can be classified into three categories: injections, surjections, or bijections.

Definition 2.5 (Injection or one-to-one). A function f : X → Y is called 1-1 (or injective mapping)
iff f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) implies x1 = x2 for all x1 and x2 in the domain of f ; or equivalently x1 ̸= x2 ⇒
f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ).

In other words, every element y in the range of f has a unique pre-image in the independent set X.

Example(s):

1. Determine whether the following functions are 1-1 or not.

(a) Let f : R → R defined by f (x) = 5x − 1.

Solution
Here, f (x1 ) = 5x1 − 1 and f (x2 ) = 5x2 − 1. Assume that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), we need to show
that x1 = x2 . Now

f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ 5x1 − 1 = 5x2 − 1

⇒ x1 = x2

Thus, f is 1-1.
(b) Let f : R → R defined by f (x) = x2 .

Solution
Here, f (x1 ) = x21 and f (x2 ) = x22 . Assume that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), we need to show that
x1 = x2 . Now

f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ x21 = x22

⇒ x1 = ±x2

Thus, f is not 1-1. Alternatively, the function f is not 1-1 since by counter example,
f (1) = f (−1) = 1 but 1 ̸= −1.
(c) Let f : R+ → R defined by f (x) = x2 .

Solution
Here, f (x1 ) = x21 and f (x2 ) = x22 . Assume that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), we need to show that
x1 = x2 . Now

f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ x21 = x22

⇒ x1 = ±x2

But −x2 ∈
/ R+ . So, x1 = x2 for all x1 and x2 in R+ . Thus, f is 1-1.

Exercise:

1. Determine whether the following functions are 1-1 or not.

(a) f : Z → Z defined by f (x) = x3 . [ans: f is 1-1]

1
(b) f : R → R defined by f (x) = . [ans: f is not 1-1]
x2 + 1
(c) f : Z × Z → Z defined by f (x, y) = 2x−1 (2y − 1). [ans: f is 1-1]

Definition 2.6 (Surjection or onto). A function f : X → Y is called onto (or surjective mapping) Y
if the range of f = Y , which is the codomain of f .

4
2.2 Types of functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

In other words, every element y ∈ Y has a pre-image in the independent set X.

Example(s):

1. Determine whether the following functions are onto or not.

(a) Let f : R → R defined by f (x) = 5x − 1.

Solution
The range of f is R, which is also the co-domain of f . Thus, f is onto.
(b) Let f : R → R defined by f (x) = x2 .

Solution
The range of f is R+ ̸= R. Thus, f is not onto.

Exercise:

1. Determine whether the following functions are onto or not.

(a) f : Z → Z defined by f (x) = x3 . [ans: f is onto]

1
(b) f : R → R defined by f (x) = . [ans: f is not onto]
x2
+1
(c) f : Z × Z → Z defined by f (x, y) = 2x−1 (2y − 1). [ans: f is onto]

Definition 2.7 (Bijection). A function f : X → Y is called a bijective mapping if it is both 1-1 and
onto.

Exercise:

1. Let f : R → R. Determine whether each of the following functions is a bijection.

(a) f (x) = 4 − 3x
(b) f (x) = 7 − 3x2
x+1
(c) f (x) =
x+2
(d) f (x) = x2 + 1
(e) f (x) = x3 + 1

→ Note: (Horizontal Line Test) Let f : X → Y be a given function. Then,

 f is 1-1 iff ∀b ∈ Y , the horizontal line y = b intersects the graph of f (x) at most once.

 f is onto Y iff ∀b ∈ Y , the horizontal line y = b intersects the graph of f (x) at least once.

Example(s):

1. Let f : R → R and g : R → R be two functions. Use the Horizontal line test to decide whether
f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x3 are onto, one-to-one, or neither.

Solution
Sketch the graphs of f and g:

5
2.3 Inverse functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

In the graph of f , we see that on one place the line crosses the curve in two points, so f is not
1-1, and it does not cross the curve in another place so it is not onto. However, in the graph of
g, the line crosses the curve exactly once in any place, so g is both 1-1 and onto. It is a bijection.

2.3 Inverse functions

If f : X → Y be a bijection, then f −1 : Y → X is called the inverse function of f . To find f −1 (x), do
the following:

 Replace f (x) with y and make x the subject.

 In the resulting equation, replace x with f −1 (x) and then y with x.

Example(s):
2x + 3
1. Find the inverse function of f (x) = .
x−1

Solution
2x + 3 y+3
Let y = . Making x the subject yields x = . Set x = f −1 (x) and then y = x to get
x−1 y−2
x+3
f −1 (x) =
x−2

→ Note:

 A function is invertible only if it is a bijection.

 The domain of f must be equal to the range of f −1 , and the range of f must be equal to the
domain of f −1 .

 A function need not have an inverse function, but when it does, the inverse function is unique.

Exercise:

1. Find the inverse function of the following functions.

√
(a) f (x) = x − 1 [ans: f −1 (x) = x2 + 1]
5−x 5 − 2x
(b) f (x) = [ans: f −1 (x) = ]
3x + 2 3x + 1

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2.4 Composite functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

2.4 Composite functions

The composition function is a function of another function. Let f : X → Y and g : Y → Z be two
functions. The composition function gof (f followed by g) is defined by

gof : X → Z,

where (gof )(x) = g(f (x)) for every x ∈ X. Note that gof ̸= f og, i.e., composition of functions is not
commutative.

Example(s):

1. Given f (x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 5x − 3 for x ∈ R, find (f og)(x) and (gof )(x).

Solution
(f og)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (5x − 3) = 2(5x − 3) + 1 = 10x − 5
(gof )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(2x + 1) = 5(2x + 1) − 3 = 10x + 2
x+1 x+1
2. Given f (x) = and g(x) = , find (f og)(x).
5x − 2 2x
Solution
( )
x+1
+1
g+1 2x ) x + 1 + 2x 3x + 1
(f og)(x) = f (g(x)) = = ( = =
5g − 2 x + 1 5x + 5 − 4x x+5
5 −2
2x

Exercise:
√
1. Given f (x) = x2 − 1, g(x) = x − 1 and h(x) = x. Find:

(a) (f og)(x)
(b) (hog)(x)
(c) (gog)(x)
(d) (gohof )(x)

2. Consider the functions f (x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = 1/x. Evaluate

(a) (f og)(4)
(b) (gof )(−1/2)
√
3. (a) If f (x) = x and g(x) = 4x + 2, find the domain of (f og)(x).[ans: x ≥ −0.5 or [−0.5, ∞)]
1 √
(b) If f (x) = and g(x) = x − 1, find the domain of (gof )(x).[ans: x > −1 or (−1, ∞)]
x+1
3 + 18x 10 − 4x
(c) If f (x) = and g(x) = , find the domain of (f og)(x). [ans: R\{ 23
50
}]
−6 − 7x 5 − 3x
4. The price of a washing machine is x dollars. The function f (x) = x − 100 gives the price of the
washing machine after a $100 rebate. The function g(x) = 0.95x gives the price of the washing
machine after a 5% discount.

(a) Find and interpret (f og)(x). [ans: (f og)(x) = 0.95x − 100 gives the price of the washing
machine after a 5% discount and a further $100 rebate]
(b) Find and interpret (gof )(x). [ans: (gof )(x) = 0.95(x − 100) gives the price of the washing
machine after a $100 rebate and a further 5% discount]

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2.5 Odd and Even functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

5. The number N of bacteria in a refrigerated food is given by

N (T ) = 10T 2 − 20T + 600, 2 ≤ T ≤ 20

where T is the temperature of the food in degrees Celsius. When the food is removed from
refrigeration, the temperature of the food is given by

T (t) = 3t + 2, 0 ≤ t ≤ 6

where t is the time in hours.

(a) Find and interpret (N oT )(t). [ans: (N oT )(t) = 90t2 + 60t + 600, which represents the
number of bacteria in the food as a function of the amount of time the food has been out
of refrigeration.]
(b) Find the bacteria count after 0.5 hour. [ans: = 652.5]
(c) Find the time when the bacteria count reaches 1500. [ans: t ≈ 2.84 hours]

6. Prove that if f : X → Y is a bijection, then f of −1 = f −1 of .

2.5 Odd and Even functions

Definition 2.8 (Odd function). A function f (x) is said to be odd if f (−x) =. −f (x) .

For example,

• f (x) = x3 is odd since f (−x) = (−x)3 = −x3 = −f (x).

• f (x) = sin x is odd since f (−x) = sin(−x) = − sin x = −f (x).

Definition 2.9 (Even function). A function f (x) is said to be even if f (−x) =. +f (x) .

For example,

• f (x) = x2 is even since f (−x) = (−x)2 = x2 = f (x).

• f (x) = cos x is even since f (−x) = cos(−x) = + cos x = f (x).

Exercise:

1. Determine whether the following functions are odd, even, or neither.

(a) f (x) = x2 sin x

(b) f (x) = x2 − 2x
x
(c) f (x) = 2 .
x −1
1

1
Mathematics is fun!